Verb-Tense

Future tenses

There are several different ways in English that you can talk about the
future. This page is an introduction to the most important ones:

- Predictions/statements of fact
- Intentions
- Arrangements
- Scheduled events

Predictions/statements of fact

The auxiliary verb will is used in making predictions or simple statements of

fact about the future.

 The sun will rise at 6.30 tomorrow.

 Lunch break today will be 10 minutes longer than usual.
 In the year 2050 all students will have their own computers in school.
 If you help me, I will help you.
 Do you think she will come soon?
 You won't pass your exams if you don't start working harder.
 I know my parents won't let me go to the party.
 Will it snow for Christmas?
 I know she's sick, but will she be back in school tomorrow?

Intentions

The auxiliary verb going to is used in talking about intentions. (An intention
is a plan for the future that you have already thought about.)

 We're going to buy a new car next month.

 I'm going to work in a bank when I leave school.
 In the new year I'm going to stop eating so much junk.
 He's not going to go to the dance. He's got too much work.
 I'm not going to watch TV until my science project is finished.
 Are you going to play basketball after school?
 What are you going to have for lunch today?

Note: going to is often used in the past tense to talk about an unfulfilled intention.
Examples: I was going to study for my grammar test, but I had no time. / He was going to
call you, but he couldn't find his mobile phone. / My grandmother was going to visit us, but
she fell and broke her arm.
Arrangements

The present continuous tense is used in talking about arrangements. (An

arrangement is is a plan for the future that you have already thought
about and discussed with someone else.)

 I'm meeting my mother at the airport tomorrow.

 Our grandparents are visiting us this Christmas.
 Sorry, I can't stay after school today; I'm playing tennis with Jun-Sik.
 My sister's going to the dentist tomorrow.
 I'm not returning home for the holidays, so I can come to your party
after all!
 Are you doing anything on Sunday morning?
 Do you know if he is going to the dance with Maiko next week?

Scheduled events

The present simple tense is usually used to refer to future events that are

scheduled (and outside of our control).

 Hurry up! The train departs in 10 minutes.

 I leave Frankfurt at 5 o'clock in the morning and arrive in New York

at midnight the next day.

 She has an appointment with the headmaster after school today.

 There's no need to hurry. The train doesn't leave for another 30
minutes.
 When does the meeting begin?

The Present Simple Tense

The simple present tense is used in English for the following purposes:

- Repeated actions
- Simple statements of fact
- World truths
- With verbs of the senses and mental processes
- In jokes and story telling
- To refer to the future

How to form the present simple

Repeated actions
The present simple tense is very often used with adverbs of repeated time.
Look at these examples (the adverbs are shown in bold):

 I always come to school by car.

 She frequently arrives here before me.
 He never forgets to do his homework.
 I often catch the late bus home.
 I play football on Saturdays.
 Once a year I fly back to visit my family in Korea.
 The classrooms are cleaned every evening after school.
 She sometimes loses her temper, but it doesn't happen very often.
 Do you ever eat in the cafeteria?
 Does your father speak English every day?

Simple statements of fact

When we want to state a fact or ask a question without any time reference,
we use the present simple tense.

 I live in Frankfurt.
 She plays football but she doesn't play tennis.
 For breakfast he eats rice and drinks cold milk.
 She works very hard.
 My friend speaks four languages.
 It rains a lot in Germany.
 I don't like horror films!
 Do you smoke?
 Does your sister have any children?
 How much does it cost to buy an apartment in Frankfurt?

World truths

Statements about rules of nature and the way the world is are in the present
simple tense.

 The sun sets in the West.

 Most babies learn to speak when they are about two years old.
 Water boils at 100° Celsius.
 Trees lose their leaves in the fall.
 Few people live to be 100 years old.
 Wood floats on water.
 Does it snow in the Sahara desert?
 Do elephants live longer than humans?
 Money doesn't guarantee happiness.
  Flowers don't grow in the winter.

Verbs of the senses and mental processes

The present simple tense is used for many verbs of thinking, feeling and
sensing. The most common words are:

like love prefer know understand

hate need want believe remember
see hear taste smell look

 She likes it in Germany.

 I love lying in bed late on Sunday mornings.
 I need to know right now.
 She says she doesn't know who did it, but I don't believe her.
 He doesn't want to speak to you again.
 This doesn't taste very good, does it?
 Do you remember the first time we met?
 Do you smell something funny?
 Does he understand which way to go?

In jokes, anecdotes and film or book summaries

The present simple tense is very often used in jokes and when telling a story
to make the joke or story seem more immediate. This use of the present
tense is sometimes called the graphic present.

The present simple is also used to retell what happens in a book or film.

 So in he walks with a parrot on his shoulder.

 In his new film Robert Redford plays the part of a brave cowboy.

To refer to the future

The present simple is often used to refer to future events that are scheduled
(and outside of our control).

 Hurry up! The train departs in 10 minutes.

 I leave Frankfurt at 5 o'clock in the morning and arrive in New York

at midnight the next day.

 She has a piano lesson after school today.

  There's no need to hurry. The train doesn't leave for another 30
minutes.
 When does the meeting begin?

The Past Simple Tense

The past simple tense is most often used for the following:

- For actions that happened in the past

- In reported speech
- In conditional sentences

How to form the past simple

For actions that happened in the past

The past simple is the most usual tense for talking about things that
happened or have finished before now. Very often we use a word or
expression of finished time with this tense. In the following example
sentences the expressions of finished time are shown in bold:

 She came to Germany two years ago.

 It rained every day for a week on my vacation.
 Columbus discovered America in 1492.
 I played tennis at the weekend.
 I didn't see you yesterday. Were you in school?
 My mother went shopping on Saturday but she didn't buy anything.
 I felt embarrassed when the teacher asked an easy question but I
didn't know the answer.
 The weather was bad this afternoon* so we didn't have a picnic as
planned.
 How did you do that?
 Did you see the film on TV last night?
 Why didn't you do your homework?

* In this sentence the speaker is talking in the evening, so for her this afternoon is finished
time.

In reported speech

In reported speech it is common to shift the tense back. So for example, if

someone said something to you in the present tense, you would report it in
the past tense. Look at these examples. In each case the first sentence is
direct speech and the second sentence is in reported speech. The verbs in
the past simple form are shown in bold.

 She said: "I live in Frankfurt."

She told me she lived in Frankfurt. *
 He said: "I can speak 5 languages."
He said he could speak 5 languages.
 The new girl said: "My father is a millionaire!"
The new girl told me her father was a millionaire but I don't believe
her!
 She said: "My mother doesn't like German food."
She said her mother didn't like German food.
 He said: "I don't feel well."
He said he didn't feel well.
 She asked: "Do you like ESL lessons?"
She asked me if I liked ESL lessons.
 The teacher said: "Do you know the answer?"
The teacher asked me if I knew the answer.

* It is common in modern spoken English to NOT change the tense if you

believe that what someone told you is still true. So, for example, we could
say:

 She said she lives in Frankfurt.

 She told me her mother doesn't like German food.

In conditional sentences

The past simple tense is used in conditional 2 sentences. Have a look at

some examples before reading the explanation about what the conditional 2
is. The verbs in past simple form are shown in bold.

 I would help you if I had time!

 If I were the teacher I would give lots of homework every day!
 What would you buy if you won a lot of money?
 If you bought a calculator, you wouldn't have to borrow mine all the
time!
 If you didn't eat so much junk food, you would be a lot fitter!
 I would be much happier if you didn't do that!

The past simple (conditional 2) is used in these sentences to express the

idea of something that is not true or that the speaker thinks is unlikely to
happen. So, in the first 3 sentences above, the interpretations would be:
  I don't have time ..
 I am not the teacher ..
 I don't think it is likely you will win a lot of money ..

The Present Continuous Tense

The present continuous tense is most often used for the following:

- For actions happening now

- For future arrangements
- To express annoyance at repeated actions

How to form the present continuous

For actions happening now

When we want to talk about an action that is happening now or at this time
(and is unfinished), we use the present continuous tense. We also use this
tense when we want to make clear that the action is temporary.

 Sorry, she can't come to the phone right now; she is having a bath.
 Look! Someone is trying to break into your car.
 This work is good! Your handwriting is getting better and better.
 I'm wearing these old trousers to school this week, as we're doing a
pottery course and it's very messy work!
 Of course she likes you. You're just being stupid!
 Where's John? - He's playing soccer in the sports hall.
 This calculator isn't working properly. Do you have another one.
 You can go outside now. It isn't raining any more.
 What are you doing? - My watch is broken and I'm trying to fix it.
 Why are you talking? You should be listening to me.

For future arrangements

We usually use the present continuous tense for future events that have
already been arranged:

 I'm meeting my mother at the airport tomorrow.

 Our grandmother is visiting us at Christmas.
 Sorry, I can't stay after school today; I'm playing tennis with Jun-Sik.
 My mother's going to the dentist tomorrow.
 I'm not going home at Christmas, so I can come to your party after
all!
 Are you doing anything on Sunday morning?
  Do you know if he is going to the dance with Maiko next week?

To express annoyance at repeated actions

Usually the present simple is used for repeated actions. For example, He
always gets up before 7 o'clock, but .. the present continuous is the correct
choice when the speaker wants to express annoyance at a repeated
action. (Note how often the word "always" is used in such statements):

 You are always interrupting me when I'm talking and I don't like it!

 She's always tapping her pencil on the desk and it's getting on my
nerves!
 My ESL teacher's always giving detentions; how can anyone be so
mean?
 I'm getting tired of you always coming late to class.
 Why is it always raining in Germany?
 Why are you always criticising me?

This use of the present continuous is not possible as a negative statement.

The Past Continuous Tense

The past continuous tense is most often used for actions happening at some
time in the past.

How to form the past continuous

For actions happening at some time in the past

When we want to talk about an action that was happening over a period of
time in the past, we use the past continuous tense. Look at these examples:

 At this time last week I was lying on the beach in Florida.

 My mother was working in the garden so she didn't hear the
telephone when I called her yesterday.
 I had my car fixed because it wasn't working properly.
 Sorry, I wasn't listening. Can you say it again please?
 What were you doing at 8 o'clock yesterday?
 Why were you talking to John when I saw you in the cafeteria
yesterday?
 I went to lunch too early. The food was still being cooked. (passive)

The past continuous is very often used with the past simple to say that
something happened in the middle of something else. In each of the
following examples, the single event (past simple) happens in the middle of
a longer action (past continuous).

 You phoned while I was having a bath.

 When I got home yesterday, a cat was sitting on the roof.
 It started to rain just as we were getting ready to have our picnic.
 The boy was standing on the table when the principal came into the
room.
 Many people were shopping in the market when the bomb exploded.
 I saw Noriko in town yesterday. She was wearing a pink dress and
an orange hat!
 When I went to bed last night the sun was already beginning to rise.
 It was lucky we weren't sitting under that tree when the lightning
hit.
 What were you doing when the lights went off last night?
 Were you watching me when I showed you how to do it?
 How fast was she driving when she had the accident?

The Present Perfect Tense

The present perfect tense is most often used for the following:

- For past events with a connection to the present

- With words of unfinished time

How to form the present perfect  |  Present perfect continuous

For past events with a connection to the present

The present perfect tense is quite complicated to explain. It is used when an

action that happened in the past continues to have a strong connection in
the present. The best way to understand it is to look at some examples.
They are followed in each case by a short explanation:

 I have lost my dictionary. (I don't have my dictionary now; can you

help me find it?)
 Mary has fixed my computer (My computer is working now and I'm
happy about it!)
 You haven't eaten very much. (Don't you feel well? Don't you like
it?)
 I haven't read his letter. (I haven't had time yet. What does he say?)
 Have you seen my calculator? (- I want to use it now!)
 Has she had an accident? (- Someone said she's in hospital!)
 Have you done your homework? (- It's due today!)
With words of unfinished time

The present perfect tense is used with words or expressions of unfinished

time. Unfinished time started in the past and continues into the present.
(So, this week, for example, means all the days so far this week including
today.) Here are some sentences in the present perfect. The expressions of
unfinished time are shown in bold.

 I've played tennis 3 times already this week and it's only Thursday!

 She's been back to Korea twice already this year, and she's going
again next week!
 Sorry, I've seen that film already. I don't want to see it again.
 I've lived in Germany since 1986.
 She's had a lot of bad luck recently.
 I haven't seen my mother for 2 months.
 No, you can't use the bathroom. You haven't finished the exercise yet.
 She hasn't called me lately? Do you think she's sick?
 Have you ever seen a ghost?
 Has he lived here all his life?
 Has the postman been yet?

** Be careful: sometimes an expression of unfinished time can be used with

the past simple tense. Look at these examples and explanations:

 I drank three cups of coffee this morning.

The speaker is talking in the evening so for him this morning is finished

time.

 I didn't see John today.

The student is talking after school when there is no more possibility of

seeing John on this day. Today becomes an expression of finished time.

 This year was a very good year for me!

This is possible if the speaker is talking very near to the end of the year, and
so in her opinion the year is finished. Therefore she uses the past
simple was.

The Past Perfect Tense

The past perfect tense is most often used for the following:
- For actions that happened before a past event
- In reported speech
- In if (conditional) sentences

How to form the past perfect  |  Past perfect continuous

For actions that happened before a past event

When we want to talk about an action that happened before a past event,
we often use the past perfect. Look at these examples:

 When I got home yesterday, my father had already cooked dinner.

 I didn't want to go to the movies with my friends because I had
seen the film already.
 My friend offered me an apple in class yesterday, but I wasn't hungry
because I had just eaten lunch.
 I arrived very late at the party. All my
friends had already gone home.
 As soon as she had done her homework, she went to bed.
 I was very tired as I hadn't slept well for several days.
 Had you seen the film before?

Notice how often words like already, just, never etc. are used with the past
perfect.

In reported speech

The past perfect is common when we report people's words or thoughts ..,
as in the following examples:

 John said that he had never eaten sushi before.

 She told me that she had finished, but I knew she had not.
 She wondered why he had been so unkind to her.
 He told me he hadn't done his homework, but he was hoping to finish
it on the bus.
 I thought I had sent her a birthday card, but I was wrong.

In if (conditional) sentences

The past perfect tense is used in unreal or hypothetical stituations, as in the

following sentences:

 If I had known you were in Frankfurt, I would have called you. (but I

didn't know you were here so I didn't call you!)
  If I had had enough money, I would have bought you a better
present. (but I didn't have enough money.)
 I would have been very angy if you had laughed when I got the
answer wrong. (but you didn't laugh, so I wasn't angry.)
 She wouldn't have been able to finish, if you hadn't helped her. (but
you did help her and she did finish.)
 I wish I had studied for my exams. (but I didn't study - and I got bad
grades!)
 I would have been in big trouble if you hadn't helped me. (but you
did help me so I stayed out of trouble.)

More tenses

Below is a list of some of the less common tenses, followed in each case by
examples. Note that the continuous tenses convey the idea of an event or
state going on for a period of time:

Present perfect continuous

 I have been working in the garden all day, and now I'm extremely
tired.
 She has been living in a one-room apartment since she left home.
 How long have you been playing the piano?
 He's been learning German for two years, but he still can't speak it
very well.
 We've been painting our house since last Friday, but we're still a
long way from finishing.
 We haven't been living in Germany very long.
 Why are you sweating? Have you been running?

Do a quiz on this grammar topic.

Past perfect continuous

 I had been working in the garden all day, and all I wanted to do was
sleep.
 She had been living in a one-room apartment for a year before
getting married.
 How long had you been playing the piano before the accident with
your hand?
 He'd been learning German for two years, but he stopped when he
returned to Japan.
 We'd been painting our house for two weeks, but we were still a long
way from finishing.
Future continuous

 At this time next week I will be sitting in the plane on the way to
New York.
 Don't call me after 10 o'clock. I'll be sleeping.
 If you want to see Miho tomorrow, you will have to go to the school.
She will be taking a test all afternoon.
 I won't be working on my car this weekend. My mother-in-law will
be here.

Future perfect

 I hope my mother will have finished cooking dinner by the time I get

home.
 You can come at 6 o'clock. I will have done my homework by then.
 There's no point calling her at home. She will have left for work
already.
 On June 25 2020 they will have been married for 60 years.

Future perfect continuous

 By the time I retire I will have been working here for 45 years!

 If she reaches her 60th birthday, she will have been smoking for
half a century!

Verbs-general

Agreement

Agreement* is the word for the correct matching of the subject and the verb
in a sentence. (Another way to say this is that the subject and verb go
together.) English has very few verb endings and the only one that learners
really have to worry about is the -s ending in the present simple tense. As
an example let's look at the verb to work:

Singular Plural
1st person    I work We work
2nd person    You work You work
3rd person    He works They work
She works
It works
It can be seen that the -s is needed in the 3rd person singular*. It has to
be: My father works in a bank. My mother drinks green tea for breakfast
every day. Oil floats on water.

Of course, the same rule applies when the 3rd person subject is a pronoun.
So you have to say: He works in a bank. She drinks green tea for breakfast
every day. It floats on water.

You also need to remember the -s in sentences with relative pronouns. So,
for example, it must be: Do you know the man who lives in the next
apartment? A carnivore is an animal that eats other animals. And don't
forget the -s when the verb is used as an auxiliary: Does your mother like
English food? She has forgotten her homework again.

Learners often make agreement mistakes when the noun is unexpectedly

singular or plural. So, for example, everybody, news and data are singular,
whereas people, police and jeans are plural:

 Where is everybody going?
 The news was bad.
 The data is too old to be useful.
 The police are looking for the killer.
 Most people want to be rich.
 Your trousers are too tight!

Similar mistakes of agreement occur between such nouns and their

pronouns. It has to be:

 Do you want to hear the news? It's very good!

 You need to buy some new jeans. Those are too tight!
 The police? They are never here when you need them.

(* Modal verbs like will, would, may, must etc. do not have an -s in the 3rd person
singular.)

Auxiliary verbs

Auxiliary verbs are sometimes called helping verbs because they are needed

to form many of the tenses. The most used auxiliary verbs are the verbs to
be, to do and to have. For example: the auxiliary to do is needed to ask
questions in the present and past simple tenses. To be is needed for the
present and past continuous, and all the passive forms. The auxiliary to
have is used in the present and past perfect tenses. Some tenses, like the
present perfect continuous, need more than one auxiliary!

Here are some examples of the common auxiliary verbs in action:

 Do you like German food?

 Does your mother speak English?
 Did you come to school yesterday?
 Why are you talking? You should be listening to me!
 I was having a bath when you called!
 A new road is being built behind the school.
 Have you done your homework?
 My father has never visited the USA.
 How long have you been living in Germany?
 By this time next year I will have been learning English for 35 years!

Other common auxiliary verbs are: will, should, would, can, must, might, may, could (These
verbs are often called modal verbs).

Contracted auxiliaries

The auxiliary verbs are very often contracted. For example, you can say I'm
playing tennis tomorrow, instead of I am playing tennis tomorrow.
The contracted form (which needs an apostrophe) is more likely to be used
in spoken language*. So, for example, it would be a little unusual to ask
your friend: Why did you not call me yesterday? More probable is: Why
didn't you call me ..?

On the other hand, if you are doing a written report or essay, it is more
usual to write the full form: Why did America not join the war until
1941? (instead of: Why didn't America ..?).

The short form itself often has two alternatives, which are equally usual and
correct. For example:

 She's not going to the dance.

 She isn't going to the dance.
 I haven't seen him for ages.
 I've not seen him for ages.

* The full form is common in spoken language when the speaker wants to
emphasize what she is saying. For example:
  Why don't you call him?
 I have called him.
 I do not want to see him again.

Conditionals

A conditional sentence is a sentence containing the word if. There are three

common types* of conditional sentence:

1. if clause > present simple tense : main clause > future tense (will)
o If you help me, I will help you.
o If I win the lottery, I will buy a new car.
o If it snows tomorrow, we will go skiing.
2. if clause > past simple tense : main clause > would
o If you knew her, you would agree with me.
o If I won the lottery, I would buy a new car.
o If it snowed tomorrow, we would go skiing.
3. if clause > past perfect tense : main clause > would have
o If you had helped me, I would have helped you.
o If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a new car.
o If it had snowed yesterday, we would have gone skiing.

Of course, it is possible to start conditional sentences with the main clause:

 I will buy a new car if I win the lottery.

 I would buy a new car if I won the lottery.
 I would have bought a new car if I had won the lottery.

English speakers choose one of the three conditional structures as follows:

1. Conditional one - to express a simple statement of fact or intent

o I will buy a new car if I win the lottery.

o I will go home if you don't stop criticizing me.
o You will fail your exams if you don't start working harder.
o She will lose all her friends if she continues to talk about them
behind their backs.

2. Conditional two - to refer to a present unreal situation or to a situation

in the future that the speaker thinks is unlikely to happen
 o If I had a lot of money, I would buy a new car. (but I don't have
a lot of money)
o If I were you, I would tell him you're sorry. (but I am not you)
o If I won the lottery, I would buy a new house. (but I don't
expect to win the lottery)
o If it snowed tomorrow, we would go skiing. (but I don't have
much hope that it will snow)

3. Conditional three - to refer to the past and situations that did not
happen

o If it had snowed yesterday, we would have gone skiing. (but it

didn't snow, so we didn't go skiing)
o If you had studied harder, you would have passed your test.
(but you didn't study hard, so you didn't pass your test)
o If I had known that, I would have told you. (but I didn't know,
so I didn't tell you)
o If she hadn't been driving slowly, she would have had an
accident. (but she was driving slowly, so she didn't have an
accident)

* Note: The way native speakers of English express conditions (use if-

clauses) is much more varied than the 3 rigid combinations of tenses
exemplified on this page. Learners should consult a good grammar reference
work for a deeper understanding of this complex aspect of English grammar.

Gerund

Gerund is the name given to the present participle form of a verb that is
used as a noun. In the following sentences the gerund is shown in red:

 Smoking is bad for your health. (gerund as subject)

 A popular hobby in England is stamp-collecting. (gerund as
complement)
 I dislike shopping. (gerund as object)

Gerunds are not difficult to use as subjects or complements, as in the above

sentences. The problem arises when the learner wants to use the verb-noun
as an object and does not know whether the gerund or the infinitive is
required. Here are some examples of the variety of use:
  She doesn't enjoy working on Sundays. (gerund only)
 She objects to working on Sundays. (gerund only)
 She agreed to work on Sunday. (infinitive only)
 She hates to work on Sundays. / She hates working on Sundays. (both
infinitive and gerund possible: same meaning)
 She stopped eating. (gerund - meaning: she did not eat any more)
 She stopped to eat. (infinitive - meaning: she stopped what she was
doing and started to eat)

This is a difficult aspect of English grammar. The learner must use the
dictionary carefully case-by-case to make the correct choice of gerund or
infinitive.

Irregular verbs

beat - beat - beaten let - let - let

become - became - become light - lit - lit
begin - began - begun lose - lost - lost
bend - bent - bent make - made - made
bite - bit - bitten mean - meant - meant
blow - blew - blown meet - met - met
break - broke - broken pay - paid - paid
bring - brought - brought put - put - put
build - built - built read - read - read
burst - burst - burst ride - rode - ridden
buy - bought - bought ring - rang - rung
catch - caught - caught rise - rose - risen
choose - chose - chosen run - ran - run
come - came - come say - said - said
cost - cost - cost see - saw - seen
cut - cut - cut sell - sold - sold
dig - dug - dug send - sent - sent
do - did - done shake - shook - shaken
draw - drew - drawn shine - shone - shone
drink - drank - drunk shoot - shot - shot
drive - drove - driven shut - shut - shut
eat - ate - eaten sing - sang - sung
fall - fell - fallen sink - sank - sunk
feed - fed - fed sit - sat - sat
feel - felt - felt sleep - slept - slept
fight - fought - fought speak - spoke - spoken
find - found - found spread - spread - spread
fly - flew - flown stand - stood - stood
forget - forgot - forgotten steal - stole - stolen
freeze - froze - frozen stick - stuck - stuck
give - gave - given strike - struck - struck
go - went - gone sweep - swept - swept
grow - grew - grown swim - swam - swum
have - had - had take - took - taken
hear - heard - heard teach - taught - taught
hide - hid - hidden tear - tore - torn
hit - hit - hit tell - told - told
hold - held - held think - thought - thought
hurt - hurt - hurt throw - threw - thrown
keep - kept - kept wake - woke - woken
know - knew - known wear - wore - worn
lead - led - led win - won - won
leave - left - left write - wrote - written

Modal verbs

The modal verbs include can, must, may, might, will, would, should. They
are used with other verbs to express ability, obligation, possibility, and so
on. Below is a list showing the most useful modals and their most common
meanings:

Modal Meaning Example

can to express ability I can speak a little Russian.
can to request permission Can I open the window?
may to express possibility I may be home late.
may to request permission May I sit down, please?
must to express obligation I must go now.
must to express strong belief She must be over 90 years old.
should to give advice You should stop smoking.
would to request or offer Would you like a cup of tea?
would in if-sentences If I were you, I would say sorry.

Modal verbs are unlike other verbs. They do not change their form (spelling)
and they have no infinitive or participle (past/present). The
modals must and can need substitute verbs to express obligation or ability in
the different tenses. Here are some examples:

Past simple Sorry I'm late. I had to finish my math test.

Present She's had to return to Korea at short notice.
perfect
Future You'll have to work hard if you want to pass
the exams.
Infinitive I don't want to have to go.
Past simple I couldn't/wasn't able to walk until I was 3
years old.
Present I haven't been able to solve this problem. Can
perfect you help?
Future I'm not sure if I will be able to come to your
party.
Infinitive I would love to be able to play the piano.

Modals are auxiliary verbs. They do not need an additional auxiliary in

negatives or questions. For example: Must I come? (Do I must come?),
or: He shouldn't smoke (He doesn't should smoke).

Important: The explanations and examples on this page are just an

introduction to this extensive and complex area of English grammar.
Students of English who want to learn more should consult a good reference
work, such as Swan's Practical English Usage.

Passive

The passive is a grammar construction that uses the auxiliary to be and

the past participle of a verb:.

 My camera has been stolen.

 The Mona Lisa was painted in 1503.
 We are being followed.
 She was seriously injured in the car crash.
 You will be told when to come.
 The school was built just after the war.
 The ski race has been cancelled due to lack of snow.

The passive has two main functions:

Firstly, we use the passive when we are more interested in what happened

than who did it. For example, in saying My camera has been stolen the
speaker is conveying important information about his camera. The camera is
the focus of interest, and so the speaker has made it the subject of the
sentence. He does not know or care who took it. Similarly, in the
sentence The Mona Lisa was painted in 1503 the speaker wants to tells us
when the painting was done. She is not interested in telling us who painted
it, or maybe she expects us to already know that it was painted by Leonardo
da Vinci.

The passive can be used in all tenses. The following list has examples of the
most common uses:

 The classrooms are cleaned every afternoon. (present simple)

 A new road is being built behind the school. (present continuous)
 The boy was seen spraying paint on the wall. (past simple)
 I was late because the road was being repaired. (past continuous)
 The car thief has been caught. (present perfect)
 The painting had been damaged during the war. (past perfect)
 You will be shown how to do it. (future)
 It must be done. (modal verb + simple infinitive)
 She likes to be praised when she does well. (infinitive with to)
 I hate being watched when I'm working. (gerund)

Note: In all the above sentences, it is not important to the speaker that
s/he tells us who (e.g., who cleans the classrooms, who is building the road
behind the school, who saw the boy spraying paint). Important is: what (or
when, why, how).

The second important reason why we use the passive is to follow the typical
English sentence pattern of Given-New. This means putting given or old
information at the beginning of the sentence (as the subject), and following
it with new information (as the predicate). Example:

The second world war began in September 1939. It was caused by the
invasion of Poland by German troops. At this time Poland was governed by
the Polish Socialist Party.

Here is the alternative, putting the new information before the given or old,
and using the active not passive voice:

The second world war began in September 1939. The invasion of Poland by
German troops caused it. The Polish Socialist Party governed Poland at this
time.
Most native speakers of English find this kind of text unusual and hard to
read.

Verbs: Person and number

The following table shows you how to name the various combinations of
pronoun and number. This can be helpful if you are reading or listening to an
explanation about grammar, or doing a grammar exercise.

Number Pronoun Person

Singular I first person
you second person
he - she - it third person
Plural we first person
you second person
they third person

So, for example, I is the first person singular, and they is the third person
plural. The same information can also be shown as follows:

Grammar Designation Pronoun

First person singular I
First person plural we
Second person singular you
Second person plural you
Third person singular he - she - it
Third person plural they

We can now identify pronoun and verb combinations. For example, we ate is
the first person plural of the verb to eat in the past simple tense. And the
verb to forget in the third person singular present perfect tense is he (or
she) has forgotten.

Phrasal verbs

Introduction

A phrasal verb is the combination of a standard verb such

as make or put with one or two particles. In some cases the particle is an
adverb such as up, together; in others it is a preposition such as through, in.
Phrasal verbs are very common in everyday spoken and informal written
language. Here are a few examples: make up, pull in, get together, make do
with, put down to.

Questions and tags

To ask a question in English you must usually use one of the auxiliary

verbs (be, do, have) or a modal verb such as can, will, may. If you are
expecting a yes/no answer, then the question starts with the auxiliary or
modal. Here are some examples:

 Is she Japanese?
 Do you like German food?
 Can you play chess?
 Have you seen Miho?
 Must I go to school tomorrow?
 Did you know the answer?
 Is she coming to your party?
 Will you be able to help me?

If you want more information than a simple yes/no answer, you must ask a

question starting with one of the following question words: what, where,
when, why, which, who(m), whose, how. In this kind of question you also
normally use an auxiliary or modal:

 What did you say?

 Where does she live?
 When can you play chess?
 Why must I go to school tomorrow?
 Which book have you borrowed?
 Who has taken my calculator?
 Whose bag is this?
 How did you know the answer?

* Note that questions starting with the question words what/who/whose do not need an
auxiliary verb in the simple present or past. For example: What happened? Who knows the
answer? Whose parents came to Open Day?

The questions what, which, whose are often followed by a noun (before the

auxiliary/modal). The question how is often followed by an adjective. Look at
the following examples:
  What time must we be there?
 What kind of music do you listen to?
 Which painting do you like the best?
 Whose parents are coming to the meeting tomorrow?
 How long have you lived in Germany?
 How much money do you have?
 How far is your house from the school?

Do a quiz on question words.

We quite often want to ask a question containing a preposition. In spoken

English the preposition is usually put at the end of the question, as in the
following examples?

 Who did you go to the party with?

 Who are you talking to?
 What are you talking about?
 Where is Miho from?
 What did you say that for?
 What kind of place do you live in?

Note: It is possible to begin questions with the preposition. ESL students should avoid this,
however. Even in written English such questions sound too formal: With whom did you go
to the party? From where is Miho?

A special type of question is the tag that English speakers put at the end of

many statements. The tags in the following sentences are shown in red:

 It's a lovely day today, isn't it?

 You live in Frankfurt, don't you?
 Miho can't speak German, can she?
 You haven't seen Miho, have you?
 His parents are very old, aren't they?
 You will remember to call me, won't you?

Tags are very common in spoken English, and have many functions. One of
the common functions is to start a conversation or help keep it going. The
two basic rules about tag questions are:

1. If the statement is negative, the tag must be positive. If the

statement is positive the tag must be negative.
- You don't like me, do you?
 - You won't tell him my secret, will you?
- He doesn't speak German, does he?
- You're coming to my party, aren't you?
- She's really good at chess, isn't she?
- You haven't done your homework, have you?
2. The tense of the tag is determined by the tense of the auxiliary/modal
verb of the statement that precedes it. If the statement does not use
an auxiliary/modal (i.e. it is in the present or past simple tense), then
the auxiliary to do must be used.
- She comes from Korea, doesn't she?
- You like heavy metal music, don't you?
- He got top grade in the math test, didn't he?
- I really messed up, didn't I?

A problem with tags is getting the intonation right. Basically, it depends

whether or not you are expecting an answer to your question. Look at these
two examples:

 He's from Italy, isn't he? (flat or falling intonation - short pause before
the tag - more a statement than a question, not really expecting an
answer)
 He's from Italy, isn't he? (sharply rising intonation - longer pause
before the tag - a question expecting an answer)

Mobile

Reported speech

We often want to tell someone what another person has said to us. In most
cases we do not report the exact words that we hear. Instead we make
some changes so that what we say sounds more natural. This is
called reported speech (or indirect speech). Here are some examples:

 Miho told me that she's returning to Japan next year.

 He said that you're angry with me.
 The teacher told me to go to the office.
 She asked if you were feeling better.
 She wanted to know if I had ever ridden a horse.*

* In writing, particularly in fiction writing, it is common to use direct speech: She asked me:
"Have you ever ridden a horse?" Please note, however, that direct speech is most unusual in
spoken language.
Reported speech can also include thoughts or words that are the reporter's
summary of what was said. Here are some examples:

 I wonder if she can come to my party.

 I don't know why he shouted at me.
 Do you think that she likes me?
 She begged me not to tell the teacher.
 She apologized for being late.
 John realized that he had left his violin on the bus.*
 She persuaded me to tell her my secret.**

* In the last sentence, it may be that John never said anything like: "I realized that I'd left
my violin on the bus." The reporter, in relating what John told him, is summarizing what
happened to John in the reporter's own words. This is a common aspect of reported speech.
(The same applies to sentence example **.)

As noted above when we report words or thoughts we need to make some

changes to make what we say sound natural. Some of these changes may
be as easy as changing pronouns or correcting time references:

 "I can't come to your party."    -   She said she can't come

to my party.
 "My mother called me today."    -   He said his mother called that day.

In many cases more extensive changes are needed to produce correct and
natural-sounding reported speech, particularly when reporting questions or
commands. Here are some examples:

 "Do you have children?"    -   He asked me if I have children.

 "Did you go to the party?"    -   She wanted to know if I went to the
party.
 "What's the time?"    -   She asked me what the time was.
 "Please speak more slowly!"    -   She requested that I speak more
slowly.
 "Do not open that box!"    -   She told me not to open the box.

The main problem for the learner of English is to decide which tense is
needed for the verb(s) in what is reported. Generally, English speakers do
not change the tense if what is said is still true or has not happened yet, and
they believe the speaker. For example:
  "I don't feel very well."    -   She said she doesn't feel very well. (at
the time of my reporting this fact - shortly after hearing it - I know
that it is still true)
 "I'm returning to Japan in August."    -   He said he's returning to
Japan in August. (I am reporting this fact in April and I have no reason
to disbelieve him)
 "I hate doing grammar exercises!"    -   She told me that she hates
doing grammar exercises. (she told me this a few months ago but I'm
sure that it is still true)

There are often cases, however, in which what was said is no longer true, or
the reporter does not believe/trust the speaker, or the reporter wants to be
neutral (i.e. convey neither belief, nor disbelief in what the speaker said).
There are also cases when what was said is still true but the reporter is not
interested in conveying any opinion about truth. He or she is more focussed
on reporting a past conversation. In all such cases it is usual to shift the
tense from present (simple, continuous or perfect) to past (simple,
continuous or perfect). It is also usual to shift the tense back in reporting
questions in the present perfect. Here are some examples**:

 "I don't feel very well."    -   She said she didn't feel very well. (she
told me this last week and I know she is better now)
 "I'm returning to Japan in August."    -   He said he was returning to
Japan in August. (I am reporting this fact in April, but I don't trust him
as he has already told me 3 times he was leaving, and each time it
turned out to be incorrect)
 "I hate doing grammar exercises!"    -   She told me that she hated
doing grammar exercises. (she told me this a few months ago but now
that she can do them on the internet I know that she has changed her
mind)
 "I'll help you move house."    -   He told me that he would help me
move house. (I'm neutral on this: I don't want to imply that I think he
will keep his promise; and I don't want to imply that I don't think he
will keep his promise)
 "I had an accident on the way to work."    -   He told me he'd had an
accident on the way to work. (the speaker was talking about an
accident some time ago - the reporter has shifted the tense from
present to past perfect*)
 "Have you done your homework?"    -   My mother asked if I had done
my homework. (she asked me just now and I haven't done my
homework - but it is usual to shift the tense when reporting questions
in the present perfect)
 "I'm from London."    -   I told him that I was from London. (it is
clearly still true that I am from London, but when reporting what I said
 I am not interested in emphasing this fact; my concern is to report a
conversation that took place in the past and so I use past tense)

* It is common not to shift from past simple to past perfect in reported speech (unless this
causes confusion about the sequence in which events happened). So sentences such as: He
told me he had an accident on the way to work or She said she didn't enjoy the party ("I
didn't enjoy the party.") are perfectly correct.

** Click for a list of formal tense shift rules (External website).

Note: This is a complex aspect of English grammar. Learners who wish to

know more are advised to consult a good reference work, such as Collins
Cobuild English Grammar, or Swan's Practical English Usage.

Other Grammars

Adjectives/adverbs

Adjectives - word order: When there are two or more adjectives before a
noun there are some complicated "rules" for the order in which they should
appear. These are the most important:

1. opinion adjectives come before fact adjectives

2. fact adjectives appear as follows: size - age - colour - origin - material

Here are some examples:

 a silly old man (an old silly man )

 a beautiful blue butterfly (a blue beautiful butterfly )
 an interesting historical film (a historical interesting film)
 a huge metal box (a metal huge box )
 a new red dress (a red new dress )
 little Russian dolls (Russian little dolls )

You will need to consult a good reference grammar for full details on the
order of adjectives, and how they should be punctuated.

Do a quiz on this grammar topic.

Adjectives: -ed or -ing? English contains numerous -ed or -ing adjective

pairs derived from verbs. To avoid mixing these up, remember that the -
ed adjectives are used to describe how you feel, and the -ing adjectives are
used for what it is that makes you feel that way. Here are some examples:

 I feel tired. - Working in the garden all day is very tiring.

 I am bored. - This grammar lesson is boring.
 She was disappointed. - Her math test score was disappointing.
 I'm interested in Ancient Egypt. - I think Ancient Egypt
is interesting.
 He was shocked. - He found your behaviour shocking.
 I'm very confused by this film. - This film is very confusing.

Do a quiz on this grammar topic.

Adjective or adverb? In English most (but not all) adverbs have a different
form (spelling) than their corresponding adjective. It is important, therefore,
that you know whether you need an adjective or an adverb in the sentences
you want to say or write. Generally, adjectives are used to describe nouns
and adverbs are used with verbs to say how things are done. In the
following examples, the adjectives are red and the adverbs are blue:

 He's a beautiful singer. - He sings beautifully.

 She's a very quick runner. - She can run very quickly.
 He's a careless writer. - He writes carelessly.
 She's a good worker. - She works well.

Adverbs are also used to give extra information about adjectives (or other
adverbs), as in the following examples:

 I am extremely happy in my new job.

 She's in hospital with a seriously injured neck.
 It's incredibly easy to make a mistake when knitting.
 The girl climbed dangerously high up the tree.
 Because of the thick fog I drove extremely carefully.

After certain verbs (e.g. be, become, seem, look, taste, smell, etc.) the
adjective, not the adverb, is used:

 She doesn't seem happy today.

 Don't be stupid!
 This meat tastes bad.
 Those flowers smell strange.
Articles

The 3 articles in English are a, an and the. The learner has to decide noun-

by-noun which one of the articles to use*. In fact, there are 4 choices to
make, because sometimes no article is necessary. Native-speakers, of
course, use the articles correctly without thinking in everyday spoken
language. English learners, on the other hand, need to have some guidelines
for making the right choice - particularly those learners whose own language
does not have articles, such as Japanese or Korean. The guidelines that
follow here should help ESL students to a basic understanding of English
article use.

The most important first step in choosing the correct article is to categorize
the noun as count or uncount in its context**:

- A count noun is a noun that can have a number in front of it: 1 teacher, 3

books, 76 trombones, 1,000,000 people.

- An uncount noun is a noun that cannot have a number put in front of it: 1

water, 2 lucks, 10 airs, 21 oils, 39 informations. Once you have correctly
categorized the noun (using your dictionary if necessary), the following
"rules" apply:

Uncount nouns

 You cannot say a/an with an uncount noun.

 You cannot put a number in front of an uncount noun. (You cannot
make an uncount noun plural.)
 You use an uncount noun with no article if you mean that thing in
general.
 You use the with an uncount noun when you are talking about a
particular example of that thing.

Count nouns

 You can put a number in front of a count noun. (You can make a count
noun plural.)
 You can put both a/an and the in front of a count noun.
 You must put an article in front of a singular count noun.
 You use a plural count noun with no article if you mean all or any of
that thing.
 You usually use a/an with a count noun the first time you say or write
that noun.
 You use the with count nouns:
 o the second and subsequent times you use the noun in a piece of
speech or writing
o when the listener knows what you are referring to (maybe
because there is only one of that thing)
 You use an (not a) when the next word (adverb, adjective, noun)
starts with a vowel sound.

Note:

 The above rules apply whether there is or there is not an adjective in

front of the noun.
 Some nouns can be either count or uncount, depending on the context
and meaning:
o Do you have paper? I want to draw a picture. (uncount = a
sheet of paper)
o Can you get me a paper when you�re at the shop? (count = a
newspaper)
 Uncount nouns are often preceded by phrases such as: a lot of ..
(luck), a piece of .. (cake), a bottle of .. (milk), a grain of .. (rice).

* Instead of an article, the noun can also be preceded by a determiner

such as this, that, some, many or my, his, our, etc.

Following are some of the most important guidelines listed above, with
example sentences:

1. You use an uncount noun with  I need help!

no article if you mean all or any of  I don't eat cheese.
that thing.  Do you like music?

2. You use the with an uncount  Thanks for the help you

noun when you are talking about gave me yesterday.
a particular example of that thing.  I didn't eat the cheese. It
was green!
 Did you like the music they
played at the dance?

3. You usually use a/an with a  Can I borrow a pencil,

count noun the first time you say please?
or write that noun.  There's a cat in the garden!
 Do you have an mp3
player?
4. You use the with count nouns  Where's the pencil I lent
the second and subsequent times you yesterday?
you use the noun, or when the  I think the cat belongs to
listener already knows what you the new neighbours.
are referring to (maybe because  I dropped the mp3 player
there is only one of that thing). and it broke.
 Please shut the door!

5. You use a plural count noun  I don't like dogs.

with no article if you mean all or  Do they have children?
any of that thing.  I don't need questions. Give
me answers!

6. The above rules apply whether  I don't eat German cheese.

there is or there is not an  Can I borrow a red pencil,
adjective in front of the noun. please?
 There's an extremely large
cat in the garden!
 I don't like small, noisy
children.

Note: This page contains short, generalized information about this

enormously complex aspect of English grammar. For more detailed
information, consult a good reference work such as Swan's Practical English
Usage. And do not worry too much about article mistakes - only very rarely
will they cause your listener or reader to misunderstand you!

Capitalisation

Below are the most important rules for capitalising words in English.

A. Easy rules

Do not capitalise common nouns.

A common noun is the name for the people, places and things around us,
such as woman, cat, tree, table, church, air, river, room, etc. Common
nouns can also name non-visible 'things' such as idea, luck, happiness,
memory, justice, etc.

These words are not capitalised in English (although they are in German).

Capitalise the first person pronoun.

Mary and I are no longer friends.

Capitalise the first word of a sentence

The grammar test was very easy.

Where did you buy your iPad?

Capitalise proper nouns*

* A proper noun is a name that identifies a particular person, place or thing.

The names of people: The new student is called Sadako Ishii.

The names of countries and continents: Everyone knows that China is the

largest country in Asia.

The names of pet animals: I have a dog called Spot.

The names of towns and cities: My grandparents live in London.

The names of planets: The Earth is much smaller than Jupiter.

The names of rivers: The longest river is the Nile.

The names of lakes: Is there a monster in Loch Ness?

The names of streets: I live in Oak Road.

The names of buildings: Have you ever visited the Sears Tower?

The names of mountains: The highest mountain is Mount Everest.

The names of businesses: I think Apple computers are best.

The names of organisations: My mother works for the United Nations.

The names of sports teams: Do you like the Lakers?

The names of days/months: I was born on 2 April 1999, a Monday.

Note: Seasons are not capitalised. E.g., My favourite season is spring.

The names of holidays / festivals: Which is your favourite

holiday: Christmas or Easter?
The names of periods of time: Life was hard and short in the Middle Ages.

The names of religions: The most common religion in India is Hinduism.

The names of languages / nationalities: Can you speak Russian?

Note: Languages and nationalities are always capitalised, both when used as nouns
and when used as adjectives. (The  French are a proud people. - I love  French
wine.)

Capitalise the first word of direct speech.

My mother asked, "Where have you been?"

B. Harder rules

Capitalise titles that come before names:

I saw President Obama in Macdonalds yesterday.

Have you met Doctor Spock?

.. otherwise do not capitalise them:

Barack Obama is the first black president of the USA.

Spock is a doctor at UCLA.

Capitalise compass points if they are regions:

Do you like living in the South?

There are many car factories in the Northeast

.. but do not capitalise them if they are directions:

I saw a flock of birds heading south.

Capitalise family words when they are titles or substitutes for a

person's name:

Just then Mother called me on my iPhone.

The man at the edge of the photo is Uncle Pete.

.. but do not capitalise them if they are preceded by a

possessive:

Have you met my mother?

The man at the edge of the photo is my uncle Pete.

Capitalise building words when they are part of a specific

building:

I was born in St Martins Hospital.

.. otherwise do not capitalise them:

My brother's in hospital after an accident.

Capitalise brand names:

Our next car will be a Mercedes.

.. but do not capitalise the nouns that follow them:

I got an Acer notebook for my birthday.

Capitalise geographical features when they refer to a specific

feature:

The Pacific Ocean is the largest body of water on Earth.

.. otherwise do not capitalise them:

Which is the largest ocean?

Capitalise the first word in a piece of direct speech - if the

direct speech is a new sentence:

"If you listen, you will learn," the teacher said. "And you will not get a
detention."

.. otherwise do not capitalise it:

"If you listen," the teacher said, "you will learn."

C. More information about capitalisation

In the two sections above (Easy rules / Harder rules), it is correct to use the
word rule. For example, you must capitalise the first word of a sentence,
proper nouns and common nouns when they are part of names. You must
not capitalise other common nouns or other internal words within the
sentence.

But there are many other situations where it is not correct to speak of rules:
the writer can decide for herself which words to capitalise - or needs to
follow a style guide determined by the organisation for which she works.
(Students need to follow the "rules" given by their teachers.)

Below are a few examples of words that may or may be capitalised,

depending on personal preference (or an organisational style guide, or
teacher requirement).

The words within headings and book or film titles

 More information about capitalisation

 More Information about Capitalisation
 More Information About Capitalisation

Sections or divisions of organisations

 I work in the upper school of FIS.

 I work in the Upper School of FIS.

Professional titles

 They have an appointment to see the prime minister.

 They have an appointment to see the Prime Minister.

Concepts, ideas, philosophies

 We are studying post-modernism next semester.

 We are studying Post-Modernism next semester.

Places or geographical features

 Have you ever visited Sydney opera house?

  Have you ever visited Sydney Opera House?

Times of day

 Your appointment is at 8.30 a.m. next Monday.

 Your appointment is at 8.30 A.M. next Monday.

After a colon

 Remember: clarity is more important than spelling.

 Remember: Clarity is more important than spelling.

An example of a style guide is the one used by writers for the Guardian
newspaper. This link will take you to the style instructions under the letter C.
(Scroll down to "Capitals".) The guide introduction notes the clear trend (in
British English at least) towards using lower case.

Collocation

 What is the difference between a high window and a tall window?

 Look at the following pairs of phrases and in each case choose the
most usual collocation:
o strong tea / powerful tea
o a strong car / a powerful car
o a strong computer / a powerful computer
o a strong drug /a powerful drug
 Now look at the following words and phrases and decide if we do them
or make them. For example, do we do a mess or make a mess?

a mess a mistake the the beds

housework
a noise a wish a test a promise
a job someone a your best a speech
favour
the damage a telephone your hair (i.e. comb it or
shopping call make it tidy

Finally some odds and ends. See if you know the correct collocations in
answer to the following questions?

 The opposite of strong tea is weak tea. What is the opposite of strong
cigarettes, a strong wind, a strong smell?
  What is the usual way of describing someone who smokes a lot?
o a big smoker
o a strong smoker
o a hard smoker
o a heavy smoker
o a furious smoker
 Someone can be very tired, but not very awake or very asleep. What
do we say instead?
 What is the opposite of sweet wine?
 Which of the following are the usual collocations?
o completely beautiful
o incredibly beautiful
o absolutely beautiful
o extremely beautiful
o totally beautiful
o utterly beautiful
o thoroughly beautiful
 The following collocations are incorrect. Can you sort them out?
o to get in a building
o to get on a car
o to go in a ship

More on collocation : Interactive quiz

Answers

 A high window is a window that is located a long way from the ground,
whereas a tall window measures a long way from top to bottom.
 We talk of strong tea, a powerful car and a powerful computer. A drug
can be both strong and powerful.
 These are the usual collocations with make or do:

make a mess make a mistake do the housework make or do the beds

make a noise make a wish do a test make a promise
do a job do someone a do your best make a speech
favour
do the do damage make a telephone do your hair (i.e. comb it or make
shopping call it tidy

 Odds and ends. Here are the usual collocations:

o mild cigarettes, a light wind, a faint smell
 o a heavy smoker
o wide awake; sound asleep or fast asleep
o dry wine
o to get in a car; to get on a ship; to go in a building
o incredibly beautiful; extremely beautiful (and possibly: utterly
beautiful)

Comparative/superlative

Comparative is the name for the grammar used when comparing two things.
The two basic ways to compare are using as .. as or than. Examples of each
are shown below:

 She's twice as old as her sister.

 He's not as stupid as he looks!
 I'm almost as good in maths as in science.
 This book is not as exciting as the last one.
 The cafeteria is not as crowded as usual.
 Russian is not quite as difficult as Chinese.

 This computer is better than that one.

 She's stronger at chess than I am.
 It's much colder today than it was yesterday.
 Our car is bigger than your car.
 This grammar topic is easier than most others.
 I find science more difficult than mathematics.
 Today's ESL lesson was more interesting than usual.

Note: In each of the example sentences above, the comparative form of the adjective is
shown. See the foot of this page for information about the comparison of adverbs.

When comparing with as .. as, the adjective does not change. When
comparing with than, however, some changes are necessary, depending on
the number of syllables the adjective has:

1-syllable adjectives: add -er to the adjective

 My sister is much taller than me.†

 It's colder today than it was yesterday.

Note: If the word ends: consonant-vowel-consonant, then the last consonant is usually

doubled in the comparative. Examples: big-bigger, fat-fatter, hot-hotter.

2-syllable adjectives ending in -y: change the -y to -ier

  She's looking happier today.
 This grammar topic is easier than the last one.
 Why is everyone else luckier than me? †

Beware: Do not confuse adjectives and adverbs. 2-syllable adverbs ending in -y must be
compared with the word more. Example: I drive more quickly (quicklier) than my brother.

Other 2-syllable adjectives: use more with the unchanged adjective

 The shops are always more crowded just before Christmas.

 Is there anything more boring than reading about grammar?
 My sister is more careful with her writing than I am with mine.

Note: The comparative of some shorter 2-syllable adjectives can be formed with -er.
Examples: simple-simpler, clever-cleverer, narrow-narrower. To be sure which comparative
method to use, you will need to consult a good dictionary.

Adjectives with 3 or more syllables: use more with the unchanged

adjective

 Russian grammar is more difficult than English grammar.

 My sister is much more intelligent than me.†
 I find maths lessons more enjoyable than science lessons.
 The older you get, the more irritating you become.

In the superlative you talk about one thing only and how it is the best,

worst, etc. You do not compare two things. The following guidelines apply to
the superlative:

1-syllable adjectives: add -est to the adjective (plus the)

 My sister is the tallest in our family.

 Yesterday was the coldest day of the year so far.

Note: If the word ends: consonant-vowel-consonant, then the last consonant is usually

doubled in the superlative. Examples: big-biggest, fat-fattest, hot-hottest.

2-syllable adjectives ending in -y: change the -y to -iest (plus the)

 The richest people are not always the happiest.

 Which do you think is the easiest language to learn?
 She's the luckiest person I know.
Beware: Do not confuse adjectives and adverbs. 2-syllable adverbs ending in -y form their
superlative with the words the most. Example: Of all the people I know my father drives the
most quickly (quickliest).

Other 2-syllable adjectives: use the most with the unchanged adjective

 The most boring thing about ESL class is doing grammar exercises.

 My sister is the most careful person I know.

Note: The superlative of some shorter 2-syllable adjectives can be formed with -er.
Examples: simple-simplest, clever-cleverest, narrow-narrowest. To be sure which
superlative method to use, you will need to consult a good dictionary.

Adjectives with 3 or more syllables: use the most with the unchanged

adjective

 Some people think that Russian is the most difficult language.

 Albert Einstein was the most intelligent person in history.
 My most enjoyable class is English.
 You are the most irritating person I have ever met!

Following are two common irregular comaparative/superlative forms:

 good-better-the best
 bad-worse-the worst

The following guidelines apply to the comparative/superlative of

most adverbs:

1-syllable adverbs: add -er/-est

 I can run faster than you. / I can run the fastest in my class.

 She works harder than me.† / She works the hardest of all students.

Other adverbs: use more / the most*

 She ran more quickly than me.† / Of all the students she ran the

most quickly.

* In informal English it is common to hear the adjectival comparative/superlative form of

two-syllable adverbs. For example: She ran quicker than me.† | She ran the quickest.

† Many educated English speakers prefer to use the nominative plus a verb rather than the
accusative in such comparative sentences, especially in formal situations. They say, for
example, My sister is taller than I am. or She ran more quickly than I did.
The alternative, omitting the verb as in the following examples, is considered to be even
more formal and is avoided by most British English speakers: My sister is taller than I.
or She ran more quickly than I.

For/since

The words for and since are used in sentences where the speaker wants to

talk about something that started in the past and continues into the present.

For is used when specifying the amount of time (how long):

 I've had this watch for more than 40 years.

 I've only known her for a few weeks.
 He's been here for 6 months and still can't speak a word of German.
 She's been smoking for a long time. No wonder she coughs so much!

Since is used when specifying the starting point:

 I've had this watch since 1965.

 I've only known her since the beginning of last week.
 He's been here since April and he still can't speak a word of German.
 She's been smoking since she started grade 5. No wonder she coughs
so much!

Note: The present perfect or present perfect continuous are needed in such

sentences. It is wrong to say:

- I know her for two years.  

- I know her since 2006.  

Inflections

Inflection is the name for the extra letter or letters added to nouns, verbs
and adjectives in their different grammatical forms. Nouns are inflected in
the plural, verbs are inflected in the various tenses, and adjectives are
inflected in the comparative/superlative. Here are some of the most
important inflection rules:

Original word type Inflection Rule Examples

Words ending with a sibilant: - Add -es in the plural noun or 3rd person bus → buses (n) / busses (v)
s/-ss/-sh/-ch/x. singular verb. miss → misses
wish → wishes
watch → watches
fox → foxes
potato → potatoes
Words ending with the letter -o. do → does
Words ending consonant -  y. Change the -y to ie before the ending -s. party → parties
study → studies
cry → cries
Words ending consonant -  y. Change the -y to i before the endings try → tried
-ed/-er/-est/-ly. happy → happier
easy → easiest
Words ending consonant -  y. Do NOT change the -y before the ending carry → carrying
-ing. try → trying
Words ending vowel -  y. Do NOT change the -y. buy → buys
play → played
Words ending with the letters Change the -ie to a - y before the ending die → dying
-ie. -ing. lie → lying
Verbs ending consonant -e. Omit the -e before the ending -ing. ride → riding
love → loving
write → writing
provide → providing
One-syllable words Double the last consonant before the hit → hitting
ending consonant-vowel- endings -ing/-ed/-er/-est. stop → stopped
consonant. wet → wetter
fat → fattest
begin → beginning
prefer → preferred
Two or more syllable words
ending  consonant-vowel-
consonant that are stressed on
the last syllable.
Two or more syllable words Do NOT double the last consonant before happen → happening
ending  consonant-vowel- the endings -ing/-ed/-er/-est. visit → visited
consonant that are stressed on
the first syllable.

Parts of speech

All the words you say or write, read or hear are one of the 9 parts of
speech*. It is helpful to know the names of the parts of speech (also known
as word classes), and to be able to identify the words you meet and use as
one of those parts of speech. If you don't, you will not be able to understand
some of the grammar explanations you read or that your teacher gives you.
For example, if you don't know what a verb is, you will not understand when
you teacher says: "This sentence is incorrect; it doesn't have a verb."

Here is a table of the 9 word classes or parts of speech:

Part of Most common function Examples

speech
noun to name a person, place, or thing teacher, mountain,
idea
verb to do or be something eat, sleep, think,
seem
adjective to describe a noun silly, huge, boring
adverb to describe how something is done quickly, well,
carelessly
pronoun to take the place of a noun I, she, it, that, them
conjunction to join words, phrases, and clauses and, so, because,
when
preposition to introduce a phrase of when, where on, in front of, by,
or how with
article* to specify or generalize a noun the, a, an
interjection to express emotion hey, wow, ouch

Prepositions

The word preposition can easily be understood by listing some examples: in,

on, under, by, for, from, with, during. Prepositions are the (usually) short
words that precede nouns or pronouns, and give information about where
(on the table), when (in April), etc

Relative clauses

Relative clauses are clauses starting with the relative pronouns who*, that,
which, whose, where, when. They are most often used to define or identify
the noun that precedes them. Here are some examples:

 Do you know the girl who started in grade 7 last week?

 Can I have the pencil that I gave you this morning?
 A notebook is a computer which can be carried around.
 I won't eat in a restaurant whose cooks smoke.
 I want to live in a place where there is lots to do.
 Yesterday was a day when everything went wrong!

* There is a relative pronoun whom, which can be used as the object of the relative clause.
For example: My science teacher is a person whom I like very much. To many people the
word whom now sounds old-fashioned, and it is rarely used in spoken English.

Relative pronouns are associated as follows with their preceding noun:

Preceding noun Relative pronoun Examples

a person who(m)/that, whose - Do you know the girl who ..
- He was a man that ..
- An orphan is a child whose
 parents ..
a thing which†/that, whose - Do you have a computer which
..
- The oak a tree that ..
- This is a book whose author ..

Note 1: The relative pronoun whose is used in place of the possessive pronoun. It must be
followed by a noun. Example: There's a boy in grade 8 whose father is a professional tennis
player. (There's a boy in grade 8. His father is a professional tennis player.)

Note 2: The relative pronouns where and when are used with place and time nouns.
Examples: FIS is a school where children from more than 50 countries are educated. 2001
was the year when terrorists attacked the Twin Towers in New York.

Some relative clauses are not used to define or identify the preceding noun
but to give extra information about it. Here are some examples:

 My ESL teacher, who came to Germany in 1986, likes to ride his

mountain bike.
 The heavy rain, which was unusual for the time of year, destroyed
most of the plants in my garden.
 Einstein, who was born in Germany, is famous for his theory of
relativity.
 The boy, whose parents both work as teachers at the school, started a
fire in the classroom.
 My mother's company, which makes mobile phones, is moving soon
from Frankfurt to London.
 In the summer I'm going to visit Italy, where my brother lives.

Note 1: Relative clauses which give extra information, as in the example sentences
above, must be separated off by commas.

Note 2: The relative pronoun that cannot be used to introduce an extra-information (non-

defining) clause about a person. Wrong: Neil Armstrong, that was born in 1930, was the
first man to stand on the moon. Correct: Neil Armstrong, who was born in 1930, was the
first man to stand on the moon.

There are two common occasions, particularly in spoken English, when the
relative pronoun is omitted:

1. When the pronoun is the object of the relative clause. In the following
sentences the pronoun that can be left out is enclosed in (brackets):

 Do you know the girl (who/m) he's talking to?

 Where's the pencil (which) I gave you yesterday?
  I haven't read any of the books (that) I got for Christmas.
 I didn't like that girl (that) you brought to the party.
 Did you find the money (which) you lost?

Note: You cannot omit the relative pronoun a.) if it starts a non-defining relative clause, or,
b.) if it is the subject of a defining relative clause. For example, who is necessary in the
following sentence: What's the name of the girl who won the tennis tournament?

2. When the relative clause contains a present or past participle and the
auxiliary verb to be. In such cases both relative pronoun and auxiliary can
be left out:

 Who's that man (who is) standing by the gate?

 The family (that is) living in the next house comes from Slovenia.
 She was wearing a dress (which was) covered in blue flowers.
 Most of the parents (who were) invited to the conference did not
come.
 Anyone (that is) caught writing on the walls will be expelled from
school.

Some/any

The words some and any are used when the speaker cannot specify or does

not need/want to specify a number or an exact amount. Compare the
following sentences:

- I saw seven deer when riding my bike in the forest yesterday. (It is

important that you know how many deer I saw.)
- I saw some deer when riding my bike in the forest yesterday. (I don't
know exactly how many deer I saw. Or: It is not important that you know
exactly how many deer I saw.)

The "rules" that follow apply also to words

containing some and any: somebody/anybody, something/anything, etc.

In general, some is used in positive sentences:

 I got some nice presents for Christmas this year.

 This job is going to take some time.
 Look! There are some large black birds on the roof of the church.
 You have some butter on your chin.
 If you are hungry, there are some biscuits in the cupboard.
 I'm sure I'll return to Japan some day.
 There is somebody on the phone for you.
  I'd like to go somewhere hot this summer.

In general, any is used in negative sentences and questions:

 I didn't get any nice presents for Christmas this year.

 I looked in the cupboard but I couldn't find any biscuits.
 I don't need any help.
 She's so rude. No wonder she doesn't have any friends.
 I don't have anything to wear to the dance.
 I'm not hungry. I don't want anything to eat.

 Do you have any brothers or sisters?

 Did you catch any fish?
 Have you seen any good films recently?
 Does anyone know the answer?
 Are you going anywhere this Christmas?

In fact, the use of some/any is a little more complicated. Following are two
common occasions when the above "rules" are "broken":

1. We can use some in questions when offering/requesting:

 Would you like some more tea?

 Could I have some milk, please?
 Do you want something to eat?

2. We use any in positive sentences when we mean it doesn't matter

which ..:

 You can come and ask for my help any time.

 Which book shall I read? - Any one. It's up to you.
 You can sit anywhere but here. This is my seat!