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Chapter 2
Logical Statements
Objectives
After going through this module, you are expected to:
(1) Apply the principles of logic to tell sound from unsound reasoning
in everyday discourse.
(2) Construct truth tables for logical expressions; test statements for
logical equivalence and represent mathematical statements using
logical connectives
(3) Apply notions on logic in real world problems.
(4) Appreciate mathematics in its pure form.
Logic is used to establish the validity of arguments. It is not so much
concerned with what the argument is about but more with providing
rules so that the general form of the argument can be judged as sound or
unsound.

2.1 Propositions and Truth Values

Definition 2.1.1. A proposition is a declarative sentence which is either
true or false, but not both simultaneously. Propositions are sometimes
called statements.
The following are examples of propositions.
(1) This rose is white.
(2) Triangles have four vertices.
(3) 3 + 3 = 4.
(4) 6 < 24.
(5) In the realm of integers, there is this so called the largest prime
number of them all.
Exclamations, questions and demands are not propositions since they
cannot be identified as either true or false.
The following are examples which are not propositions.
(1) Keep off the grass.
(2) Long live the Queen!
(3) Did you go to Jane’s party?
(4) Don’t say that.

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Example 2.1.2. Which of the following is/are not a proposition/s?

(1) 1 is a prime number.
(2) Run.
(3) Please stay at home.
(4) π is a real number.
Answer : Items 2 and 3 are not propositions.
Example 2.1.3. Each of the following statements is a proposition. Can
you tell which are true, and which are false?
(1) 5 < −8
(2) The square of −1 is negative.
(3) 2 + 8 = 10
√
(4) 2 is a rational number.
Answer :
(1) False.A positive number is always greater than a negative number.
(2) False. The square of a negative number is always positive.
(3) True. √
(4) False. 2 is not a rational number since it cannot be expressed as
a quotient of two integers.

2.2 Logical Connectives and Truth tables

The truth (T) or falsity (T) of a proposition is called truth value. A
table which summarizes truth values of propositions is called a truth table.
Simple propositions make only a single statement. These can be
combined to form a compound propositions. Thus, compound
propositions are simply composed of linked simple propositions and in
this notion, these simple proposition is called the components of the
compound statement. The operations which are used to link pairs of
propositions are called logical connectives and the truth value of any
compound proposition is completely determined by
• the truth tables of its component simple propositions, and
• the particular connective, or connectives, used to link them.
Propositions are conventionally symbolized using the letters
p, q, r, . . .. We shall adopt the latter convention throughout the rest of
the discussions.

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Negation
It has the effect of reversing the truth value of the proposition. We
state the negation of a proposition by prefixing it “It is not the case that
...”.
If p symbolizes a proposition, ∼ p symbolizes the negation of p.
The following truth table gives the truth values for ∼ p.
p ∼p
T F
F T
Example 2.2.1. Write the negation of each of the following statements.
(1) π is a rational number.
(2) 4 is an even integer.
(3) x = 2.
(4) 4 < 5.
Answer :
(1) π is not a rational number, or π is an irrational number.
(2) 4 is not an even integer, or 4 is an odd integer.
(3) x 6= 2.
(4) 4 6< 5, or 4 ≥ 5.

Quantifiers
In a statement, the word some and the phrases there exists and at
least one are called existential quantifiers. On one hand, the words,
all, none, no, and every are called universal quantifiers.
The table below presents the negation of a quantified statements

Statement Negation
All X are Y Some X are not Y
No X are Y Some X are Y
Some X are not Y All X are Y
Some X are Y No X are Y

Example 2.2.2. Write the negation of the proposition “All numbers are
even”.
Solution: The following are some examples of negation of the given
proposition.

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(1) It is not the case that all numbers are even.

(2) Not all numbers are even.
(3) Some numbers are not even.
(4) Some numbers are odd.
Example 2.2.3. Write the negation of each of the following statements:
(1) Some men in Valencia City are positive in Covid.
(2) All integers are rational numbers.
Solution:
(1) No one in Valencia City is a positive in covid.
(2) Some integers are not rational numbers.
Definition 2.2.4. Two simple propositions that are linked using the
word “and” result a new propostition which is called a conjuntive
proposition. The process of using the said logical connective “and” is
called a conjunction. Truth value for this compound proposition is true
whenever both of its components are true; Otherwise, it is false. If p and
q are two propositions, p ∧ q symbolizes the conjunction of p and q. One
can also use the words but, although, however, with, whereas, and
the likes, for conjunction.
The truth table for this compound proposition is as follows:

p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Example 2.2.5.

p : The sun is shining.

q : Pigs eat turnips.
p ∧ q : The sun is shining and pigs eat turnips.

The following are also conjunctions of p and q.

(1) The sun shines but pigs eat turnips.
(2) Although the sun shines, pigs eat turnips.
(3) The sun shines whereas pigs eat turnips.

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Definition 2.2.6. The word “or” when used to link two simple
propositions result a new compound proposition called disjunctive
proposition. The process in using this connective is called disjunction. A
disjunction is generally, inclusive in a sense that the compound
disjunctive proposition is true whenever atleast one of its simple
proposition is true. If p and q are two propositions, p ∨ q symbolizes the
inclusive disjunction of p and q. A disjunctive proposition is said to be
exclusive if exactly one of its simple propositions is true. The exclusive
disjunction of p and q is denoted by p∨¯ q.
The following truth table gives the truth values of p ∨ q.

p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
¯ q.
The following truth table gives the truth values of p∨

p q ¯q
p∨
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

Example 2.2.7. Consider the following compound propositions:

(1) Tomorrow at 8:00am, I will go swimming at the beach or I will climb
at the Musuan Peak.
(2) Either I prefer cofee or milk as part of my morning routine.
(3) A person that is infected by a SARS-Cov-2 is either symptomatic
or asymtomatic.
(4) Applicants for this post must be over 25 or have at least 3 years
relevant experience.
On (1) in the example above, the proposition is exclusive since one cannot
do both swimming in the beach while climbing on the Musuan Peak. The
same observation applies to (3). While both (2) and (4) are inclusive.
Definition 2.2.8. The conditional connective (sometimes called
implication) which is denoted by =⇒ is the compound proposition of
the form “p implies q” or “If p, then q”. In the conditional proposition

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p =⇒ q, p is called the antecedent and q the consequent. The

proposition p is said to be a sufficient condition for q, and q a necessary
condition for p. This compound statement is true except when the
antecedent is true and the consequent is false.
The following is the truth table for p =⇒ q:

p q p =⇒ q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Example 2.2.9. Consider the following:

p : I eat breakfast.
q : I don’t eat lunch.
p =⇒ q : If I eat breakfast, then I don’t eat lunch.

The following are also alternative expressions for p =⇒ q.

(1) I eat breakfast only if I don’t eat lunch.
(2) Whenever I eat breakfast, I don’t eat lunch.
(3) That I eat breakfast implies that I don’t eat lunch.
On Example 2.2.9, the antecedent is the statement “I eat breakfast”
while the consequent is the proposition “I don’t eat lunch”.
Definition 2.2.10. For propositions p and q, the biconditional
proposition with respect to p and q is the proposition of the form “p if,
and only if q”. Here, the biconditional proposition is true whenever both
of its components have the same truth value; Otherwise, it is false.
The truth table for p ⇐⇒ q is given by:

p q p ⇐⇒ q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

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Example 2.2.11.
p : I eat breakfast.
q : I don’t eat lunch.
p ⇐⇒ q : I eat breakfast of and only if I don’t eat lunch
(or alternatively, If and only if I eat breakfast,
then I don’t eat lunch) .

2.3 Working with Truth Tables and its Applications

In this section, we now turn on some methods in constructing truth
table for combinations of conjunctions, disjunctions, negations,
implications, and biconditional statements.
The Standard Truth Table Form is as follows:
p q Given statement
T T
T F
F T
F F

The technique for the construction of a truth value is to “work by parts

to whole”. First, write all the number of combination of truth values of
the given components. Note that for two components, there should be
22 = 4 rows and for compound proposition with three component should
have 23 = 8 rows. Next, is to supplement the truth values by parts to
whole. To see this, consider the following examples.
Example 2.3.1. Construct a truth table for ∼ (∼ p ∨ q) ∨ p.
Solution: Here, it’s suitable to start with working on the truth table for
∼ p.
p q ∼p
T T F
T F F
F T T
F F T
The next step is to supplement ∼ p ∨ q. Here, combine the third and
second column of the latter table:

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p q ∼p ∼p∨q
T T F T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T

The next step is to negate the fourth column of the latter table:

p q ∼p ∼p∨q ∼ (∼ p ∨ q)
T T F T F
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T T F

Finally, combine via disjunction fifth and first column of the table
above:
p q ∼p ∼p∨q ∼ (∼ p ∨ q) ∼ (∼ p ∨ q) ∨ p
T T F T F T
T F F F T T
F T T T F F
F F T T F F

Example 2.3.2. Construct a truth table for ∼ (p ∨ ∼ q) ∧ (∼ p ∨ q).

Negate the first column:

p q ∼p
T T F
T F F
F T T
F F T

Negate the second column of the table above:

p q ∼p ∼q
T T F F
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T

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Disjunct First and Fourth column of the latter table:

p q ∼p ∼q p∨∼q
T T F F T
T F F T T
F T T F F
F F T T T

Disjunct third and second column:

p q ∼p ∼q p∨∼q ∼p∨q
T T F F T T
T F F T T F
F T T F F T
F F T T T T

Negate the fifth column:

p q ∼p ∼q p∨∼q ∼p∨q ∼ (p ∨ ∼ q)
T T F F T T F
T F F T T F F
F T T F F T T
F F T T T T F

Lastly, conjunct sixth and seventh column:

∼ (p ∼ (p ∨ ∼ q)
p q ∼p ∼q p∨∼q ∼p∨q
∨ ∼ q) ∧(∼ p ∨ q)
T T F F T T F F
T F F T T F F F
F T T F F T T T
F F T T T T F F

Now, we will work on constructing truth table for three statements.

Recall that the truth table must consist of exactly 8 number of rows to
start with.
Example 2.3.3. Construct truth table for ∼ (p =⇒ ∼ (q ∨ r))
Solution: It is suitable to start with q ∨ r and then negate it:

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p q r q∨r ∼ (q ∨ r)
T T T T F
T T F T F
T F T T F
F T T T F
T F F F T
F T F T F
F F T T F
F F F F T

Finally, work on p =⇒ ∼ (q ∨ r) and its negation.

p =⇒ ∼ (p =⇒
p q r q∨r ∼ (q ∨ r)
∼ (q ∨ r) ∼ (q ∨ r))
T T T T F F T
T T F T F F T
T F T T F F T
F T T T F T F
T F F F T T F
F T F T F T F
F F T T F T F
F F F F T T F

Definition 2.3.4. Two statements p and q are equivalent if they both

both have the same truth value for all possible truth values of their simple
propositions. Here, we write p ≡ q.
Example 2.3.5. Construct a truth table for ∼ p ∨ q.
Solution:
p q ∼p ∼p∨q
T T F T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T

Recall that the truth value table for p =⇒ q was given as

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p q p =⇒ q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

This is exaclty the same as the truth table for ∼ p ∨ q, i.e.,

p q ∼p ∼p∨q p =⇒ q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

Thus, by Definition 2.3.4, p =⇒ q ≡ ∼ p ∨ q.

Remark 2.3.6. Given statements p and q, p =⇒ q ≡ ∼ p ∨ q.
Example 2.3.7. “In a 2-dimensional plane, two lines are either not
parallel or they do not intersect” is just logically equivalent to “If two
lines in a 2-dimensional plane are parallel, then they do not intersect”. ”
Example 2.3.8. Show that the De Morgan’s Laws stated below hold.
∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q and ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∧ ∼ q
To show this, we will investigate if conditions of Definition 2.3.4 is
satisfied. Observe that
p q ∼p ∼q p∧q ∼ (p ∧ q) ∼p∨∼q
T T F F T F F
T F F T F T T
F T T F F T T
F F T T F T T

and
p q ∼p ∼q p∨q ∼ (p ∨ q) ∼p∧∼q
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T T

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Theorem 2.3.9. Given a statement p, p ≡∼ (∼ p).

Proof : Let p be a proposition. Observe that

p ∼p ∼ (∼ p)
T F T
T F T
F T F
F T F

Observe that by Remark 2.3.6, we have ∼ (p =⇒ q) ≡ ∼ (∼ p ∨ q).

Now by De Morgan’s Law, ∼ (∼ p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ (∼ p)∧ ∼ q. By Theorem
2.3.9, ∼ (∼ p)∧ ∼ q ≡ p ∧ ∼ q. These imply ∼ (p =⇒ q) ≡ p ∧ ∼ q.
Remark 2.3.10. For statements p and q, ∼ (p =⇒ q) ≡ p ∧ ∼ q.
Definition 2.3.11. Let p and q be statements.
1. The converse of p =⇒ q is q =⇒ p;
2. The inverse of p =⇒ q is ∼ p =⇒ ∼ q; and
3. The contrapositive of p =⇒ q is ∼ q =⇒ ∼ p.
Example 2.3.12. Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the
statement “If x = 2, then x2 = 4.”
Solution: The given is a conditional statement. Let p : x = 2 and
q : x2 = 4. Then ∼ p : x 6= 2 and ∼ q : x2 6= 4. The converse (of the form
q =⇒ p) is
“If x2 = 4, then x = 2.”
The inverse (of the form ∼ p =⇒ ∼ q) is
“If x 6= 2, then x2 6= 4.”
The contrapositive (of the form ∼ q =⇒ ∼ p) is
“If x2 6= 4, then x 6= 2.”
Example 2.3.13. Show that a conditional statement p =⇒ q is not
necessarily equivalent to its converse, that is, p =⇒ q 6≡ q =⇒ p.
Solution: Observe that

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p q p =⇒ q q =⇒ p
T T T T
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T

This means that p =⇒ q 6≡ q =⇒ p. In other words, a conditional

statement p =⇒ q is not necessarily equivalent to its converse.
Example 2.3.14. Show that a conditional statement is always equivalent
to its contrapositive, that is, (p =⇒ q) ≡ (∼ q =⇒ ∼ p).
Solution: Observe that
p q ∼p ∼q p =⇒ q ∼ q =⇒ ∼ p
T T F F T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T

This means that (p =⇒ q) ≡ (∼ q =⇒ ∼ p), that is, a conditional

statement is always equivalent to its contrapositive.
Exercise 1. Investigate if p =⇒ q is equivalent to its inverse.

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2.4 Practice Exercises

(1) Write the negation of each of the following statements.
(a) All classes in CMU should be online.
(b) Some students in CMU are kind.
(c) No one in the students in GEC 14 fails in their final exam.
(2) Consider the following propositions:

p : 2 is a prime number.
q : 3 is a factor of 6.

Write the compound propositions symbolized by

(a) p∨∼q
(b) ∼ (q ∧ p)
(c) ∼ p =⇒ q
(d) ∼ p ⇐⇒ ∼ q
(3) Let p be the proposition “Today is my birthday” and q be “I’ll go
to Paris”. Write the following propositions symbollically.
(a) If today is my birthday, then I won’t go to Paris.
(b) Today is my birthday or I’ll go to Paris.
(c) I’ll go to Paris and today is not my birthday.
(d) If and only if today is not my birthday then I’ll go to Paris.
(4) Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the statement “If
x > 1, then x2 > 1.”
(5) Construct truth tables for the following compound propositions.
(a) ∼p∨q
(b) ∼p∧∼q
(c) ∼ q =⇒ p
(d) ∼ p ⇐⇒ ∼ q
(6) Construct truth tables for
(a) p =⇒ (q ∧ r)
(b) (∼ p ∨ q) ⇐⇒ ∼ r

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Answer Key
(1) Write the negation of each of the following statements.
(a) All classes in CMU should be online.
Some classes in CMU should not be done online.
(b) Some students in CMU are kind.
All students in CMU are not kind. or alternatively, No students
in CMU are kind.
(c) No one in the students in GEC 14 fails in their final exam.
Some students in GEC 14 fails in their exam.
(2) Consider the following propositions:

p : 2 is a prime number.
q : 3 is a factor of 6.

Write the compound propositions symbolized by

(a) p ∨ ∼ q: 2 is a prime number or 3 is not a factor of 6.
(b) ∼ (q ∧ p): It is not the case that 3 is a factor of 6 and 2 is a
prime number.
(c) ∼ p =⇒ q: If 2 is not a prime number, then 3 is a factor of 6.
(d) ∼ p ⇐⇒ ∼ q: 2 is not a prime number if and only if 3 is not
a factor of 6.
(3) Let p be the proposition “Today is my birthday” and q be “I’ll go
to Paris”. Write the following propositions symbollically.
(a) If today is my birthday, then I won’t go to Paris. p =⇒ ∼ q
(b) Today is my birthday or I’ll go to Paris. p ∨ q
(c) I’ll go to Paris and today is not my birthday. q∧ ∼ p
(d) If and only if today is not my birthday then I’ll go to Paris.
∼ p ⇐⇒ q
(4) Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the statement “If
x > 1, then x2 > 1.”
Answer :
converse: If x2 > 1, then x > 1.
inverse: If x 6> 1, then x2 6> 1, or If x ≤ 1, then x2 ≤ 1.
contrapositive: If x2 6> 1, then x 6> 1, or If x2 ≤ 1, then x ≤ 1.
(5) Construct truth tables for the following compound propositions.
(a) ∼ p ∨ q

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p q ∼p ∼p∨q
T T F T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T
(b) ∼ p ∧ ∼ q
p q ∼p ∼q ∼ p∧ ∼ q
T T F F F
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T
(c) ∼ q =⇒ p
p q ∼q ∼ q =⇒ p
T T F T
T F T T
F T F T
F F T F
(d) ∼ p ⇐⇒ ∼ q
p q ∼p ∼q ∼ p ⇐⇒ ∼ q
T T F F T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T
(6) Construct truth tables for
(a) p =⇒ (q ∧ r)
p q r q∧r p =⇒ (q ∧ r)
T T T T T
T T F F F
T F T F F
T F F F F
F T T T T
F T F F T
F F T F T
F F F F T

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(b) (∼ p ∨ q) ⇐⇒ ∼ r
p q r ∼p ∼p∨q ∼r (∼ p ∨ q) ⇐⇒ ∼ r
T T T F T F F
T T F F T T T
T F T F F F T
T F F F F T F
F T T T T F F
F T F T T T T
F F T T T F F
F F F T T T T

References
[1] Baltazar, Ragasa, & Evangelista, Mathematics in the Modern World,
C&E Publishing, 2018.
[2] Garnier, Rowan, Discrete Mathematics: for New Technology, IOP
Publishing Ltd 2002.

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