I.

INTRODUCTION

Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is the use of an object (typically referred

to as an RFID tag) applied to or incorporated into a product, animal, or person for the
purpose of identification and tracking using radio waves. Some tags can be read from
several meters away and beyond the line of sight of the reader.

RFID is the latest phase in the decades-old trend of the miniaturization of

computers. RFID tags are tiny resource-limited computers that do not have a battery that
needs periodic replacement. RFID tags are inductively powered by their external reading
devices, called RFID readers. The radio wave put out by the reader provides the
electricity needed to power the tag, which then decodes the incoming query and
produces an appropriate response by modulating the request signal, using one or more
subcarrier frequencies. RFID Tags can do a limited amount of processing, and have a
small amount of storage, sometimes as little as 128 bytes. However, improvements in
technology will no doubt raise this limit in the future

RFID tags are useful for a huge variety of applications. Some of these
applications include: supply chain management, automated payment, physical access
control, counterfeit prevention, and smart homes and offices. RFID tags are also
implanted in all kinds of personal and consumer goods, for example, passports, partially
assembled cars, frozen dinners, ski-lift passes, clothing, and public transportation
tickets. Implantable RFID tags for animals allow concerned owners to label their pets
and livestock.

II. NETWORK/BLOCK DIAGRAM

RFID TAGS
A Tag is a transponder which receives a radio signal and in response to it sends
out a radio signal.

contains an antenna, and a small chip that stores a small amount of data.

can be programmed at manufacture or on installation

powered by the high power electromagnetic field generated by the antennas,
usually in doorways

The field allows the chip/antenna to reflect back an extremely weak signal
containing the data

Collision Detection – recognition of multiple tags in the read range – is employed

to separately read the individual tags

Active, Semi-passive and Passive RFID Tags

Active, semi-passive and passive RFID tags are making RFID technology more
accessible and prominent in our world. These tags are less expensive to produce, and
they can be made small enough to fit on almost any product.

Active and semi-passive RFID tags use internal batteries to power their circuits.
An active tag also uses its battery to broadcast radio waves to a reader, whereas a
semi-passive tag relies on the reader to supply its power for broadcasting. Because
these tags contain more hardware than passive RFID tags, they are more expensive.
Active and semi-passive tags are reserved for costly items that are read over greater
distances -- they broadcast high frequencies from 850 to 950 MHz that can be read 100
feet or more away. If it is necessary to read the tags from even farther away, additional
batteries can boost a tag's range to over 300 feet (100 meters).

Passive RFID tags rely entirely on the reader as their power source. These tags
are read up to 20 feet away, and they have lower production costs, meaning that they
can be applied to less expensive merchandise. These tags are manufactured to be
disposable, along with the disposable consumer goods on which they are placed.
Whereas a railway car would have an active RFID tag, a bottle of shampoo would have
a passive tag.

Another factor that influences the cost of RFID tags is data storage. There are
three storage types: read-write, read-only and WORM (write once, read many). A
read-write tag's data can be added to or overwritten. Read-only tags cannot be added to
or overwritten -- they contain only the data that is stored in them when they were made.
WORM tags can have additional data (like another serial number) added once, but they
cannot be overwritten.

READERS
An RFID reader is a device that is used to interrogate an RFID tag. The reader
has an antenna that emits radio waves; the tag responds by sending back its data. The
reader has two basic components:

A scanning antenna

A transceiver with a decoder to interpret the data

The EPC Code

The objective of the Electronic Product Code (EPC) is to provide unique
identification of physical objects.
The EPC will be used to address and access individual objects from the
computer network, much as the Internet Protocol (IP) Address allows computers to
identify, organize and communicate with one another.

Example. 613.23000.123456.123456789 (96 bits)

Header – defines data type (8 bits)
EPC Manager – describes originator of EPC (Product manufacturer)
(34 bits)
Object Class - Could describe the product type (20 Bits)
Serial Number – Unique ID for that product item (34 Bits)
RFID SYSTEM OPERATION

How does it work?

In a typical RFID system, tags are attached to objects. Each tag has a certain
amount of internal memory (EEPROM) in which it stores information about the object,
such as unique ID (serial) number, or in some cases more details including manufacture
date and product composition. When these tags pass through a field generated by a
reader, they transmit this information back to the reader, thereby identifying the object.

SEQUENCE OF COMMUNICATION
• Host Manages Reader(s) and Issues Commands
• Reader and tag communicate via RF signal
• Carrier signal generated by the reader (upon request from the host application)
• Carrier signal sent out through the antennas
• Carrier signal hits tag(s)
• Tag receives and modifies carrier signal
– “sends back” modulated signal (Passive Backscatter - FCC and ITU refer
to as “field disturbance device”)
• Antennas receive the modulated signal and send them to the Reader
• Reader decodes the data
– Results returned to the host application

RFID FREQUENCIES

SPECTRUM REGULATION

The radio frequency (RF) spectrum is a scarce and shared resource, used
nationally and internationally, and subject to a wide range of regulatory oversight. In the
U.S., the Federal Communications Commission is a key regulatory body that allocates
spectrum use and resolves spectrum conflicts. The International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) is a specialized agency of the United Nations which plays the same role
internationally.
<150 kHz (125 kHz & 134 kHz )
Advantages
• Uses normal CMOS processing — basic and ubiquitous
• Relative freedom from regulatory limitations
• Well suited for applications requiring reading small amounts of data at slow
speeds and minimal distances
• Penetrates materials well (water, tissue, wood, aluminum)
Disadvantages:
• Does not penetrate or transmit around metals (iron, steel)
• Handles only small amounts of data
• Slow read speeds
• Large Antennas -- compared to higher frequencies
• Minimal Range
• Tag construction:
• is thicker (than 13.56 MHz)
• is more expensive (than 13.56 MHz)
• more complex (requires more turns of the induction coil)

13.56 MHz
Advantages
• Uses normal CMOS processing--basic and ubiquitous
• Well suited for applications requiring reading small amounts of data and minimal
distances
• Penetrates water/tissue well
• Simpler antenna design (fewer turns of the coil); lower costs to build
• Higher data rate (than 125 kHz--but slower than higher MHz systems)
• Thinner tag construction (than 125 kHz)
• Popular Smart Card frequency
Disadvantages
• Government regulated frequency (U.S. and Europe recently harmonized)
• Does not penetrate or transmit around metals
• Large Antennas (compared to higher frequencies)
• Larger tag size than higher frequencies
• Tag construction: requires more than one surface to complete a circuit
• Reading Range of ≈ 0.7 m

>300 MHz <1GHz

Advantages
• Effective around metals
• Best available frequency for distances of >1m
• Tag size smaller than 13.56 MHz
• Smaller antennas
• Range: licensed to 20-40' with reasonable sized tag (stamp to eraser size).
Unlicensed 3-5 m.
• Good non-line-of-sight communication (except for conductive, "lossy" materials)
• High data rate; Large amounts of data
• Controlled read zone (through antenna directionality)
Disadvantages
• Does not penetrate water/tissue
• Regulatory issues (differences in frequency, channels, power, and duty cycle)
 • Regulatory issues in Europe (similar band 869 MHz requires frequency agile
chip)

2.45 GHz
Advantages
• Tag size smaller than inductive or lower range UHF (1"x 1/4")
• Range: greater range than inductive w/o battery
• More bandwidth than lower range UHF (more frequencies to hop)
• Smaller antennas than lower range UHF or inductive
• High data rate
• Good non-line-of-sight communication (except for conductive, "lossy" materials)
• Can transmit large amounts of data more quickly than lower frequencies
• Controlled read zone (through antenna directionality)
• Effective around metals with tuning/design adaptations
Disadvantages
• More susceptible to electronic noise than lower UHF bands, e.g. 433 MHz, 860-
930 MHz
• Shared spectrum with other technologies-- microwave ovens, RLANS, TV
devices, etc.
• Requires non-interfering, "good neighbor" tactics like FHSS
• Competitive requirement: single chip--highly technical; limited number of
vendors
• Regulatory approvals still "in process"

>5.8 GHz (European Road Telematics Frequency)

Advantages:
• Less congested band/less interference
Disadvantages:
• Not available in U.S. or many other countries (5.9 now in FCC review)
• Must orient antennas carefully
• Range limited (due to scaling issues/wavelengths)
• Chip difficult to build
• Expensive

COMPARISON:
Frequency Regulation Range Data Speed Comments
Animal identification
125-150 kHz Basically unregulated ≈ 10 cm Low and factory data
collection systems
ISM band, differing Popular frequency for
Low to
13.56 MHz power levels and duty < 1m I.C. Cards (Smart
moderate
cycle Cards)
Non-specific Short
Asset tracking for U.S.
433 MHz Range Devices (SRD), 1 – 100 m Moderate
DoD (Pallets)
Location Systems
ISM band (Region 2);
increasing use in other EAN.UCC GTAG,
Moderate to
860-930 MHz regions, differing 2–5m MH10.8.4 (RTI),
high
power levels and duty AIAG B-11 (Tires)
cycle
ISM band, differing IEEE 802.11b,
2450 MHz power levels and duty 1–2m High Bluetooth, CT,
cycle AIAG B-11
III. BARCODE AND RFID

Cracking the Bar Code

A Bar code is a machine-readable coding system consisting of elements with

varying widths of vertical black lines and white spaces, patterns of dots, circles, square
cells, and images, that when read by a bar code scanner can be converted into
information.

Bar code scanners are usually interfaced with a PC via a USB, serial or keyboard
wedge connection. Currently, there are Bluetooth, cordless scanners available in the
market. In the near future, WiFi and bar code scanning will merge. Of course, there are
handheld devices with built-in bar code scanner, WiFi, Bluetooth and GPRS capabilities,
which is in the category of mobile computers and RF terminals.
Bar code systems improve the speed and accuracy of computer data entry. Bar codes
are used in any applications where data needs to be automatically identified and
captured efficiently and accurately in real-time for purposes of inventory management,
asset tracking, product identification, warehouse picking and packing, point-of-sale,
among others. Bar codes are used in many industries such as retail, transport and
logistics, manufacturing, warehouse, wholesale distribution, healthcare, and
government.

Bar codes are grouped into two types of symbologies: linear and two-
dimensional.

Linear Symbologies. A linear (or one-dimensional or 1D) symbology bar code is

made up of one single row of various widths and lengths of predefined black bars and
white spaces. Normally, these bar codes are "vertically redundant” -- the same
information is repeated vertically. The heights of the bars can be truncated without any
loss of information. The vertical redundancy allows a symbol with printing defects to still
be read. The higher the bar heights, the more probability that at least one path along the
bar code will be readable.

When you shop at the grocery store, the sales counter personnel uses a bar
code scanner to determine the item code and price of the product you’re buying. More
often than not, that product is using a linear bar code.

Two-Dimensional Symbologies. The need for ever increasing amounts of

information in smaller spaces has lead to more compact and higher density symbologies
found in two-dimensional (2D) symbologies. The PDF417 bar code is a more common
2D symbology. You can find this type of bar code on your driver’s license and SSS ID.
There are also bar codes that are laser engraved and branded to a part. These are
called Direct Part Marking (DPM.)

Identifying RFID

RFID is an AutoID (automatic identification) method, using storage and remote

retrieval of information. The most practical use of RFID is for identification of objects,
processes, transactions or events using radio waves to communicate information from
point to point.
 The basic components of RFID are the RFID tag, RFID reader, air interface for
wireless communications and software application. The RFID tag is a package that can
be attached to a physical object. The package houses an antenna which sends or
receives radio signals decoded by a reader. A reader will use the air interface to transmit
control parameters to tags and receive their assigned information via a signal. The air
interface is the communication channel between tag and reader. It is limited to a radio
frequency that has a finite distance over which the RFID system works. The software
application enables capture and transmission of information to the backend IT systems
of the business for visibility.

Indeed, the need for tracking products, people and their location is a challenging
task. Today, RFID is being used to track items through a more accurate method,
minimizing human error, improved visibility of products and processes and reduction in
labor costs.

The applications are usually for asset management, logistics tracking, pilferage
detection, counterfeit protection, airport baggage tracking, postal tracking, and supply
chain management.

Comparing Bar Code and RFID

Let’s look at several areas where we can compare both technologies.

Cost -- High volume tags cost as much as 25 cents each. This is expected to be reduced
with increased demand for RFID and standards acceptance. High volume bar codes are
virtually free. Think about this: How much does a small toothpaste tube cost? If you
implement RFID on an item level today, maybe it’s more than the cost of a tag.
Furthermore, bar code technology is already a proven technology, with the cost of
implementation becoming more and more affordable.

Scanning -- RFID offers a wider scanning range and does not require a visual line of
sight to scan a tag. This means that tags placed on a carton, packed in a box, or stored
in a pallet may be read. You don’t have to open each box to be scanned. Bar codes offer
only a read range of inches and requires line of sight to read a bar code. The bar code
should be presented to the scanner in a particular distance. Individual reading requires
each box on a pallet to be opened and the item pulled to be read by the scanner.
However, although requiring “line of sight”, bar code read rates are reliable even in the
most challenging environments

Reliability -- RFID acceptance is still in the early adoption stages. Its initial adoption in
logistics is on case & pallet marking. On the item level, bar coding is still practical.

Physical Size -- RFID tags can be the size of postal stamps. The ratio between a tag’s
dimension in length and width is not a significant factor for the reader. Bar codes are
highly sensitive to aspect radio for readability to a bar code scanner.

Lifespan -- Tags have no moving parts and can be enclosed in protective material,
providing a sturdy casing. Bar codes are subject to damage with excessive handling and
harsh environments.
Counterfeit -- Tags are produced with a unique identity code or serial number from the
manufacturer. This is embedded in the microchip, and may not be altered, making them
counterfeit proof. Bar codes may be duplicated and attached to products and can be
counterfeited.

REPLACING BARCODES

RFID tags are often a replacement for UPC or EAN barcodes, having a number
of important advantages over the older barcode technology. They may not ever
completely replace barcodes, due in part to their higher cost and the advantage of
multiple data sources on the same object. The new EPC, along with several other
schemes, is widely available at reasonable cost.

The storage of data associated with tracking items will require many terabytes.
Filtering and categorizing RFID data is needed to create useful information. It is likely
that goods will be tracked by the pallet using RFID tags, and at package level with
Universal Product Code (UPC) or EAN from unique barcodes.

The unique identity is a mandatory requirement for RFID tags, despite special
choice of the numbering scheme. RFID tag data capacity is large enough that each
individual tag will have a unique code, while current bar codes are limited to a single
type code for a particular product. The uniqueness of RFID tags means that a product
may be tracked as it moves from location to location, finally ending up in the consumer's
hands. This may help to combat theft and other forms of product loss. The tracing of
products is an important feature that gets well supported with RFID tags containing a
unique identity of the tag and also the serial number of the object. This may help
companies to cope with quality deficiencies and resulting recall campaigns, but also
contributes to concern about tracking and profiling of consumers after the sale.

It has also been proposed to use RFID for POS store checkout to replace the
cashier with an automatic system which needs no barcode scanning. This is not likely
without a significant reduction in the cost of tags and changes in the POS process.
There is some research taking place, however, this is some years from reaching fruition.

An FDA-nominated task force concluded, after studying the various technologies

currently commercially available, which of those technologies could meet the pedigree
requirements. Amongst all technologies studied including bar coding, RFID seemed to
be the most promising and the committee felt that the pedigree requirement could be
met by easily leveraging something that is readily available.

IV. RFID CURRENT USES

Race Timing
Many forms of Transponder timing have been in use for timing races of different
types since 2004. "Software Outsourcing System" of India has designed and
implemented this method for registering race start and end timings for individuals in a
marathon-type race where it is impossible to get accurate stopwatch readings for every
entrant. Individuals wear a chest number containing passive tags which are read by
antennae placed alongside the track. UHF based tags instead of Low or high frequency
last generation tags provide accurate readings with specially designed antennas. Rush
error, lap count errors and accidents at start time are avoided since anyone can start
and finish anytime without being in a batch mode.

Passports
E-passports store the same information that is printed within the passport
including a digital picture of the owner and a record of the travel history (time, date, and
place) of entries and exits from the country.

Transportation payments
RFID tags are used for electronic toll collection at toll booths. The tags, which are
usually the active type, are read remotely as vehicles pass through the booths, and tag
information is used to debit the toll amount from a prepaid account. The system helps to
speed traffic through toll plazas as it records the date, time, and billing data for the RFID
vehicle tag.
Example: Philippines South Luzon Expressway

RFID and asset management

RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) combined with mobile computing and Web
technologies provide an effective way for organizations to identify and manage their
assets. Mobile computers, with integrated RFID readers, can now deliver a complete set
of tools that eliminate paperwork, give positive proof of identification and prove
attendance. Errors are virtually unheard of as this approach eliminates manual data
entry. Web based management tools allow organizations to monitor their assets and
make management decisions from anywhere in the world. Web based applications now
mean that third parties, such as manufacturers and contractors can be granted access to
update asset data, including for example, inspection history and transfer documentation
online ensuring that the end user always has accurate, real-time data. Organizations
within the Plant industry are already using RFID tags combined with a mobile asset
management solution to record and monitor the location of their assets, their current
status, whether they have been maintained and most importantly if they comply with
HSE regulations. Fitters within depots and those working remotely on project/client sites
use mobile computers to complete and record job instructions. These completed work
records are then synchronized with a web based database allowing support and
administration staff to respond accordingly.

Transportation and logistics

Logistics & Transportation is a major area of implementation for RFID
technology. For example, Yard Management, Shipping & Freight and Distribution
Centers are some areas where RFID tracking technology is used. Transportation
companies around the world value RFID technology due to its impact on the business
value and efficiency.
The North American railroad industry operates an automatic equipment
identification system based on RFID. Locomotives and rolling stock are equipped with
two passive RFID tags (one mounted on each side of the equipment); the data encoded
on each tag identifies the equipment owner, car number, type of equipment, number of
axles, etc. The equipment owner and car number can be used to derive further data
about the physical characteristics of the equipment from the Association of American
Railroads' car inventory database and the railroad's own database indicating the lading,
origin, destination, etc. of the commodities being carried.
 Baggages passing through the Hong Kong International Airport are individually
tagged with "HKIA" RFID tags as they navigate the airport's baggage handling system,
which improves efficiency and reduces misplaced items.

Animal identification
Implantable RFID tags or transponders can be used for animal identification. The
transponders are more well-known as passive RFID technology, or simply "Chips" on
animals.

Inventory systems

Human implants

Libraries
Among the many uses of RFID technologies is its deployment in libraries. This
technology has slowly begun to replace the traditional barcodes on library items (books,
CDs, DVDs, etc.). The RFID tag can contain identifying information, such as a book's
title or material type, without having to be pointed to a separate database (but this is rare
in North America). The information is read by an RFID reader, which replaces the
standard barcode reader commonly found at a library's circulation desk.
It may replace or be added to the barcode, offering a different means of inventory
management by the staff and self service by the borrowers. It can also act as a security
device, taking the place of the more traditional electromagnetic security strip. And not
only the books, but also the membership cards could be fitted with an RFID tag.

Schools and universities

Museums
RFID technologies are now also implemented in end-user applications in
museums. An example is the custom-designed application "eXsport" at the
Exploratorium, a science museum in San Francisco, California. A visitor entering the
museum receives an RF Tag that can be carried on a card or necklace. The eXspot
system enables the visitor to receive information about the exhibit and take photos to be
collected at the giftshop. Later they can visit their personal Web page on which specific
information such as visit dates, the visited exhibits and the taken photographs can be
viewed.

Social retailing
When customers enter a dressing room, the mirror reflects their image and also
images of the apparel item being worn by celebrities on an interactive display. A
webcam also projects an image of the consumer wearing the item on the website for
everyone to see. This creates an interaction between the consumers inside the store
and their social network outside the store. The technology in this system is an RFID
interrogator antenna in the dressing room and Electronic Product Code RFID tags on the
apparel item.

Others
Some casinos are embedding RFID tags into their chips. This allows the casinos
to track the locations of chips on the casino floor, identify counterfeit chips, and prevent
theft. In addition, casinos can use RFID systems to study the betting behavior of players
 RFID tags are now being embedded into playing cards that are used for televised
poker tournaments, so commentators know exactly what cards have been dealt to
whom, as soon as the deal is complete.

RFID transponder chips have been implanted in golf balls to allow them to be
tracked. The uses of such tracking range from being able to search for a lost ball using a
homing device, to a computerized driving range format that tracks shots made by a
player and gives feedback on distance and accuracy.

V. RFID POTENTIAL USES

RFID can be used in a variety of applications such as:
• Access management
• Tracking of goods and RFID in retail
• Tracking of persons and animals
• Toll collection and contactless payment
• Machine readable travel documents
• Smart dust (for massively distributed sensor networks)
• Location-based services
• Tracking Sports memorabilia to verify authenticity
• Telemetry. Active RFID tags also have the potential to function as low-cost
remote sensors that broadcast telemetry back to a base station. Applications of
tagometry data could include sensing of road conditions by implanted beacons,
weather reports, and noise level monitoring.
It is possible that active or semi-passive RFID tags used with or in place of
barcodes could broadcast a signal to an in-store receiver to determine whether
the RFID tag (product) is in the store.

VI. RFID REGULATION AND STANDARDIZATION

There is no global public body that governs the frequencies used for RFID. In principle,
every country can set its own rules for this. The main bodies governing frequency
allocation for RFID are:

• USA: FCC (Federal Communications Commission)

• Canada: CRTC (Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications
Commission)
• Europe: ERO, CEPT, ETSI, and national administrations (note that the national
administrations must ratify the usage of a specific frequency before it can be
used in that country)
• Malaysia: Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC)
• Japan: MIC (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications)
• China: Ministry of Information Industry
• Taiwan(China): NCC (National Communications Commission)
• South Africa: ICASA
• South Korea: Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Energy
• Australia: Australian Communications and Media Authority.
• New Zealand: Ministry of Economic Development
• Singapore: Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore
 • Brazil: Anatel (Agência Nacional de Telecomunicações)

Low-frequency (LF: 125–134.2 kHz and 140–148.5 kHz) (LowFID) tags and high-
frequency (HF: 13.56 MHz) (HighFID) tags can be used globally without a license. Ultra-
high-frequency (UHF: 868–928 MHz) (Ultra-HighFID or UHFID) tags cannot be used
globally as there is no single global standard. In North America, UHF can be used
unlicensed for 902–928& MHz (±13 MHz from the 915 MHz center frequency), but
restrictions exist for transmission power. In Europe, RFID and other low-power radio
applications are regulated by ETSI recommendations EN 300 220 and EN 302 208, and
ERO recommendation 70 03, allowing RFID operation with somewhat complex band
restrictions from 865–868 MHz. Readers are required to monitor a channel before
transmitting ("Listen Before Talk"); this requirement has led to some restrictions on
performance, the resolution of which is a subject of current research. The North
American UHF standard is not accepted in France as it interferes with its military bands.
For China and Japan, there is no regulation for the use of UHF. Each application for
UHF in these countries needs a site license, which needs to be applied for at the local
authorities, and can be revoked. For Australia and New Zealand, 918–926 MHz are
unlicensed, but restrictions exist for transmission power.

These frequencies are known as the ISM bands (Industrial Scientific and Medical
bands). The return signal of the tag may still cause interference for other radio users.

Some standards that have been made regarding RFID technology include:

• ISO 14223/1 – Radio frequency identification of Animals, advanced transponders

– Air interface
• ISO/IEC 14443: This standard is a popular HF (13.56 MHz) standard for
HighFIDs which is being used as the basis of RFID-enabled passports under
ICAO 9303.
• ISO 15693: This is also a popular HF (13.56 MHz) standard for HighFIDs widely
used for non-contact smart payment and credit cards.
• ISO/IEC 18000: Information technology — Radio frequency identification for item
management:
o Part 1: Reference architecture and definition of parameters to be
standardized
o Part 2: Parameters for air interface communications below 135 kHz
o Part 3: Parameters for air interface communications at 13.56& MHz
o Part 4: Parameters for air interface communications at 2.45 GHz
o Part 6: Parameters for air interface communications at 860-960 MHz
o Part 7: Parameters for active air interface communications at 433 MHz
• ISO 18185: This is the industry standard for electronic seals or "e-seals" for
tracking cargo containers using the 433 MHz and 2.4 GHz frequencies.
• EPCglobal – this is the standardization framework that is most likely to undergo
International Standardization according to ISO rules as with all sound standards
in the world, unless residing with limited scope, as customs regulations, air-traffic
regulations and others. Currently the big distributors and governmental
customers are pushing EPC heavily as a standard well-accepted in their
community, but not yet regarded as for salvation to the rest of the world.
 • ASTM D7434, Standard Test Method for Determining the Performance of
Passive Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Transponders on Palletized or
Unitized Loads
• ASTM D7435, Standard Test Method for Determining the Performance of
Passive Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Transponders on Loaded
Containers

VII. PROBLEMS, CONCERNS AND CONTROVERSIES

GLOBAL STANDARDIZATION

The frequencies used for RFID in the USA are currently incompatible with those
of Europe or Japan. Furthermore, no emerging standard has yet become as universal as
the barcode.

SECURITY CONCERNS

A primary RFID security concern is the illicit tracking of RFID tags. Tags which
are world-readable pose a risk to both personal location privacy and corporate/military
security. Such concerns have been raised with respect to the United States Department
of Defense's recent adoption of RFID tags for supply chain management. More
generally, privacy organizations have expressed concerns in the context of ongoing
efforts to embed electronic product code (EPC) RFID tags in consumer products.

A second class of defense uses cryptography to prevent tag cloning. Some tags
use a form of "rolling code" scheme, wherein the tag identifier information changes after
each scan, thus reducing the usefulness of observed responses. More sophisticated
devices engage in Challenge-response authentications where the tag interacts with the
reader. In these protocols, secret tag information is never sent over the insecure
communication channel between tag and reader. Rather, the reader issues a challenge
to the tag, which responds with a result, computed using a cryptographic circuit keyed
with some secret value. Such protocols may be based on symmetric or public key
cryptography. Cryptographically-enabled tags typically have dramatically higher cost and
power requirements than simpler equivalents, and as a result, deployment of these tags
is much more limited. This cost/power limitation has led some manufacturers to
implement cryptographic tags using substantially weakened, or proprietary encryption
schemes, which do not necessarily resist sophisticated attack. For example, the Exxon-
Mobil Speedpass uses a cryptographically-enabled tag manufactured by Texas
Instruments, called the Digital Signature Transponder (DST), which incorporates a weak,
proprietary encryption scheme to perform a challenge-response protocol for lower cost.

Still other cryptographic protocols attempt to achieve privacy against

unauthorized readers, though these protocols are largely in the research stage. One
major challenge in securing RFID tags is a shortage of computational resources within
the tag. Standard cryptographic techniques require more resources than are available in
most low cost RFID devices. RSA Security has patented a prototype device that locally
jams RFID signals by interrupting a standard collision avoidance protocol, allowing the
user to prevent identification if desired. Various policy measures have also been
proposed, such as marking RFID-tagged objects with an industry standard label. RFID
security is a very active research field for a few years, with more than 200 scientific
papers published since 2002. An extensive list of references in this field can be found at
the RFID Security and Privacy Lounge .

EXPLOITS

Ars Technica reported in March 2006 an RFID buffer overflow bug that could
infect airport terminal RFID Databases for baggage, and also Passport databases to
obtain confidential information on the passport holder.

PASSPORTS

In an effort to make passports more secure, several countries have implemented

RFID in passports. However, the encryption on UK chips was broken in less than 48
hours. Since that incident, further efforts have allowed researchers to clone passport
data while the passport is being mailed to its owner. Where a criminal used to need to
secretly open and then reseal the envelope, now it can be done without detection,
adding some degree of insecurity to the passport system.

SHIELDING

A number of products are available on the market that will allow a concerned
carrier of RFID-enabled cards or passports to shield their data. In fact the United States
government requires their new employee ID cards to be delivered with an approved
shielding sleeve or holder. There are contradicting opinions as to whether aluminum can
prevent reading of RFID chips. Some people claim that aluminum shielding, essentially
creating a Faraday cage, does work. Others claim that simply wrapping an RFID card in
aluminum foil, only makes transmission more difficult, yet is not completely effective at
preventing it.

Shielding is again a function of the frequency being used. Low-frequency LowFID

tags, like those used in implantable devices for humans and pets, are relatively resistant
to shielding, though thick metal foil will prevent most reads. High frequency HighFID tags
(13.56 MHz — smart cards and access badges) are sensitive to shielding and are
difficult to read when within a few centimeters of a metal surface. UHF Ultra-HighFID
tags (pallets and cartons) are difficult to read when placed within a few millimeters of a
metal surface, although their read range is actually increased when they are spaced 2–
4 cm from a metal due to positive reinforcement of the reflected wave and the incident
wave at the tag. UHFID tags can be successfully shielded from most reads by being
placed within an anti-static plastic bag.

CONTROVERSIES

PRIVACY

"How would you like it if, for instance, one day you realized your underwear was
reporting on your whereabouts?"

—California State Senator Debra Bowen, at a 2003 hearing.

The use of RFID technology has engendered considerable controversy and even
product boycotts by consumer privacy advocates. Katherine Albrecht and Liz McIntyre,
co-founders of CASPIAN (Consumers Against Supermarket Privacy Invasion and
Numbering), are two prominent critics of the technology who refer to RFID tags as
"spychips". The two main privacy concerns regarding RFID are:

• Since the owner of an item will not necessarily be aware of the presence of an
RFID tag and the tag can be read at a distance without the knowledge of the
individual, it becomes possible to gather sensitive data about an individual
without consent.
• If a tagged item is paid for by credit card or in conjunction with use of a loyalty
card, then it would be possible to indirectly deduce the identity of the purchaser
by reading the globally unique ID of that item (contained in the RFID tag).

Most concerns revolve around the fact that RFID tags affixed to products remain
functional even after the products have been purchased and taken home and thus can
be used for surveillance and other purposes unrelated to their supply chain inventory
functions.

However, read range is both a function of the reader and the tag itself.
Improvements in technology may increase read ranges for tags. Having readers very
close to the tags makes short range tags readable. Generally, the read range of a tag is
limited to the distance from the reader over which the tag can draw enough energy from
the reader field to power the tag. Tags may be read at longer ranges than they are
designed for by increasing reader power. The limit on read distance then becomes the
signal-to-noise ratio of the signal reflected from the tag back to the reader. Researchers
at two security conferences have demonstrated that passive Ultra-HighFID tags, not of
the HighFID type used in US passports, normally read at ranges of up to 30 feet, can be
read at ranges of 50 to 69 feet using suitable equipment.

In January 2004 privacy advocates from CASPIAN and the German privacy
group FoeBuD were invited to the METRO Future Store in Germany, where an RFID
pilot project was implemented. It was uncovered by accident that METRO "Payback"
customer loyalty cards contained RFID tags with customer IDs, a fact that was disclosed
neither to customers receiving the cards, nor to this group of privacy advocates. This
happened despite assurances by METRO that no customer identification data was
tracked and all RFID usage was clearly disclosed.

During the UN World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) between the
16th to 18th of November, 2005, founder of the free software movement, Richard
Stallman, protested the use of RFID security cards. During the first meeting, it was
agreed that future meetings would no longer use RFID cards, and upon finding out this
assurance was broken, he covered his card with aluminum foil, and would only uncover
it at the security stations. This protest caused the security personnel considerable
concern, with some not allowing him to leave a conference room in which he had been
the main speaker, and the prevention of him entering another conference room, where
he was due to speak.

In 2004-2005 the Federal Trade Commission Staff conducted a workshop and

review of RFID privacy concerns and issued a report recommending best practices.
 RFID was one of the main topics of 2006 Chaos Communication Congress
(organized by the Chaos Computer Club in Berlin) and triggered a big press debate.
Topics included: electronic passports, Mifare cryptography and the tickets for the FIFA
World Cup 2006. Talks showed how the first real world mass application of RFID
technology at the 2006 FIFA Soccer World Cup worked. Group monochrom staged a
special 'Hack RFID' song.

HUMAN IMPLANTATION

The Food and Drug Administration in the US has approved the use of RFID chips
in humans. Some business establishments have also started to chip customers, such as
the Baja Beach nightclub in Barcelona. This has provoked concerns into privacy of
individuals as they can potentially be tracked wherever they go by an identifier unique to
them. There are concerns this could lead to abuse by an authoritarian government or
lead to removal of freedoms.

On July 22, 2006, Reuters reported that two hackers, Newitz and Westhues, at a
conference in New York City showed that they could clone the RFID signal from a
human implanted RFID chip, showing that the chip is not hack-proof as was previously
claimed.

Credits:
• Craig K. Harmon
• RFIDJournal.com
• HowStuffWorks.com
• Inq7.net
• Wikipedia.com
QUIZ:
1. 1. A technology that uses an object usually tags, applied to or incorporated into a
product, animal, or person for the purpose of identification and tracking using
radio waves. (Radio Frequency Identification, RFID)
2. It is a transponder which receives a radio signal and in response to it sends out a
radio signal. (RFID Tag)
3. What are the three types of RFID Tags? (Active, Semi-Passive and Passive)
4. It is a device that is used to interrogate an RFID tag. (RFID reader)
5. What are the two basic components of an RFID reader? (scanning antenna and
transceiver with decoder)
6. It is a machine-readable coding system consisting of elements with varying
widths of vertical black lines and white spaces, patterns of dots, circles, square
cells, and images, that when read by a bar code scanner can be converted into
information. (Barcode)
7. Compare RFID and barcode in terms of their costs. (Barcodes are cheaper than
RFID tags)
8. Compare RFID and barcode in terms of their reliability. (Barcode is more
practical and more reliable even in the most challenging environments than RFID
tags)
9. Compare RFID and barcode in terms of their lifespan. (Tags have no moving
parts and can be enclosed in protective material, providing a sturdy casing. Bar
codes are subject to damage with excessive handling and harsh environments.)
10. Compare RFID and barcode in terms of their scanning methods. (RFID offers a
wider scanning range and does not require a visual line of sight to scan a tag,
while Bar codes offer only a read range of inches and requires line of sight to
read a bar code.)