A Kantian Theory of

Meaningful Work1 Norman E. Bowie

I have always believed that one of the moral this way a concept of meaningful work will be
obligations of the firm is to provide meaningful grounded in a standard ethical theory. I recog-
work for employees.2 However, just what con- nize of course that such a Kantian definition may
stitutes meaningful work has been a contentious not satisfy non Kantians but one step at a time.
matter. Is “meaningful work” to be defined as In what follows I argue that a reading of Kant’s
nothing more than what the employees say it is? ethical writings enables us to say that a Kantian
Or should the term “meaningful work” be given would endorse the following six characteristics as
an objective normative definition which would characteristics of meaningful work:
permit managers to say the provide it even if the
1. Meaningful work is work that is freely
employees do not agree. A standard problem with
entered into.
the latter approach is that it is subjective and
2. Meaningful work allows the worker to
individualistic. I cannot see how a manager could
exercise her autonomy and independence.
provide meaningful work in that sense since it
3. Meaningful work enable the worker to
would be practically impossible to do so. More-
develop her rational capacities.
over, I do not see how management could have
4. Meaningful work provides a wage sufficient
a moral obligation to provide meaningful work
for physical welfare.
in the subjective sense in part because one cannot
5. Meaningful work supports the moral devel-
be obligated to do what cannot be done and
opment of employees.
because I cannot imagine how such a duty could
6. Meaningful work is not paternalistic in
be justified even if it were practically possible.
the sense of interfering with the worker’s
Why should management have a duty to provide
conception of how she wishes to obtain
each employee meaningful work as he or she
happiness.
defines it? On the other hand, a standard problem
with the objective approach is that it has been
difficult to find a justification for any objective Kant’s explicit references to work
normative definition that can be given. In this
paper I call upon the moral philosophy of Our preliminary definition of “meaningful work”
Immanuel Kant to provide such a definition. In will be based on Kant’s explicit writings. The
focal point is the second formulation of the
categorical imperative which says that one should
Norman E. Bowie is the Elmer L. Andersen Chair in always treat the humanity in a person as an end
Corporate Responsibility at the University of Minnesota
and never as a means merely. My argument is that
where he holds a joint appointment in the Departments
of Strategic Management and Organization and at this point in human history within the context
Philosophy. He is the author, editor, co-editor or co- of business the possession of meaningful work is
author of twelve books and over 50 articles in business necessary for respecting humanity as an end in
ethics, professional ethics and political philosophy. He is itself. Thus on Kantian grounds there is a moral
the Past President of the Society for Business Ethics requirement that the corporation provide it.
and the American Society for Value Inquiry. Although much of my later argument will be

Journal of Business Ethics 17: 1083–1092, 1998.

© 1998 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
1084 Norman E. Bowie

based on contemporary interpretations of Kant’s So long as business firms provide jobs that
moral theory that I apply to the business world, provide sufficient wealth, they contribute to the
Kant himself had a few explicit things to say independence and thus to the self-respect of
about the nature of work. persons. For a Kantian, the true contribution of
First Kant argues that work is necessary for capitalism would be that it provides jobs that help
the development of self-hood understood as the provide self-respect. The purchase of consumer
development of one’s ability to act autonomously goods in an affluent society often simply provides
and the ability to live independently. pleasure. Having a job provides the means for
securing pleasure and the independence neces-
Life is the faculty of spontaneous activity, the sary for self-respect. As a corollary of Kant’s
awareness of all our human powers. Occupation position, if it is true that current welfare
gives us this awareness. . . . Without occupation programs make people dependent, Kant would
man cannot live happily. If he earns his bread, he
consider them a great evil. And a capitalism that
eats it with greater pleasure than if it is doled out
to him. . . . Man feels more contented after heavy provides jobs that do not provide sufficient
work than when he has done no work; for by work income for independence is also morally flawed.
he has set his powers in motion.3 Kant would be as concerned as we are about the
scope of corporate downsizing and the loss of
Somewhat surprisingly, perhaps, Kant endorses jobs that do not provide a living wage.5
wealth and the pleasures it brings. Moreover, Kant evaluated thrift on moral rather than
wealth contributes to self-respect because it economic grounds. He said
provides independence. To work simply in order
to make money is to display the vice of miserli- Thrift is care and scruple in the spending of one’s
ness, a vice, which is even worse than the vice substance. It is no virtue; it requires neither skill
nor talent. A spendthrift of good taste requires
of avarice. So long as work is required to make
much more of these qualities than does he who
money so that one can provide for one’s needs merely saves; an arrant fool can save and put money
and pleasures and in so doing make one’s self aside; to spend one’s money with refinement on
independent, work has value. Selected comments pleasure needs knowledge and skill, but there is
of Kant’s will establish his view. no cleverness in accumulating by thrift. The thrifty
who acquire their wealth by saving, are as a rule
A man whose possessions are sufficient for his small minded people.6
needs is well-to-do. . . . All wealth is means . . .
for satisfying the owner’s wants, free purposes and Alan Greenspan take note. It would be
inclinations. . . . By dependence on others man stretching the point to claim that Kant is a pre-
loses in worth, and so a man of independent means cursor of John Maynard Keynes but it is clear that
is an object of respect. . . . But the miser finds a
wealth for Kant is something to be used to meet
direct pleasure in money itself, although money is
nothing but a pure means. . . . The spendthrift is our material needs and that its moral value is in
a lovable simpleton, the miser a detestable fool. providing us the independence needed to meet
The former has not destroyed his better self and our material needs. In the Metaphysical Principles
might face the misfortune that awaits him with of Virtue, Kant says “Therefore become thrifty
courage, but the latter is a man of poor character.4 so you do not become destitute.”7 Somewhat
surprisingly, Kant does not follow Luther and
This selection is from Kant’s brief remarks, Protestant ethics here. Weber could not cite Kant
which amount to less than ten pages and repre- in favor of his thesis. Their is no intrinsic merit
sent student notes from Kant’s lectures on ethics to saving itself. Savings are to be used to support
in the 1770’s before Kant had written his more one’s autonomy in the material world. I say sur-
famous and critical works on ethical theory. prisingly, because Kant’s ethics was strongly influ-
Nonetheless they provide a starting point for a enced by German pietism yet on this point is not
Kantian theory of meaningful work and for the consistent with it.
obligations of a firm with respect to providing it. Although Kant’s explicit remarks on work are
 A Kantian Theory of Meaningful Work 1085

rather limited, none the less, I believe the fol- I believe a Kantian can say more about mean-
lowing ideas concerning the obligation of the ingful work than that it gives us independence
manager to employees have explicit warrant in and thus self-respect.10 By combining Kant’s
the Kantian texts. explicit early remarks on work with the rest of
Kant’s ethical theory and with the insights of
1. A corporation can be considered moral in
the recent commentators on Kant, I believe a
the Kantian sense only if the humanity of
Kantian would endorse the additional remaining
employees is treated as an end and not as
characteristics of meaningful work.
a means merely.
2. If a corporation is to treat the humanity
of employees as an end and not as a means
Contemporary interpreters of Kant and
merely, then a corporation should honor
meaningful work
the self-respect of the employees.
3. To honor the employees’ self respect, the
An expanded Kantian definition of meaningful
employees must have a certain amount of
work builds on Kant’s characterization of
independence as well as the ability to satisfy
freedom, especially positive freedom. Let us
a certain amount of their desires. Thus the
begin with negative freedom. For Kant negative
corporation should allow a certain amount
freedom is the ability to act independently of
of independence and make it possible that
determination by alien causes. Negative freedom
employees can satisfy a certain amount of
distinguishes us from animals and for humans a
their desires.
necessary condition for the meaningfulness of
4. In an economic system, people achieve
actions is that they be negatively free. Thus we
independence and satisfaction of their
have the justification for the first characteristic of
desires using their wages which they earn
meaningful work. The choice of one’s work
as employees.
must be negatively free; is must be freely entered
5. Thus a corporation should pay employees
into.
a living wage, that is, a wage sufficient to
Since autonomy plays such a role in Kant’s
provide a certain amount of independence
thought, I believe this free choice should extend
and some amount of satisfaction of desires.8
beyond the initial choice of a job. It should
Although this is as much as one can say given extend into the workplace itself. The worker
the Kantian text, I believe one can begin to should also be given autonomy on the job. If
formulate a Kantian theory of meaningful work. contemporary notions like “empowerment”
First, meaningful work provides a salary sufficient provide more opportunities for workers to
for the worker to exercise her independence and exercise autonomy on the job, Kantians are all
provides for her physical well-being and the for it.
satisfaction of some of her desires. Second, it But negative freedom does not exhaust Kant’s
seems obvious that meaningful work in a capi- rich notion of free action. Humans are positively
talist economy, be it the work of managers or the free as well. One contemporary Kant scholar
work of employees, must support the dignity of who has most persuasively articulated the Kantian
human beings. That is, capitalist work should theory of positive freedom is Thomas E. Hill,
support or enhance the dignity of human beings Jr. Positive freedom is the autonomy persons have
as moral agents. And since for Kant autonomy to be a law unto themselves. As Hill says, “A
and rationality are necessary for moral agency the person is a law to himself . . . if he adopts prin-
work relationship must support the autonomy ciples for himself and regards himself bound by
and rationality of human beings. Work that them and if he was not caused or even moti-
deadens autonomy or that undermines rationality vated to adopt them by any contingent circum-
is immoral.9 Thus the Kantian text explicitly stances (such as his desires).”11
provides two of the conditions for meaningful The task before us is to derive additional con-
work. ditions for meaningful work from Kant’s notion
1086 Norman E. Bowie

of positive freedom. In so doing, I make use of simply respect the rational capacities that people
Hill’s interpretation of the phrase “humanity as have.
an end in itself.” Hill begins his analysis by asking These commentators indicate that additional
what does morality require if we are to treat textual support is available from the Metaphysics
humanity as an end in itself ? To answer his of Morals. These commentators point out that
question, we must know what Kant means by some interpreters of Kant’s philosophy think it
humanity. The popular answer to this question sufficient that people not use other people and
is that Kant equates humanity with our capacity certainly not using people is necessary for
for rational thought. But although rationality in respecting the humanity of a person. But that is
the sense of being bound by the laws of reason not sufficient. In the Metaphsics of Morals Kant
is surely part of what Kant means by humanity, explicitly says that being indifferent to someone
it is not the only part. Based on his examination does not treat them as a means merely (merely
of the Kantian texts, Hill argues that humanity use them). But being indifferent does not treat
includes the following capacities: that person as an end it itself. That is why, for
Kant, not using people is not sufficient for
1. the capacity and disposition to act on the
respecting them in the way morality requires.
basis of reasons
In part two of the Meaphysics of Morals, The
2. the capacity to act on principles of
Metaphysical Principles of Virtue, Kant develops his
prudence and efficiency (hypothetical
theory of our obligations of virtue, that is of our
imperatives) so long as these hypothetical
obligations not backed by force of law. Kant
imperatives are not constrained by cate-
argues that one has both a duty of perfection to
gorical imperatives.
oneself and a duty to promote the happiness of
3. the power to set any end whatsoever which
others. He asks. “What are the ends which are
includes the “ability to see future conse-
at the same time duties. They are these: one’s
quences, adopt long-range goals, resist
own perfection and the happiness of others.”14 In
immediate temptation, and even to commit
an elaboration on our duty to promote the hap-
oneself to ends for which one has no
piness of others Kant argues that each must be
sensuous desire.”
concerned with the physical welfare of others
4. the capacity to accept categorical impera-
and with their moral well-being.15 These inter-
tives.
pretations of Kant provide additional evidence for
5. some ability to understand the world and
the claim that meaningful work requires a living
to reason abstractly.12
wage that provides independence and happiness
Assuming that Hill is right, it is a requirement and provide vindication for the fourth condition
of morality that people treat other people in ways that supports the development of her moral
that respect these rational capacities for that is powers.
what Kant means by treating humanity as an end I think we must be careful about how broadly
in itself. Thus we have established our third we interpret this notion of happiness. Kant is
condition that meaningful work should be work basically concerned to show that we have an
that facilitates the development of one’s rational obligation to be concerned with the humanity of
capacities. others. Thus our primary concern is with the
This is not enough however. Hill’s account rational capacities that Hill has identified as well
focuses solely on our rational capacities. Some as our rational well-being per se. One must also
contemporary commentators have gone further. be concerned about the physical welfare of others
For textual support they focus on the two and with their moral development. But one has
examples of moral duties from theFoundations no further obligation to make them happy. That
of the Metaphysics of Morals specifically the imper- is why condition four is limited to a wage suffi-
fect duties to develop one’s talents and give aid cient for physical welfare rather than sufficient
to the needy.13 This duty requires that one do for happiness. What I intend to show is that
more to respect the humanity in a person than within the context of business the obligation of
 A Kantian Theory of Meaningful Work 1087

the manager is to pay a living wage and that Let us apply all this to the firm. Employers
with respect to the obligation of beneficence that must not coerce (violate the negative liberty) of
is sufficient to protect and support the humanity their employees; this duty is a perfect one. One’s
in each worker as defined above. That is the occupation should be freely chosen and the
maxim which the moral manager should adopt. worker should have the opportunity to exercise
To defend this view, a few more clarifying freedom on the job as well. Moreover, employers
textual comments are necessary. What is the have an imperfect duty to adopt a maxim to be
nature of our positive duty to promote the concerned with the positive liberty of their
happiness of others or in our more restricted employees, that is with their moral well-being
language to promote the positive freedom of and physical welfare. Of special concern are the
another? Kant believed it is an imperfect duty in rational capacities identified by Hill. Manage-
the sense that you did not need to help another ment practice should be such that it strengthens,
on every occasion where it is possible to do rather than weakens, the rational capacities of
so. Using the schemata provided by Hill,16 the employees.
duty to help another is subject to the following With respect to the general welfare or happi-
conditions: ness of employees, on the one hand, managers
have an imperfect obligation to be concerned
1. One cannot promote the happiness or
with the physical welfare of employees and to
positive freedom of another by violating a
do nothing that impedes their moral develop-
perfect duty. One cannot lie to promote
ment. Managers must allow employees the
the happiness of another.
latitude to pursue their individual conceptions of
2. One must have as a maxim that one will
happiness in accordance with their own desires.
promote the happiness or positive freedom
Moreover, firms also have an obligation to
of others.
provide employees with a living wage and with
3 Nonetheless, for any given occasion where
security such that employees have the ability to
I could promote the happiness of another
pursue happiness in accordance with their own
I have the option of not promoting it in
desires. What I am arguing is that the way for
this case.
the manager to honor both beneficence and
4. I must actually promote the happiness of
respect is to provide a living wage but not to
others on various occasions.
decide what ought to make a worker happy.
5. These acts of benevolence must be done
We have now provided the justification from
from the appropriate moral motive.
Kantian moral theory for the six characteristics
But how should this be done? Onora O’Neill that provide for “meaningful work.” In this way
indicates that any application of the duty of the normative concept is grounded (justified) by
beneficence involves a certain tension between moral theory. We have done this using Kant’s
love and respect.17 On the one hand we must be own remarks on work and by spelling out the
concerned with the activities that others would content of positive liberty which is required to
adopt in order to be happy. This is the love part. respect the humanity in a person. Thus, mean-
On the other hand we cannot impose on them ingful work is work that is freely entered into,
our views of what activities they should engage that allows the worker to exercise her autonomy
in to make them happy. That is the respect part. and independence, that enables the worker to
In paternalism love is carried too far at the develop her rational capacities, that provides a
expense of respect. wage sufficient for physical welfare, that supports
Policies of respect must recognize that the other’s the moral development of employees and that is
maxims and projects are their maxims and projects. not paternalistic in the sense of interfering with
They must avoid merely taking over or achieving the worker’s conception of how she wishes to
the aims of these maxims and projects, and must obtain happiness.
allow others the “space” in which to pursue them
for themselves.18
1088 Norman E. Bowie

Meaningful work and contemporary quality than those in the U. S., established the
business Baldridge Awards for quality. It is interesting to
note how many of the good practice criteria refer
It is one thing to provide a Kantian definition not to the product itself put rather to how
of meaningful work. But is the requirement that employees are managed. Even more interesting is
a firm provide meaningful work utopian? It is the fact that these good management practices
true that a moral requirement that firms provide embody Kantian language that respects employee
meaningful work would have been considered autonomy and responsibility. Emphasis is placed
impossibly utopian until recently. An although a on the following factors:
Kantian philosophy of the workplace is still the
exception rather than the rule, some organiza- a. management practice . . . such as teams or sug-
tional theorists and individual companies are gestion systems . . . the company uses to
committed to providing more meaningful work promote employee contributions . . . individu-
to employees. Moreover if it can be shown that ally and in groups.
b. company actions to increase employee authority
meaningful work enhances quality and produc-
to act (empowerment), responsibility, and inno-
tivity, than the moral case for meaningful work vation. . . .
is buttressed by a practical case. And such a case, c. key indicators . . . to evaluate the extent and
as we shall see, can be made. For example, if effectiveness of involvement by all categories and
U.S. firms must be concerned with the quality types of employees. . . .
of their products in order to survive in interna- d. trends and current levels of involvement by all
tional competition and if the provision of mean- categories of employees.20
ingful work is necessary for the production of
high quality goods and services, then the provi- Additional arguments which show that an
sion of meaningful work becomes a prudential obligation to provide meaningful work is not
strategy as well as a moral one. Meaningful work utopian come from Pfeffer. He has argued that
provisions are not utopian; they are economic firms can gain a competitive advantage if they
necessities. focus on their employees. He identifies sixteen
The quality movement in the U. S. in the practices for managing people successfully. They
80’s and 90’s has provided the basis for a defense include 1. employment security, 2. selectivity in
of management practices that have much in recruiting, 3. high wages, 4. incentive pay, 5.
common with our account of meaningful work. employee ownership, 6. information sharing, 7.
As Jeffrey Pfeffer has said: participation and empowerment, 8. teams and
job redesign. 9. training and skill development,
. . . the quality movement has legitimatized man- 10. cross utilization and cross training, 11.
agement practices that have been around a long symbolic egalitarianism, 12. wage compression,
time but have not generated a lot of support, 13. promotion from within, 14. a long term per-
perhaps because of the language. “Worker empow- spective, 15. the measurement of practices, 16.
erment”, “employee participation” or “participa- an overarching philosophy.21 What I wish to do
tive management”, “employee voice”, “equity and
is show how these good human resource man-
fairness”, “due process”, “high commitment
work practices”, and similar terms often used in agement practices match up with our six char-
describing the employment relation somehow acteristics of Kantian meaningful work.
seemed to smack of coddling the work force. . . . Let us begin by examining Pfeffer’s list to
The language of quality and the political support provide an explanation of those practices that
behind the quality movement overcome some of might not be intuitively clear. Cross utilization
these problems at least to some degree.19 and cross training (Principle 10) is a technique
that allows employees to do many different jobs.
Moreover, the United States government, in Symbolic egalitarianism (Principle 11) refers to
response to the perception that foreign manu- the elimination of symbols of status from the
facturers were producing goods of much higher workplace. Wage compression (Principle 12)
 A Kantian Theory of Meaningful Work 1089

refers to a policy that reduces large differences for providing an adequate wage. Principle 3 (high
in pay between the top officials in the corpora- wages) is obvious as a means to this goal. Job
tion and other employees as well as differences security (Principle 1) for many workers is a
between individuals at roughly the same func- necessary condition for an adequate wage. The
tional level. If wage compression were adopted constant downsizing in American firms has
horizontally, the VP for Finance would not earn meant that many workers have had to take ever
a premium over the VP for Personnel as is now lower salaries in each new position. The lives of
the case in most U.S. companies. Finally overar- families that had been comfortable before down-
ching philosophy (Principle 14) refers to man- sizing become precarious afterwards. Both survey
agement’s commitment that these employment results and the content of union contracts show
practices are a basic corporate value. that most workers would be willing to receive a
Although some of the items on this list have lower salary in return for job security. Thus
received general management attention, most of economic security is often what employees want
the items involve a sharp departure from current most as an element of positive liberty. Job
business practice. A comprehensive implementa- security is essential because it is necessary for
tion of all the items would be quite revolutionary. achieving the conditions of meaningful work.
Certainly a number of the practices are contrary Thus Kantian morality requires it.
to what is accepted as successful management Despite the fact that many firms behave
practice. immorally here – and some like those managed
Yet most of the items on this list provide a by Al Dunlop flaunt their immoral behavior,
means for management to provide Kantian mean- other companies try to provide employment
ingful work for employees. They emphasize the security. For many years IBM was the leader in
importance of employee autonomy and inde- this regard, but bad economic times in the 1990’s
pendence. They emphasize the importance of led to the abandonment of IBM’s policy. One
employee autonomy and independence. They company that still provides security for employees
emphasize the importance of a good wage. They is Hewlett Packard. William Ouchi describes
are consistent with the development of our Hewlett Packard’s policy as follows;
rational capacities and they do not interfere with
an employee’s moral development. They treat Twice in recent times, Hewlett-Packard has
employees with respect. In the remainder of this adopted the nine-day fortnight along with a hiring
paper many of these practices will be further freeze, a travel freeze, and the elimination of
perquisites. Each time these steps kept employees
elaborated and shown to be consistent with what
on while other companies in the industry had
a Kantian would expect of a moral firm that layoffs. The result at Hewlett-Packard has been the
provided meaningful work to its employees. lowest voluntary turnover rate, the most experi-
Using Pfeffer’s list of good practices for the man- enced workforce in the industry, and one of the
agement of people, the abstract notion that highest rates of growth and profitability.22
meaningful work is work that supports the
worker in leading a moral and thus an Wage compression (condition 12) would
autonomous rational life can be given some address one of the causes of having work and
content. being poor and thus it would address the moral
What is now required is the examine Pfeffer’s wrong that occurs when companies who could
list to establish the connection of these sound pay their employees a living wage do not do so.
management practice to meaningful work and In the last decade there has been a steady increase
to cite management practice that are in confor- in the ratio of the salaries of the top officials in
mity with each of the items. This will show that a firm to wages paid to the least well compen-
providing for meaningful work is not utopian but sated member of the firm. Moreover, the living
rather represents best practice. standards of those at the bottom, often referred
Meaningful work is work that provides an to as the working poor, have declined. Wage
adequate wage. Principles 1, 3, and 12 are means compression would be something of a correc-
1090 Norman E. Bowie

tive here. A situation where the rich get richer best use of the employee’s rational capacities. All
while the working poor fail to achieve an the other items on the list contribute to skill
adequate standard of living is not acceptable to development which is both valuable in itself
a Kantian. (recall that one of Kant’s perfect duties is the duty
Another important component of meaningful to develop one’s talents) and adapts one for
work is autonomy and independence. Principle changes in the workplace so that the employee
2, participation and empowerment, speaks can remain gainfully employed. For example,
directly to that issue. Open Book Management, Pfeffer argues for the importance of cross
a management technique developed by Jack Stack utilization. Routine assembly line work is often
of the Springfield Remanufacturing Company, work that is dull, boring, and repetitious. By
embodies these principles. With open book man- training a worker to do many different jobs a firm
agement every employee is given complete infor- can eliminate or greatly mitigate the drudgery
mation and is expected to know the financial of assembly line manufacturing. Cross utilization
details regarding the firm. Every person knows makes teamwork possible and vice versa. In fact
how her job contributes to financial performance many of these principles fit together to transform
and is given the power to make changes to traditional manufacturing work into an approach
enhance the bottom line. Employees who work more compatible with a Kantian theory of mean-
under open book management report that they ingful work.
feel empowered and responsible. One principle, Principle 11 (Symbolic egali-
More and more companies are adopting a tarianism) is also necessary for self-respect and is
policy of flex time. Flex time gives employees a condition of fairness. It breaks down some of
greater latitude over their work schedules. Thus the class barriers that say not only is the work
employees gain some autonomy over their work that I do different from yours, but it is more
lives as required by condition two. An example valuable than yours, and thus I am a more
here is a Baldridge Award winner in 1990 which valuable person. The person who is doing what
is described as follows. is perceived to be inferior work thus loses self-
respect. And loses it unjustly. A business firm is
“Empowerment” is a key theme in the Wallace a cooperative enterprise and thus every task is
approach to business. All associates are allowed to valuable to the enterprise. Market conditions,
make customer related decisions of up to $1000 and other legitimate factors, may justify the fact
without seeking higher approval. Customer related
that we pay one job category more than another
decisions on values greater than that can be made
in time sensitive situations. . . . Associates working but these conditions do not justify inequality of
in the warehouse can reject shipments if the respect. In this way symbolic egalitarianism is
material is defective or the shipment is incorrect supportive of a person’s ethical development.
. . . Wallace spent more than $2 million on formal You do not find language in the business world
education and training from 1987 to 1990.23 that captures the pure Kantian spirit very often,
but occasionally you do. In Pfeffer’s terms few
Another requirement of meaningful work is corporations have the appropriate overarching
that the work contribute to the development of philosophy. I conclude this paper with excep-
the employee’s rational capacities. Principles tions, that is with examples of companies that at
2 (selectivity in recruiting), 6 (information least come close to providing their workers with
sharing), 8 (teams and job redesign), 9 (training meaningful work in a Kantian sense.
and skill development), 10 (cross utilization and Max DePree CEO of Miller Furniture
cross training) and 13 (promotion from within) captured the Kantian ideal when he described
all are a means to this goal. By selecting the right work as follows:
people in the first place, you do not get people
who are overqualified for the job. Working on a For many of us who work there exists an exas-
job for which you are overqualified is usually perating discontinuity between how we see our-
boring and frustrating because it does not make selves as persons and how we see ourselves as
 A Kantian Theory of Meaningful Work 1091

workers. We need to eliminate the sense of dis- personal dignity of each, and the recognition of
continuity and to restore a sense of coherence in personal achievement. . . .
our lives. . . . Work should be and can be pro- The opportunity to share in the success of the
ductive and rewarding, meaningful and maturing, company is evidenced by our above-average wage
enriching and fulfilling, healing and joyful. Work and salary level, our profit sharing and stock
is one of the great privileges. Work can even be purchase plans, and by other company benefits.
poetic. In a growing company there are apt to be
What is it most of us really want from work? more opportunities for advancement than there
We would like to find the most effective, most pro- are qualified people to fill them. This is true at
ductive, most rewarding way of working together. Hewlett-Packard, opportunities are plentiful and
We would like to know that our work process uses it is up to the individual, through personal growth
all of the appropriate and pertinent resources: and development to take advantage of them.
human, physical, and financial. We would like a We want people to enjoy their work at HP, and
work process and relationships that meet our to be proud of their accomplishments. This means
personal needs for belonging, for contributing, for we must make sure that each person receives the
meaningful work, for the opportunity to make a recognition he or she needs and deserves. In the
commitment, for the opportunity to grow and be final analysis, people at all levels determine the
at least reasonably in control of our own destinies.24 character and strength of our company.26

Milliken and Company, a privately owned

textile company with 14000 employees won the Notes
prestigious Baldridge Award in 1989. A booklet 1
used in recruiting describes the company as I am indebted to the University of Minnesota for
follows: a sabbatical and to the Program in Ethics and the
Professions, Harvard University for a fellowship that
enabled me to write this paper. I have benefitted
In the process of arriving at new levels of quality,
greatly from comments made by the fellows in the
nothing supersedes the inner working of the
Program in Ethics and the Professions, Dennis
human being. . . . There is emphasis on finding
Thompson, Arthur Applbaum, Lawrence Lessig, Arti
the best people for every career and on contin-
Rau, Thomas Sorrell, Carol Steicker, and Melissa
uing education. . . . At Milliken, people are called
Williams. I have also received helpful comments from
Associates-not employees-implying the importance
Deborah Johnson, Ellen Klein, David Newell, and
of each one as a contributor to our common
Richard Nielsen.
objective. . . . All of this assumes a participatory 2
See for example, “Challenging the Egoistic
management approach.25
Paradox”, Business Ethics Quarterly 1 (1991), pp. 1–21
and “The Paradox of Profit”, in Papers on the Ethics
But perhaps the statement of corporate phi- of Administration. Ed. N. Dale Wright (Provo, UT:
losophy that comes closest to the Kantian ideal Brigham Young University Press, 1990), pp. 97–120.
is found in the way Hewlett-Packard expresses its 3
Immanuel Kant Lectures on Ethics 1775 (New York:
philosophy toward its people. This passage is Harper Torchbooks, 1963), pp. 160–161.
worth quoting at length. 4
Ibid., pp. 177, 181, 185.
5
Although admittedly Kant wants a job to provide
Our People more than a living wage. A living wage is a necessary
Objective: To help HP people share in the but not sufficient condition for a “good” job.
6
company’s success, which they make possible; to Kant, op. cit., p. 184.
7
provide job security based on their performance, Immanuel Kant, Metaphysical Principles of Virtue
to recognize their individual achievements, and to (1797) in Immanuel Kant Ethical Philosophy Trans
insure the personal satisfaction that comes from a James W. Ellington (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing
sense of accomplishment in their work. Company, 1994), p. 99.
8
We are proud of the people we have in our I indebted to Bryan Frances for the formalization
organization, their performance, and their attitude of this summary. The argument has been reformulated
toward their jobs and toward the company. The after Robert Frederick pointed out the earlier
company has been built around the individual, the version’s inadequacies.
1092 Norman E. Bowie
9
I am not claiming that the only way one can gain Ellington, trans. (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing
autonomy and independence is through work that Company, 1994), p. 43.
15
provides wages sufficient for independence. One can Ibid., p. 52.
16
gain self-respect by being a priest or by being an Hill, op. cit., Chapter 8.
17
impoverished artist. One can also gain respect by Onora O’Neill, Constructions of Reason (New York:
identifying with a group or cause. However if work Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 114.
18
in corporations is chosen and is to be morally justi- Ibid., p. 115.
19
fied, then something like the arguments I have attrib- Jeffrey Pfeffer, Competitive Advantage Through People
uted to Kant are necessary. I am grateful to Tanya (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1994), pp.
Kostova for raising this issue. 215–216.
10 20
Although business ethicists have not emphasized Quoted in Pfeffer, op. cit., p. 209.
21
meaningful work, some are giving it attention. Joanne Ibid., Chapter 2.
22
Cuilla and Al Gini have both made important con- William Ouchi, Theory Z (Reading, MA: Addison
tributions. My own thinking on this topic has evolved Wesley Publishing Company Inc., 1981), p. 118.
23
from discussions with my graduate student Kathryn Robert C Hill and Sara M Freedman, “Managing
Brewer. the Quality Process: Lessons from a Baldridge Award
11
Thomas E. Hill Jr., Dignity and Practical Reason in Winner”, Academy of Management Executive 6 (1992),
Kant’s Moral Theory (Ithaca: N.Y. Cornell University 78. Quoted in Pfeffer, op. cit., p. 214.
24
Press, 1992), p. 35. Max DePree. Leadership Is An Art (New York: Dell
12
Ibid., pp. 40–41. Publishing, 1989), pp. 23, 32.
13 25
Recall that an imperfect duty is one that you need Quoted in Pfeffer, op. cit., p. 212.
26
to act upon on some occasions but not on all occa- Quoted in William Ouchi, op. cit., pp. 136–
sions. An imperfect duty should be distinguished from 137.
a perfect duty which is a duty one must always act
on whenever the duty is present. Thus our duty not
to lie is a perfect duty but our duty to aid others is University of Minnesota,
imperfect. Carlson School of Management,
14
Immanuel Kant, Metaphysical Principles of Virtue in 321 19th Ave South,
Immanuel Kant Ethical Philosophy 2nd ed. James W Minneapolis MN 55455