CHEMISTRY NOTES – CHAPTERS 20 AND 21

Acids and Bases - Neutralization

Goals : To gain an understanding of :

1. The properties of acids and bases

2. pH and pOH calculations
3. Definitions of acids and bases
4. Neutralization reactions

NOTES:

Properties of acids :

• Form hydrogen ions (H+ or protons) in solution

• Form hydronium (a water molecule bonded to a hydrogen ion shown as H3O+ or H+. H2O) ions in aqueous
solution
• Have a low pH (below 7)
• Neutralize bases to form water and a salt
• Have a sour taste
• Cause indicators to change color
• Are electrolytes (are ionic in nature)
• React with many metals to produce hydrogen gas (single replacement reaction)

Properties of bases :

• Form hydroxyl ions (OH-) in solution

• Have a high pH (above 7)
• Neutralize acids to form water and a salt
• Have a bitter taste
• Feel slippery
• Cause indicators to change color
• Are electrolytes (are ionic in nature)

Water is neutral, not because it does not have any hydronium (acid) or hydroxyl ions (base) present, but because these ions are
equal in concentration (10-7 M). They are equal because pure water, even though it is covalently bonded, has some ionic character
and will self ionize to form these ions according to either of the following equations.

H 2O H+ + OH-
2H2O H3O+ + OH-

Note : I will treat the hydrogen ion (H+) and the hydronium ion (H3O+) as the same thing throughout these notes.

Neutral solutions have a pH of 7 and have equal concentrations of hydronium and hydroxyl ions (10-7 M).

The pH of a solution is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration (pH = -log [H+]). The logarithm (base 10) of a
number is the number to which ten must be raised to get that number. For example the log of .1 is -1 (.1 = 10-1). The pH scale is a
scale of 0 to 14 and indicates the measure of H+ ions present - the amount of acidity of a solution.
 Exponential pH (-log
[H+] Description
Notation log [H+])

1 1 x 100 0 0 strong acid

.1 1 x 10-1 -1 1

.01 1 x 10-2 -2 2

.001 1 x 10-3 -3 3

.0001 1 x 10-4 -4 4

.00001 1 x 10-5 -5 5

.000001 1 x 10-6 -6 6 weak acid

neutral ([H+] =
.0000001 1 x 10-7 -7 7
[OH-]=1.0 x 10-7

.00000001 1 x 10-8 -8 8 weak base

.000000001 1 x 10-9 -9 9
-10
.0000000001 1 x 10 -10 10

.00000000001 1 x 10-11 -11 11

.000000000001 1 x 10-12 -12 12

.0000000000001 1 x 10-13 -13 13

.00000000000001 1 x 10-14 -14 14 strong base

If the pH is less than 7 the solution is considered to be acidic ([H+] >1.0 x 10-7 and [OH-]<1.0 x 10-7) and if the pH is above 7 the
solution is considered to be basic, or alkaline ([H+]<1.0 x 10-7 and [OH-]>1.0 x 10-7).

If the hydrogen ion (H+) ion increases the hydroxide ion (OH-) will decrease and vice versa.

The ion product constant for water (Kw) at 25 ºC is 1.0 x 10-14 (mol/L)2. This comes from the equation for the self ionization of
water shown above.

Kw = [H+][OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14(mol/L)2 = (1.0 x 10-7 mol/L)(1.0 x 10-7 mol/L) = 1.0 x 10-14(mol/L)2

This equation can be used to calculate [H+] or [OH-] as follows:

The equation to solve for pH from [H+] is pH = -log [H+]. Here is an example.
The equation to solve for [H+] from pH is [H+] = 10-pH. Here is an example.

Another equation to solve for pH (or [H+]) can be derived from the equation for the ion product constant of water (Kw).
Algebraically we can take the log of both sides of the equation for Kw to get the equation :

pKw = pH + pOH

pKw = 14.00 therefore the above equation can be rewritten as

14.00 = pH + pOH

which can be a handy equation to solve for pH from pOH or vice versa. here is an example starting from the hydroxide ion
concentration.

Svante Arrhenius (Sweden, 1887) proposed that acids are substance which yield hydrogen ions (H+) in aqueous solution and
bases are substances which yield hydroxide (OH-) ions in aqueous solution. Examples of Arrhenius acids are hydrochloric acid
(HCl), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), and phosphoric acid (H3PO4). Examples of Arrhenius bases are sodium hydroxide (NaOH), calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), and aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)3).

Monoprotic acids have only one ionizable hydrogen ion (proton). Examples are hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO3).
Diprotic acids have two ionizable hydrogen ions. Examples are sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and carbonic acid (H2CO3). Triprotic acids
have three ionizable hydrogen ions. An example is phosphoric acid (H3PO4).

Only the hydrogens involved in very polar or ionic bonds will ionize to form ions. These are hydrogens that are bonded to highly
electronegative elements found in the upper right hand side of the periodic table. Ionizable hydrogens are more electropositive
and are generally written as the first element in the formula of a compound. For example in the formula for acetic acid (HC2H3O2)
only the first hydrogen (in blue) is ionizable.

The Brønsted-Lowry definitions of acids and bases are that acids are proton (hydrogen ion) donors and bases are proton
acceptors. All Arrhenius acids and bases are included in the definitions of Brønsted-Lowry definitions, but there are some
Bronsted-Lowry acids or bases that are not Arrhenius acids or bases. For example ammonia (NH3) is not an Arrhenius base - it
does not form OH- ions (in the equation below water provides the OH- ion). It is a Brønsted-Lowry base because it will accept a
hydrogen ion as shown in the following equation.

NH3 + H 2O NH4+ + OH-

ammonia - accepts H+ water - donates H+
(Brønsted-Lowry base) (Brønsted-Lowry acid)

A conjugate acid is the substance formed when a Brønsted-Lowry base accepts a hydrogen ion. A conjugate base is the substance
formed when a Brønsted-Lowry acid donates a hydrogen ion. In the above equation the ammonium ion (NH4+) is the conjugate
acid formed by the Brønsted-Lowry base ammonia (NH3) accepting a hydrogen ion. The hydroxide ion (OH-) is the conjugate
base formed by the Brønsted-Lowry acid water donating a hydrogen ion. Conjugate acids and bases are always written on the
product side of a chemical equation. Conjugate acids behave just as a Brønsted-Lowry acid in the reverse direction (donate
hydrogen ions) and conjugate bases behave just as Brønsted-Lowry bases in the reverse direction. Here is another example.

Amphoteric substances are substances which can act as both an acid and a base. An example is water. Water when it self ionizes
forms a hydrogen ion (acid) and a hydroxide ion (base).

Acids and bases can be classified as strong or weak depending on the extent to which they ionize. Strong acids and bases ionize to
a large extent to form many hydrogen or hydroxide ions and have a large acid or base dissociation constant (Ka or Kb). Weak
acids or bases ionize to a small extent to form few hydrogen or hydroxide ions and have a small Ka or Kb. An example of a weak
acid is acetic acid. It will form few hydrogen ions and most of the acid stays in the undissociated form as shown in the equation
below.

The larger arrow in the reverse direction indicates that the equilibrium position lies to the left indicating more undissociated acid
and fewer hydronium ions being formed.

Here is another way to picture the difference between a strong and weak acid. HA is the undissociated acid, H+ indicates the
dissociated hydrogen ions and A- indicates the dissociated anion of the acid.

Diprotic and triprotic acids dissociate stepwise, meaning all the hydrogen ions do not dissociate simultaneously. For example
phosphoric acid (H3PO4) would dissociate in three steps :

a. H3PO4 H+ + H2PO4-
b. H2PO4- H+ + HPO4-2
c. HPO4-2 H+ + PO4-3

Step a would be the have the largest Ka. Each successive step would have a smaller Ka as it becomes increasingly difficult to
remove a positive hydrogen ion from a more negative anion.

The terms concentrated and dilute should not be confused with the terms strong and weak in relation to acids and bases.
Concentrated and dilute refer to how much acid or bases is present, not the extent to which that acid or base will ionize. The
following diagrams should illustrate the differences. HA refers to the undissociated acid, H+ indicates the hydrogen ions and A-
indicates the anion of the acid.
Neutralization reactions are reactions between acid and bases. In aqueous solution neutralization reactions produce a salt and
water. The generalized equation is thus :

acid + base salt + water

Here are some specific examples :

HCl + NaOH NaCl + H 2O

hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium chloride + water

H3PO4 + 3 NaOH Na3PO4 + 3 H 2O

phosphoric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium phosphate + water

H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 CaSO4 + 2 H 2O

sulfuric acid + calcium hydroxide calcium sulfate + water

The term "neutralization" can be misleading. Not all neutralization reactions result in a neutral solution. Only neutralization
reactions which have equivalent amounts of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions from acids and bases will result in neutral
solutions. The balanced equation and a little bit of stoichiometry can be used to calculate the equivalent number of moles needed.
Here is an example of such a calculation :

Titration is a powerful analytical tool used to determine the concentration of an unknown from the concentration of a known
(standard) solution. Four steps are needed to perform the calculations of a titration between an acid and a base.

1. Write and balance the neutralization reaction.

2. Determine the number of moles used of the standard (known) solution. (moles = M x V)
3. Determine the number of moles present in the unknown using the mole ratio from the balanced equation.
4. Determine the molarity (moles/L) of the unknown from step 3 and the volume of the unknown given in the problem.

Here is an example.
Buffers are substances or combinations of substances which keep pH levels fairly constant when small amounts of acid or base
are added. Buffers are formed from the combination of a weak acid and one of its salts or a weak base and one of its salts. An
example of a buffer is acetic acid (weak) and sodium acetate, a salt of acetic acid. If a small amount of acid is added to a system
containing these substances the hydrogen ion from the acid will react with the acetate ion from the sodium acetate to form
undissociated acetic acid effectively removing the hydrogen ion to keep pH constant :

H+ + C2H3O2- HC2H3O2

If a base is added the OH- ion from the base will react with the acetic acid to form water and the acetate ion to effectively remove
the added OH- ion :

OH- + HC2H3O2 H2 O + C2H3O2-

So, whether acid or base are added they are removed to keep pH constant.

The common ion effect is the lowering of the solubility of a substance by the addition of a common ion. This can be easily seen in
relation to LeChâtelier's principle. At equilibrium a slightly soluble salt such as silver carbonate will be saturated.

Ag2CO3 2 Ag+ + CO3-2

If silver iodide (AgI) is added to the system it will increase the [Ag+] - the common ion - and cause the reaction to shift to the
left. This is the undissociated, or non dissolved, state indicating the lowering of the solubility of the silver carbonate.

Acids and Bases

Properties of Acids and Bases

I. Acids
A. Properties of Acids
1. Aqueous solutions of acids have a sour taste
2. Acids change the color of acid-base indicators
3. Some acids react with active metals to release hydrogen
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
4. Acids react with bases to produce salts and water (neutralization)
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
5. Aqueous solutions of acids conduct electric current (they are electrolytes)

II. Some Common Industrial Acids

A. H2SO4 - Sulfuric Acid
1. Used in making fertilizer, paper, petroleum products, car batteries
2. Highest production chemical in the U.S.
B. HNO3 - Nitric Acid
1. Unstable, volatile liquid in pure state
2. Yellowing caused by the formation of nitrogen dioxide gas
 3. Used in making fertilizers, explosives, rubber, plastics, pharmaceuticals
4. Stains skin and other proteins yellow
C. H3PO4 - Phosphoric Acid
1. Not a common laboratory acid
2. Flavoring agent in sodas
3. Used in making fertilizers and detergents
D. HCl - Hydrochloric Acid
1. HCl in the stomach aids the digestion of proteins
2. Used in pickling steel, recovering magnesium from sea water, cleaning masonry and correcting pool pH
E. Acetic Acid
1. Acid component of vinegar
2. Concentrated "glacial" acetic acid used in making chemicals for plastic manufacturing

III. Bases
A. Properties of Bases
1. Aqueous solutions of bases have a bitter taste
2. Bases change the color of acid-base indicators
3. Dilute aqueous solutions of bases feel slippery
4. Bases react with acids to produce salts and water
5. Aqueous solutions of bases conduct electric current (they are electrolytes)

IV. Arrhenius Acids and Bases Svante Arrhenius, Swedish chemist (1859-1927)
A. Arrhenius Acid
1. A chemical compound that increases the concentration of hydrogen ions, H+, in aqueous solution
B. Arrhenius Base
1. A substance that increases the concentration of hydroxide ions, OH-, in aqueous solution
C. Aqueous solutions of acids
1. Acids are molecular compounds that ionize in solution

D. Strength of Acids
1. Strong acids ionize completely in solution and are strong electrolytes
2. Weak acids ionize only slightly and are weak electrolytes
Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases

I. Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases

A. Bronsted-Lowry Acid
1. A molecule or ion that is a proton donor (a proton is a hydrogen ion H+)
B. Bronsted-Lowry Base
1. A molecule or ion that is a proton acceptor
C. Bronsted-Lowry Acid-Base Reaction
1. A reaction in which protons are transferred from the acid to the base

II. Conjugate Acids and Bases

A. Conjugate Base
1. The species that remains after an acid has given up a proton

B. Conjugate Acid
1. The species that is formed when a base gains a proton

III. Amphoteric Compounds

A. Amphoteric
1. Any species that can react as either an acid or a base
a. Water as a base

b. Water as an acid

c. Water as both an acid and a base

H 2O + H 2O H3O+ + OH-

H3O+ is called the hydronium ion and is what actually exists in an acidic solution. There are no free H+ ions

Neutralization Reactions

I. Strong Acid-Strong Base Neutralization

A. Neutralization
1. The reaction of hydronium ions and hydroxide ions to form water molecules
B. Neutralization Rxns
KOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

II. Acid Rain

A. Formation of Acid Rain
1. Nonmetallic oxides enter the atmosphere as a result of coal burning, auto exhaust, other forms of air pollution
SO2 , SO3 , CO2 , NO , NO2
2. Nonmetallic oxides combine with water to form oxyacids
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)
B. Reactions of Acid Rain
1. Reaction with marble (metamorphic calcium carbonate)
CaCO3(s) + 2H3O+(aq) Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
Aqueous Solutions and the Concept of pH

I. Hydronium Ions and Hydroxide Ions

A. Self-Ionization of Water
1. Autoprotolysis
H2O(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)

B. Ionization Constant for Water (KW)

1. KW = [H3O+][OH-] = (1.0 x 10-7)(1.0 x 10-7) = 1.0 x 10-14
2. KW is a constant at ordinary ranges of room temperatures
C. Neutral, Acidic, and Basic Solutions
1. Neutral
a. [H3O+] = [OH-] (pH = 7.00)
2. Acidic
a. [H3O+] > [OH-] (pH < 7.00)
3. Basic
a. [H3O+] > [OH-] (pH > 7.00)

II. The pH Scale

A. pH
1. The negative of the common logarithm of the hydronium ion concentration
a. pH = - log [H30+]
B. pOH
1. The negative of the common logarithm of the hydroxide ion concentration
a. pOH = - log [OH-]

III. Calculations Involving pH

A. Calculation of pH from [H30+] Concentration
See worksheet

Determining pH and Titrations

I. Indicators and pH strips

A. Acid-Base Indicators
1. Compounds whose colors are sensitive to pH
B. Transition Interval
1. pH range over which an indicator color change occurs
2. Indicators are useful when they change color in a pH range which includes the endpoint of the reaction
C. Choosing Indicators (indicator must change color at the proper pH)

II. Acid-Base Titration

A. Titration
1. Controlled addition of the measured amount of a solution of a known concentration required to react completely
with a measured amount of solution of unknown concentration
B. Equivalence Point
1. The point at which the solutions used in a titration are present in chemically equivalent amounts (equal mols)
C. Titration Curves
1. End point
a. the point in a titration at which the reaction is just completed (mol acid = mol base)