2/2/2021 RMP Lecture Notes

Distillation
To reduce load times, this material is divided into seven files, corresponding to the numbered points below.
The present file (distill.html) contains point 1 only.

1. Distillation Principles
Definition & Purpose
Operating Principles
Ideal Stages
Condensers & Reboilers
Feed Condition
References
2. Distillation Modeling
Steady-State Model
Feed Tray
3. Distillation Operating Equations
Rectifying Section
Stripping Section
Equimolal Overflow
Feed Line
4. Distillation Calculations
McCabe-Thiele Method
Limiting Cases
Total Reflux
Pinch Points
Minimum Reflux
Condenser & Reboiler Loads
Stage Efficiencies
5. Distillation Enthalpy Balances
Rectifying Section
Stripping Section
Calculations
6. Enthalpy-Concentration Method
Overall Enthalpy Balance
Reflux Ratio
Stepping Off Stages
Limiting Conditions
Example
7. Equipment & Column Sizing
Tray Construction & Hydraulics
Tray Efficiency
Column Diameter
Pressure Drop
Column Height

Distillation I: Principles
facstaff.cbu.edu/rprice/lectures/distill.html#princip 1/5
2/2/2021 RMP Lecture Notes

Definition & Purpose:

Distillation is the most widely used separation process in the chemical industry. It is also known as fractional
distillation or fractionation. It is normally used to separate liquid mixtures into two or more vapor or liquid
products with different compositions.

Distillation is an equilibrium stage operation. In each stage, a vapor phase is contacted with a liquid phase
and mass is from vapor to liquid and from liquid to vapor. The less volatile, "heavy" or "high boiling",
components concentrate in the liquid phase; the more volatile, "light", components concentrate in the vapor.
By using multiple stages in series with recycle, separation can be accomplished.

Operating Principles:

The feed to a distillation column may

be liquid, vapor, or a liquid-vapor
mixture. It may enter at any point in
the column, although the optimal feed
tray location should be determined
and used. More than one stream may
be fed to the system, and more than
one product may be drawn.

A column is divided into a series of

stages. These correspond to a cascade
of equilibrium stages. Liquid flows
down the column from stage to stage
and is contacted by vapor flowing
upward.

Traditionally, most columns have

been built from a set of distinct
"trays" or "plates", so these terms end
up being essentially interchangeable
with "stages". Each tray in a
distillation column is designed to
promote contact between the vapor
and liquid on the stage. Distillation
can be conducted in a packed column
(just as absorption can be done in a
trayed column), but we will focus on
trayed columns for the present.

Stages may be numbered from top

down or bottom up. When analyzing
a stage, flows and compositions take
the number of the stage they leave.
The text for this class calls the top tray of the column "Tray 1" and numbers downward - - this is the
convention we will use. MSH also denote the streams between the column top and condenser with an "a"
subscript and those at the bottom with "b". Personally, I generally prefer to let "Tray 1" be the bottom tray of
the column, the reboiler "Tray 0" and number upward (so if you catch me doing this, don't panic). I like this
way of numbering because it tends to simplify computer based calculations.

The product leaving the top of the column is called the overhead product, the "overhead", the "top product",
the distillate, or "distillate product". Distillate product may be liquid or vapor (or occasionally both)
depending on the type of condenser used. Most of the time the distillate flow rate is assigned the symbol D,
and the composition xD or yD.

facstaff.cbu.edu/rprice/lectures/distill.html#princip 2/5
2/2/2021 RMP Lecture Notes

The product leaving the bottom of the column is called the bottom product or "bottoms", and given the
symbol B, with composition xB.

In some situations, notably petroleum refining, one or more intermediate or "sidedraw" products may be
removed from the column.

Vapor leaving the top of the column passes through a heat exchanger, the condenser, where it is partially or
totally condensed. The liquid which results is temporarily held in the "accumulator" or reflux drum. A liquid
stream is withdrawn from the drum and returned to the top tray of the column as reflux (R or L) to promote
separation.

The portion of the column above the feed tray is called the rectification section. In this section, the vapor is
enriched by contact with the reflux.

The portion of the column below the feed tray is called the stripping section. The liquid portion of the feed
serves as the reflux for this section.

The operating pressure of the column is typically controlled by adjusting heat removal in the condenser.

The base of the column is typically used as a reservoir to hold liquid leaving the bottom tray. A heat
exchanger, the reboiler, is used to boil this liquid. The vapor which results, the "boilup" (V) is returned to the
column on one of the bottom three or four trays.

In normal operation, there are five "handles" that can be adjusted to manipulate the behavior of a distillation
column -- the feed flow, two product flows, the reflux flow, and the boilup flow (or reboiler heat input).

A normal column has a temperature gradient and a pressure gradient from bottom to top.

Ideal Stages
Stages are built to maximize contact between the incoming vapor
and the incoming liquid. During the contact, some of the liqht
component in the entering liquid is vaporized and leaves with the
vapor; some of the heavy component in the entering vapor
condenses and leaves with the liquid.

By definition, an ideal stage is one where the vapor and liquid

leave the stage in equilibrium. Consequently, the vapor
composition functionally depends on the liquid composition.
Ideality is an approximation, but stage efficiencies can be used to
account for real cases. A key result of the ideal stage assumption
is that liquid streams leaving an ideal stage are assumed to be at
their bubble point. Vapor streams leave at their dew point.

When no azeotropes are present, both top and bottom products may be obtained in any desired purity --- if
enough stages are provided and enough reflux is available. In practice, there are limits to the number of
stages and to the amount of reflux, so not every separation can be accomplished. Theoretical limits on
performance are imposed by total reflux (minimum stages) and minimum reflux (infinite number of ideal
stages).

Condensers & Reboilers

There are two main categories of condenser, differentiated by the extent of condensation.

In a total condenser, all of the vapor leaving the top of the column is condensed. Consequently, the
composition of the vapor leaving the top tray y1 is the same as that of the liquid distillate product and reflux,
xD.

facstaff.cbu.edu/rprice/lectures/distill.html#princip 3/5
2/2/2021 RMP Lecture Notes

In a partial
condenser,
the vapor is
only partially
liquefied. The
liquid
produced is
returned to
the column as
liquid, and a
vapor product stream is removed. The compositions of these three streams (V1, D, and R) are different.
Normally, D (composition yD) is in equilibrium with R (composition xD).

A partial condenser functions as an equilibrium separation stage, so columns with a partial condenser
effectively have an extra ideal stage.

The "reflux ratio" is an important parameter in column operation. It is normally defined as the ratio of reflux
to distillate (L/D), although other formulations (L/L+D, etc.) are occasionally used.

Most reboilers are partial reboilers, that is they only vaporize part of the liquid in the column base. Partial
reboilers also provide an ideal separation stage.

Reboilers take several forms: they may be "thermosiphon" types that rely on the thermal effects on density to
draw liquid through the heat exchanger, "forced circulation" types that use a pump to force liquid through, or
even "stab-in" types that come through the side of the column into the liquid reservoir.

In large, complex columns, sidestream reboilers can be used. These draw liquid off a tray, heat it, and then
return the vapor liquid mixture to the same or a similar trays.

Feed Condition
The thermal condition of the feed determines the column internal flows.

If the feed is below its bubble point, heat is needed to raise it to where it can be vaporized. This heat must be
obtained by condensing vapor rising through the column, so the liquid flow moving down the column
increases by the entire amount of the feed plus the condensed material and the vapor flow upward is
decreased.

If the feed enters as superheated vapor, it will vaporize some of the liquid to equalize the enthalpy. In this
case, the liquid flow down the column drops and the vapor flow up is increased by the entire amount of the
feed plus the vaporized material.

If the feed is saturated (liquid or vapor), no additional heat must be added or subtracted, and the feed adds
directly to the liquid or vapor flow.

Feed effects are important enough that a variable, q is assigned as a descriptor.

Subcooled Liquid
q>1
q=1+cpL(Tbp-Tf)/lambda
Saturated Liquid (bubble point feed)
q=1
Partially Vaporized
0<q<1
q is the fraction of the feed that is liquid. It can be found by doing a flash calculation and then q=
(L/F)=(1-V/F)
Saturated Vapor (dew point feed)
q=0
facstaff.cbu.edu/rprice/lectures/distill.html#princip 4/5
2/2/2021 RMP Lecture Notes

Superheated Vapor
q<0
q=(-cpV*(Tf-Tdp)/lambda)

References:

1. Foust, A.S. et al., Principles of Unit Operations, 2nd Edition, John Wiley, 1980, pp. 13-14.
2. McCabe, W.L., J.C. Smith, P. Harriott, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 5th Edition,
McGraw-Hill, 1993.

R.M. Price
Original: March 1997
Modified: 14 April 1998; 13 February 2003

Copyright 1997, 1998, 2003 by R.M. Price -- All Rights Reserved

facstaff.cbu.edu/rprice/lectures/distill.html#princip 5/5