CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to assist in the

growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and re vegetation of disturbed soils in

dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall. When a zone comes on, the water flows

through the lateral lines and ultimately ends up at the irrigation emitter (drip) or sprinkler heads.

Many sprinklers have pipe thread inlets on the bottom of them which allows a fitting and the pipe

to be attached to them. The sprinklers are usually installed with the top of the head flush with the

ground surface. When the water is pressurized, the head will pop up out of the ground and water

the desired area until the valve closes and shuts off that zone. Once there is no more water

pressure in the lateral line, the sprinkler head will retract back into the ground. Emitters are

generally laid on the soil surface or buried a few inches to reduce evaporation losses.

Water is a resource that all living species need. It is therefore very precious and has to be

used with moderation to be preserved for the generations to come. Agriculture is an industry that

uses a lot of water. Most of the time, this resource is not used efficiently and substantial amounts

of water are wasted. In the near future, these wastes will represent a large sum of money. The ones

who manage this resource efficiently will be winning time and money.

In this project report, an automated irrigation system is suggested to minimize the water

input and human intervention, while satisfying the plants needs. First, the details of the problem are

summarized. The objective and the scope of the project are described. Some general approaches to

the design are reviewed. The results and conclusions of an experiment to determine the required

amounts of water are discussed. Then, the suggested design is explained in detail with the purpose,

requirements and constraints, simulation and test results for each of its parts. A brief cost analysis is

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performed to estimate the viability of such a project on the market. Finally, the design is criticized,

and suggestions are made for future improvements.

An automatic irrigation system does the operation of a system without requiring manual

involvement of persons. Every irrigation system such as drip, sprinkler and surface gets automated

with the help of electronic appliances and detectors such as computer, timers, sensors and other

mechanical devices.

Healthy plants can transpire a lot of water, resulting in an increase in the humidity of the

greenhouse air. A high relative humidity (above 80-85%) should be avoided because it can

increase the incidence of disease and reduce plant transpiration. Sufficient venting or successive

heating and venting can prevent condensation on plants surfaces and the greenhouse structure. The

use of cooling systems during the warmer summer months increases the greenhouse air humidity.

During periods with warm and humid outdoor conditions, humidity control inside the greenhouse

can be a challenge. Greenhouses located in dry, dessert environments benefit greatly from

evaporative cooling systems because large amounts of water can be evaporated into the incoming

air, resulting in significant temperature drops.

Since the relative humidity alone does not tell us anything about the absolute water holding

capacity of air, a different measurement is sometime used to describe the absolute moisture status

of the soil. The vapor pressure deficit is a measure of the difference between the amount of

moisture the air contains at a given moment and the amount of moisture it can hold at that

temperature when the air would be saturated. Pressure deficit measurement can tell us how easy it

is for plants to transpire: higher values stimulate transpiration (but too high can cause wilting), and

lower values inhibit transpiration and can lead to condensation on leaf and surfaces.

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1.1.1 Types of Irrigation

1. Ditch Irrigation

Ditch Irrigation is a rather traditional method, where ditches are dug out and seedlings are

planted in rows. Siphon tubes are used to move the water from the main ditch to the canals.

2. Terraced Irrigation

This is a very labor-intensive method of irrigation where the land is cut into steps and

supported by retaining walls. . The flat areas are used for planting and the idea is that the water

flows down each step watering each plot. This allows steep land to be used for planting crops.

3. Drip Irrigation

This is known as the most water efficient method of irrigation. Water drops right near the

root zone of a plant in a drip- ping motion. If the system is installed properly you can steadily

reduce the loss of water through evaporation and runoff.

4. Sprinkler System

This is an irrigation system based on overhead sprinklers, sprays or guns, installed on

permanent risers. You can also have the system buried underground and the sprinklers rise up when

water pressure rises, which is a popular irrigation system for use on golf courses and parks.

5. Rotary Systems

This method of irrigation is best suited for larger areas, for the sprinklers can reach

distances of up to 100 feet. The word “Rotary” is indicative of the mechanical driven sprinklers

moving in a circular motion, hence reaching greater distances. This system waters a larger area

with small amounts of water over a long period of time.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Irrigation of plants is usually a very time-consuming activity; to be done in a reasonable

amount of time, it requires a large amount of human resources. Traditionally, all the steps were

executed by humans. Nowadays, some systems use technology to reduce the number of workers

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or the time required to water the plants. With such systems, the control is very limited, and

many resources are still wasted.

Water is one of these resources that are used excessively. Mass irrigation is one method

used to water the plant. This method represents massive losses since the amount of water given is

in excess of the plants needs. The excess water is evacuated by the holes of the pots in

greenhouses, or it percolates through the soil in the fields.

The contemporary perception of water is that of a free, renewable resource that can be used

in abundance. However, this is not reality; in many parts of North America, water consumption is

taxed. It is therefore reasonable to assume that it will soon become a very expensive resource

everywhere.

In addition to the excess cost of water, labour is becoming more and more expensive. As a

result, if no effort is invested in optimizing these resources, there will be more money involved in

the same process. Technology is probably a solution to reduce costs and prevent loss of resources.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of this project is to build an automatic plant irrigation system that sense soil moisture using

microcontroller.

The following are objectives of the studies:

 To reduce human interference and ensure proper irrigation

 To minimize water loss and to maximize the efficiency of water used

 To prevent over labour of the pumping machine and prevent it from getting bad or burned

The following aspects were considered in the choice of a design solution:

i. Installation costs;

ii. Water savings;

iii. Human intervention;

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 iv. Reliability;

v. Power consumption;

vi. Maintenance;

vii. Expandability.

A critical consideration is the installation costs, since costs generally determine the

feasibility and viability of a project. The installation must be simple enough for a domestic user.

The water savings was also an important aspect, since there is a demand to minimize water loss and

to maximize the efficiency of water used. Since the objective is to minimize the cost of labour,

minimal supervision and calibration must be needed. The system must operate with optimized

consistency. The power consumption must also be monitored. For maintenance, the replacement

parts must be readily available and easy to install in the case of failure. Finally, the possibility

for implementing the system at a larger scale (e.g. in greenhouses) should be investigated.

1.4 Justification of the Work

The increasing world population has lead to exponential increase in food demand. This

event has necessitated the need for more land to be cultivated. Due to change of weather patterns

brought about by global warming, irrigation remains as the only reliable method of crops

production. With more and more land now being under irrigation there is a need for optimal use of

water.

Over the last few years knowledge in electronics and computation has been used to solve

present day challenges. In the forefront of the electronics revolution has been the microcontroller.

The microcontroller has been used together with various sensors to measure and control physical

quantities like temperature, humidity, heat and light. By controlling these physical quantities using

the microcontroller; automatic systems have been achieved.

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 Irrigation systems in crop production can and has also been automated. This solves the

challenge brought about by the unreliability of climate changes thus need for water optimization.

Automation of the soil moisture sensor irrigation systems is one of the most convenient, efficient

and effective method of water optimization. The systems helps in saving water and thus more land

can be brought under irrigation. Crops grown under controlled conditions tend to be healthier and

thus give more yields. Controlled watering system results in reduction of fertilizer use and thus

fertilizer costs go down.

1.5 Scope of the Study

This project involves the evolution of watering manually to watering automatically. The

controlling of the automatic watering system is use in a house, institution or any organization

with flowers planted for decoration. Sensor used to control the watering system is soil moisture

sensor. Other than that, this system should also monitor the water level.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The continuous increasing demand of food requires the rapid improvement in food

production technology. In a country like Nigeria, where the economy is mainly based on agriculture

and the climatic conditions are isotropic, still we are not able to make full use of agricultural

resources. The main reason is the lack of rains & scarcity of land reservoir water. The continuous

extraction of water from earth is reducing the water level due to which lot of land is coming slowly

in the zones of un-irrigated land. Another very important reason of this is due to unplanned use of

water due to which a significant amount of water goes to waste. This problem can be rectified if we

use microcontroller based automated irrigation system in which the irrigation will take place only

when there will be acute requirement of water.

1.6.1 Advantages of the System

i. Saves water - Studies show that drip irrigation systems use 30 - 50% less water than

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 conventional watering methods, such as sprinklers.

ii. Improves growth - Smaller amounts of water applied over a longer amount of time provide

ideal growing conditions. Drip irrigation extends watering times for plants, and prevents

soil erosion and nutrient runoff. Also, because the flow is continuous, water penetrates

deeply into the soil to get well down into the root zone.

iii. Discourages weeds - Water is only delivered where it's needed.

iv. Saves time - Setting and moving sprinklers are not required. A timer delay as per

environment can be added to the system for automatic watering.

v. Helps control fungal diseases, which grow quickly under moist conditions. Also, wet

foliage can spread disease.

vi. Adaptable - A drip irrigation system can be modified easily to adjust to the changing needs

of a garden or lawn.

vii. Simplest Method - Start by drawing a map of your garden and yard, showing the location

of plantings. Measure the distances required for lengths of hose or plastic tubing to reach

the desired areas.

1.6.2 Others Advantages

 Highly sensitive

 Works according to the soil condition

 Fit and Forget system

 Low cost and reliable circuit

 Complete elimination of manpower

 Can handle heavy loads up to 7A

 System can be switched into manual mode whenever required

1.6.3 Area of Application

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  Roof Gardens

 Lawns

 Agriculture Lands

 Home Gardens

1.7 Motivation

The increasing demand of the food supplies requires a rapid improvement in food

production technology. In many countries where agriculture plays an important part in shaping up

the economy and the climatic conditions are isotropic, but still we are not able to make full use of

agricultural resources. One of the main reasons is the lack of rains & scarcity of land reservoir

water. Extraction of water at regular intervals from earth is reducing the water level as a result of

which the zones of un-irrigated land are gradually increasing.

Also, the unplanned use of water inadvertently results in wastage of water. In an Automated

Irrigation System using ATMega328, the most significant advantage is that water is supplied only

when the moisture in soil goes below a pre-set threshold value. This saves us a lot of water. In

recent times, the farmers have been using irrigation technique through the manual control in which

the farmers irrigate the land at regular intervals by turning the water-pump on/off when required.

This process sometimes consumes more water and sometimes the water supply to the land is

delayed due to which the crops dry out. Water deficiency deteriorates plants growth before visible

wilting occurs. In addition to this slowed growth rate, lighter weight fruit follows water deficiency.

This problem can be perfectly rectified if we use Automated Irrigation System in which the

irrigation will take place only when there will be intense requirement of water, as suggested by the

moisture in the soil.

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1.8 Thesis Outline

This study comprises of five different chapters arranged sequentially. Chapter one gives a

brief history of the various forms of locks and their technological advancements. Chapter two

explains the operating principles of the various stages involved in the digital combination lock

using microcontroller. In chapter three, the design and implementation of the whole project work is

discussed fully. Chapter four presents the results and discussions drawn from tests performed on the

system, while lastly; Chapter gives a conclusion and recommendation on the entire work.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

The development of models and strategies to control the environment of plants started

with the shoot environment, that is, with the climate. One important reason was that influencing

variables such as temperature, humidity, and irradiation or CO2 concentration are easier to

measure and to control.” (Hans P. K, 2000)

From this research, we can see that there are a few factors that need to be control in

the environment. The factor that is to be considered is soil moisture.

Khriji et al (2014) presented a complete irrigation solution for the farmers based on WSN. The

automated irrigation system using low-cost sensor nodes having reduced power consumption can

reduce the water waste and is cost effective. A node is deployed using Telos B mote and adequate

sensors/actuators. Field nodes are used to detect the level of moisture and temperature in the soil.

Weather nodes monitor the climatic changes, and the nodes connected to actuators are used to

control the opening of the irrigation valve when needed.

Mahir et al (2014) proposed an efficient water usage system by pump power reduction

using solar-powered drip irrigation system in an orchard. Soil moisture content is analyzed by

Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) to provide even distribution of water for the required location.

This will prevent the unnecessary irrigation and reduce the water demand. This system reduces the

orchard’s daily water usage and energy consumption by 38 percentages.

Farid et al (2013) presented a practical solution based on intelligent and effective system for a field

of hyper aridity. The system consists of a feedback FLC that logs key field parameters through

specific sensors and a Zigbee-GPRS remote monitoring and database platform. The system is

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deployed in existing drip irrigation systems without any physical modification. FLC acquires

data from these sensors and fuzzy rules are applied to produce appropriate time and duration for

irrigation.

Singh et al (2012) presents a solution for an irrigation controller for cultivation of

vegetable plants based on the fuzzy logic methodology. In this system the amount of water

given to the plants depends on its size, moisture control of soil, which is affected by temperature

of environment, evaporation due to wind velocity and water budget. The system feed water to

plants in a controlled and optimal way. Solar energy conversion technology is used to feed power

to the pump controller.

Xin et al (2013) described an autonomous precision irrigation system through the

integration of a center pivot irrigation system with wireless underground sensor networks.

The wireless underground sensor aided center pivot system will provide autonomous irrigation

management capabilities by monitoring the soil conditions in real time using wireless underground

sensors. Experiments were conducted with a hydraulic drive and continuous-move center pivot

irrigation system.

Robert (2013) promoted a commercial wireless sensing and control networks using valve

control hardware and software. The valve actuation system included development of custom node

firmware, actuator hardware and firmware, an internet gateway with control, and communication

and web interface software. The system uses single hop radio range using a mesh network with

34 valve actuators for controlling the valves and water meters.

J.S. Awati and V.S. Patil, “Automatic Irrigation Control by Using Wireless Sensor

Networks”. The system was integrated with sensors into a wireless monitoring network to

determine and evaluate calibration functions for the integrated sensors. The system

compares the measuring range and the reaction time of both sensor types in a soil layer during

drying. Data were transmitted over several kilometers and made available via Internet access.

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 Nolz et al (2007) integrated the sensors into a wireless monitoring network to determine

and evaluate calibration functions for the integrated sensors, and compare the measuring

range and the reaction time of both sensor types in a soil layer during drying. The integration of the

sensors into the telemetry network worked well. Data were transmitted over several kilometers and

made available via Internet access.

Christos et al (2014) described the design of an adaptable decision support system and its

integration with a wireless sensor/actuator network to implement autonomous closed-loop

zone-specific irrigation. Using ontology for defining the application logic emphasizes system

flexibility and adaptability and supports the application of automatic inferential and validation

mechanisms. A machine learning process is applied for inducing new rules by analyzing logged

datasets for extracting new knowledge and extending the system ontology in order to cope.

2.1 Automatic Irrigation System

An automatic irrigation system does the work quite efficiently and with a positive impact on

the place where it is installed. Once it is installed in the agricultural field, the water distribution to

crops and nurseries becomes easy and doesn’t require any human support to perform the operations

permanently. Sometimes automatic irrigation can also be performed by using mechanical

appliances such as clay pots or bottle irrigation system. It’s very hard to implement irrigation

systems because they are very expensive and complex in their design. By taking some basic points

into considerations from experts’ support, we have implemented some projects on automatic

irrigation system by using different technologies.

In this article, we are describing about three types of irrigation systems that work

automatically and each system is an advancement of the previous one as we go from first system to

the next, and so on.

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 The automatic irrigation system on sensing soil moisture project is intended for the

development of an irrigation system that switches submersible pumps on or off by using relays to

perform this action on sensing the moisture content of the soil.

2.2 Need of Automatic Irrigation

Automatic irrigation systems are convenient, especially for those who travel. If installed

and programmed properly, automatic irrigation systems can even save you money and help in

water conservation. Dead lawn grass and plants need to be replaced, and that can be expensive. But

the savings from automatic irrigation systems can go beyond that. Watering with a hose or with

oscillator wastes water. Neither method targets plant roots with any significant degree of precision.

Automatic irrigation systems can be programmed to discharge more precise amounts of water in a

targeted area, which promotes water conservation.

2.3 Microcontroller

A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip which performs controlling functions. A

microcontroller, or embedded controller, is similar to a microprocessor as used in a personal

computer, but with a great deal of additional functionality combined onto the same monolithic

semiconductor substrate. Microcontrollers, sometimes referred to as one-chip microcomputers,

are used to control a wide range of electrical and mechanical appliances. Since they were first

introduced, microcontrollers have evolved to the point where they can use for increasing

complex applications. Some microcontrollers in use today are also programmable, expanding the

number of application in which they can be used.

2.4 Sensors

This is an Electrical resistance Sensor. The sensor is made up of two electrodes.

This soil moisture sensor reads the moisture content around it. A current is passed across the

electrodes through the soil and the resistance to the current in the soil determines the soil

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moisture. If the soil has more water resistance will be low and thus more current will pass through.

On the other hand when the soil moisture is low the sensor module outputs a high level of

resistance. This sensor has both digital and analogue outputs. Digital output is simple to use but is

not as accurate as the analogue output.

The soil moisture sensor is often sensing devices embedded within some sort of

insulation. The insulation may often be for electrical purposes - to isolate the sensor electrically.

Soil moisture sensors measure the water content in soil. A soil moisture probe is made up of

multiple soil moisture sensors.

Technologies commonly used in soil moisture sensors include:

 Frequency domain sensor such as a capacitance sensor.

 Neutron moisture gauges, utilize the moderator properties of water for neutrons.

 Electrical resistance of the soil

In this particular project, we will use the moisture sensors which can be inserted in the soil, in order

to measure the moisture content of the soil.

Figure: 2.3 Sensor

Soil electrical

conductivity is simply

measured using two metal

conductors spaced apart in the

soil except that dissolved salts greatly alter the water conductivity and can confound the

measurements. An inexpensive fix is to embed conductors in a porous gypsum block which releases

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calcium and sulphate ions to swamp the soil background level of ions. The water absorbed by the

block is correlated with soil water potential over the range -60 to -600 kPa providing a tertiary

indicator for use in medium to heavy soils. Non-dissolving granular matrix sensors are now

available with a more exacting specification for the range 0 to -200 kPa and use internal calibration

methods to offset variations due to solutes and temperature.

Methods for exploiting soil dielectric properties actually measure proxy variables that more

or less include a component due to the soil electrical conductivity and are thus inherently sensitive

to variations in soil salinity and temperature as well as water. Measurements are also affected by

soil bulk density and the proportion of bound and free water determined by the soil type.

Nevertheless, good accuracy and precision can be achieved under specific conditions and some

sensor types have become widely adopted for scientific work.

2.4.1 Functional Description of Sensor

1. For conversion of change in resistance to change in voltage, the sensor is connected with a

200kΩ resistor in series to form a potential divider arrangement.

2. It gives a voltage output corresponding to the conductivity of the soil. The conductivity of

soil varies depending upon the amount of moisture present in it. It increases with increase in

the water content of the soil. The higher the water contents of the blocks, the lower the

electrical resistance.

3. The voltage output is taken from the output terminal of this circuit. The moisture sensor is

immersed into the specimen soil whose moisture content is under test.

The soil was examined under three conditions:

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1. Dry condition:

The sensor is placed in the soil under dry conditions and embedded up to a fair depth of the

soil. In dry condition, as there is no conduction path between the two copper leads the sensor gives

a high resistance value (nearly 700 kΩ). The voltage output of the potential divider in this case

ranges from 2.2 V to lower optimum level (3 V).

2. Optimum condition:

When water is added to the soil, it percolates through the successive layers of it and spreads

across the layers of soil due to capillary force. This increases the moisture content of the soil. Thus

a conductive path is established between the two copper leads. This leads to a decrease in resistance

of sensor. The optimum condition of the soil can be set manually depending on the type of soil.

3. Excess wet condition:

With the increase in water content beyond the optimum level, there is drastic increase in the

conductivity of the soil and the sensor resistance is further decreased to around 50kΩ. The voltage

output of the potential divider in this case ranges from upper optimum level 5V to 10V.

In general, conversions from raw sensor readings to volumetric moisture content or water

potential using secondary or tertiary methods tend to be sensor or soil specific, affected or

precluded at high salinity levels and dependent on temperature. Research-grade instruments

typically have laboratory measured accuracy worse than +/- 4% when relying on factory settings or

as good as +/- 1% when calibrated for the specific soil. Sensors based on the TDR method seem to

require least calibration but may be unsuitable for soils with very high salinity or clay content.

There are no comparable laboratory specifications for granular matrix sensors, possibly because

they are technically more difficult to calibrate, their response times are relatively slow and the

output is hysteretic for wetting and drying curves.

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Soil dielectric measurement is the method of choice for most research studies where expertise is

available for calibration, installation and interpretation, but scope for cost reduction through sensor

multiplexing is limited due to the possibility of stray capacitances. A lower manufacturing cost is

possible through development of application specific integrated circuits (ASICS), though this

requires a high level of investment. Multiple sensors are required to provide a depth profile and

cover a representative area, but this cost can be minimized through use of a computer model to

extend the measurements in a predictive way. Thus, by using the moisture sensors, the over-riding

factor will be reliable, cost- effective sensors and electronic systems for accessing and interpreting

the data.

2.4.2 Soil Moisture Sensor Has the Following Specifications

Name Specification
Vcc power supply 3.3V or 5V
Current 35mA
Signal output voltage 0-4.2V
Digital Outputs 0 or 1
Analog Resistance (Ω)
Panel Dimension 3.0cm by 1.6cm
Probe Dimension 6.0cm by 3.0cm
GND Connected to ground
Table 1: Soil Moisture Sensor Specifications

Irrigation is the most important cultural practice and most labor intensive task in daily

greenhouse operation. Knowing when and how much to water is two important aspects of

irrigation. To do this automatically, sensors and methods are available to determine when plants

may need water. (Dr. Peter Ling, 2005)

In this project, it suggested we use soil moisture detector to do irrigation. Two

suggested soil moisture detector are tensiometer and dielectric sensor. Advantage of a

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tensiometer is that they are not affected by the temperature of the soil water solution or the

osmotic potential (the amount of salts dissolved in the soil water), as the salts can move into

and out of the ceramic cup freely. Therefore tensiometer readings are not affected b y electro-

conductivity (EC) o r soil temperature. But, this type of sensor will need maintenance. Water in

the tensiometer cavity needs frequent refilling when tensiometers are used in dry environments

where the tensiometer becomes a source of water that seeps out due to drier surrounding soil.

2.4.3 Soil Moisture Sensors Equation

A soil moisture sensor is a device that measures the volumetric water content (VWC) of

soil. Mathematically VWC, θ, is given as follows;

Where: Vw is the water volume and

VT is the total volume (soil volume + water volume).

Soil moisture sensors are classified according to how they measure the soil moisture

content. Two methods are used in determining the volumetric water content (VWC); direct and

indirect. The direct method entails drying a known volume of soil in an oven and weighing it.

The direct method of measuring VWC is done using the following mathematical notation:

Where:

a) Mwet is soil sample before drying in the oven

b) Mdry is soil sample after drying in the oven

c) ρw i s w a t e r d e n s i t y

d) Vb is the volume of soil sample before

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 Indirect method is based on correlating soil physical and chemical properties with water

content. Three techniques are used in this method namely: chemical titrations, geophysical sensing

and satellite remote sensing.

Chemical titration determines the moisture loss in sample soil after freeze drying or

heating. Satellite remote sensing uses microwave radiation to check on the difference in dielectric

properties of dry and wet soils. Geophysical sensing uses physical devices which are inserted in

the soil to determine the soil moisture content. Techniques used in this method include: electrical

resistance, electrical conductivity, soil dielectric, soil tension, TDR, FDR, soil capacitance

among others.

A controlled irrigation system can include a control device for determining whether to

irrigate soil and at least one irrigation structure having an actuator for controlling water flow.

The actuator can be communicably coupled to the control device for delivering water to

irrigate a region. The controlled irrigation system further can include at least one time domain

reflectometry sensor ("TDRS") located in the soil and communicably coupled to the control

device for measuring soil moisture where the control device determines whether to irrigate

the soil based on data from the at least one TDRS. Additionally, a method for controlling an

irrigation system can include providing multiple. TDRS's having probes, distributing each TDRS

at a different soil depth, measuring soil moisture content, and irrigating soil based on the

measuring step. (Dukes, Michael D. et al., 2005)

2.4.4 Sensor Installation

A single sensor can be used to control the irrigation for many zones (where an irrigation

zone is defined by a solenoid valve) or multiple sensors can be used to irrigate individual zones. In

the case of one sensor for several zones, the zone that is normally the driest, or most in need of

irrigation, is selected for placement of the sensor in order to ensure adequate irrigation in all zones.

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Some general rules for the burial of the soil moisture sensor are:

i. Sensors should be buried in the root zone of the plants to be irrigated, because this is where

plants will extract water. Burial in the root zone will help ensure adequate turf or landscape

quality. For turf grass, the sensor should typically be buried at about three inches deep.

ii. Sensors need to be in good contact with the soil after burial; there should be no air gaps

surrounding the sensor. Soil should be packed firmly but not excessively around the sensor.

iii. If one sensor is used to control the entire irrigation system, it should be buried in the zone

that requires water first, to ensure that all zones get adequate irrigation. Typically, this will

be an area with full sun or the area with the most sun exposure.

iv. Sensors should be placed at least 5 feet from the home, property line, or an impervious

surface (such as a driveway) and 3 feet from a planted bed area.

v. Sensors should also be located at least 5 feet from irrigation heads and toward the center of

an irrigation zone.

vi. Sensors should not be buried in high traffic areas to prevent excess compaction of the soil

around the sensor.

2.5 Valve

Solenoid valves are electromechanical valves that are controlled by stopping or

running an electrical current through a solenoid, in order to change the state of the valve. A

solenoid is a coil of wire that is magnetized when electricity runs through it. The solenoid

valve makes use of this solenoid in order to activate a valve, thus controlling water flow, airflow

and other things with electricity. Basically, there are three types of solenoid valves: the

general-purpose type, low- pressure steam type and the high pressure steam type. (Jimmy Sturo,

2006)

In this article, it stated that there are three types of solenoid valve which are general-purpose

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type, low pressure steam type and the high pressure steam type. Valve is one the components

that will need maintenance. The solenoid valve can get damaged after a period of time. Thus, a

replacement solenoid will be needed.

2.6 Water Level Monitoring

The model consists of a series of tanks arranged one below the other. The volume of the

tanks is in descending order (The highest tank being the largest). Water flows from the top tank

through outlets at the bottom. Three tanks or trophic levels chosen for the model is the optimum

number required to analyze the effect of top down and bottom up controls. Each tank has two

outlets, outlet a. and outlet b. Each outlet has the water flow through it regulated by means of

valves. These valves are controlled by floats in the tanks. Valve of each tank is controlled by the

level of water in the tank above it (preceding) while valve b is controlled by the level of the water

in the given tank itself. The water from the last tank and outlets a flow into a large basin from

which the water is re-circulated to the 1st tank. (Maurice S. D, 2005)

In this journal, it discuss on the mod el of a flow control. This model can used to control

the flow control of the water in the tank. From this model, the idea for monitoring water level

is produced. This is to ensure that the plant will always get water even though drought

happens.

2.7 Arduino Uno Micro Controller Description

The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328. It has 14 digital

input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz ceramic

resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains

everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable

or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started.

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The Uno differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver

chip. Instead, it features the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to version R2) programmed as a USB-

to-serial converter.

2.7.1 ATmega328P

Features:

i. 28-pin AVR Microcontroller

ii. Flash Program Memory: 32 Kbytes

iii. EEPROM Data Memory: 1 Kbytes

iv. SRAM Data Memory: 2 Kbytes

v. I/O Pins: 23

vi. Timers: Two 8-bit / One 16-bit

vii. A/D Converter: 10-bit Six Channel

viii. PWM: Six Channels

ix. RTC: Yes with Separate Oscillator

x. MSSP: SPI and I²C Master and Slave Support

xi. USART: Yes

xii. External Oscillator: up to 20MHz

22
 Figure 2.7.1 ATMEGA 328 (Pin Configuration)

2.7.2 Physical Characteristics

The maximum length and width of the Uno PCB are 2.7 and 2.1 inches respectively, with

the USB connector and power jack extending beyond the former dimension. Four screw holes allow

the board to be attached to a surface or case. Note that the distance between digital pins 7 and 8 is

16 mil (0.16"), not an even multiple of the 100 mil spacing of the other pins. Interface almost

anything; the best choice for beginners – this is the Arduino UNO board. Using an ATmega328

microcontroller and 14 I/O pins, Arduino UNO is one of the most popular development boards in

robotics and electronics as well. We take a look around and select the best tutorials to start working

with the board. From tutorials to setup Arduino UNO, and up to blink an LED or how to control a

robot wirelessly using an Android phone. This article is a good starting point and a good

introduction to Arduino UNO board.

23
 Figure: 2.7.2 ArduinoUno IDE

2.7.3 Steps for Using Arduino IDE

Step 1

Arduino microcontrollers come in a variety of types. The most common is the Arduino

UNO, but there are specialized variations. Before you begin building, do a little research to figure

out which version will be the most appropriate for your project.

Step 2

To begin, you'll need to install the Arduino Programmer, aka the integrated development

environment (IDE).

Step 3

Connect your Arduino to the USB port of your computer. This may require a specific USB

cable. Every Arduino has a different virtual serial-port address, so you'll need to reconfigure the

port if you're using different Arduinos.

Step 4

Set the board type and the serial port in the Arduino Programmer.

24
Step 5

Test the microcontroller by using one of the preloaded programs, called sketches, in the

Arduino Programmer. Open one of the example sketches, and press the upload button to load it.

The Arduino should begin responding to the program: If you've set it to blink an LED light, for

example, the light should start blinking.

Step 6

To upload new code to the Arduino, either you'll need to have access to code you can paste

into the programmer, or you'll have to write it yourself, using the Arduino programming language

to create your own sketch. An Arduino sketch usually has five parts: a header describing the sketch

and its author; a section defining variables; a setup routine that sets the initial conditions of

variables and runs preliminary code; a loop routine, which is where you add the main code that will

execute repeatedly until you stop running the sketch; and a section where you can list other

functions that activate during the setup and loop routines. All sketches must include the setup and

loop routines.

Step 7

Once you've uploaded the new sketch to your Arduino, disconnect it from your computer

and integrate it into your project as directed.

Step 9

Upload the program now; simply click the "Upload" button in the environment. Wait a few

seconds - you should see the RX and TX lids on the board flashing. If the upload is successful, the

message "Done uploading." will appear in the status bar.

2.8 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) screen is an electronic display module. An LCD has a wide

25
range of applications in electronics. The most basic and commonly used LCD in circuits is the

16x2 display. LCDs are commonly preferred in display because they are cheap, easy to

programme and can display a wide range of characters and animations. A 16x2 LCD have two

display lines each capable of displaying 16 characters. This LCD has Command and Data registers.

The command register stores command instructions given to the LCD while the Data register stores

the data to be displayed by the LCD.

Figure 2.8 LCD (16X2)

When using 8-bit configuration all 8 data pins (DB0-DB7) are used while only 4 data pins (DB4-

DB7) are used in a 4-bit configuration.

Pin number Function Symbol

1 Ground (0V) VSS
2 Supply voltage (5V) VDD
3 Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor(potentiometer) V0

4 Selects command register when low; and data register when RS

5 Low to write to the register; High to read from the register RW

6 Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given E
7 8-bit data pins D0
8 8-bit data pins D1
9 8-bit data pins D2

26
 10 8-bit data pins D3
11 8-bit data pins D4
12 8-bit data pins D5
13 8-bit data pins D6
14 8-bit data pins D7
15 Backlight VCC (5V) A
16 Backlight Ground (0V) K
Table 2: LCD Pin configuration

2.9 Water Pump

The water pump is used to artificially supply water for a particular task. It can be

electronically controlled by interfacing it to a microcontroller. It can be triggered ON/OFF by

sending signals as required. The process of artificially supplying water is known as pumping. There

are many varieties of water pumps used. This project employs the use of a small water pump which

is connected to a H-Bridge.

Figure 2.9 Water Pump

The pumping of water is a basic and practical technique, far more practical than scooping it

up with one's hands or lifting it in a hand-held bucket. This is true whether the water is drawn from

a fresh source, moved to a needed location, purified, or used for irrigation, washing, or sewage

27
treatment, or for evacuating water from an undesirable location. Regardless of the outcome, the

energy required to pump water is an extremely demanding component of water consumption. All

other processes depend or benefit either from water descending from a higher elevation or some

pressurized plumbing system.

2.10 Active Components

2.10.1 Transistor

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and

electrical power. It is the modern miniature semiconductor equivalent of the harmonic value and

was invented in 1947 by Bardeen, shocking at USA. Transistors are packaged as separate and

discrete-component. There are two basic types of transistor, the bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

and Field Effect transistor (FET)

It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an

external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the

current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be

higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal.

From the project in study, the type of transistor used belongs to the class of bipolar junction

transistor. Bipolar transistor consists of three pieces of semiconductor material Sandwiched together

known as base, collector and emitter. It is known as a three-terminal device. The Bipolar junction

transistor (BJT) can be sub-grouped into:

28
 1. NPN 2. PNP

(a) (b)

Fig 2.10.1: (a) NPN and (b) PNP

NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, consisting of a layer of P-doped

semiconductor (the "base") between two N-doped layers. A small current entering the base is

amplified to produce a large collector and emitter current. That is, when there is a positive potential

difference measured from the emitter of an NPN transistor to its base (i.e., when the base is high

relative to the emitter) as well as positive potential difference measured from the base to the

collector, the transistor becomes active. In this "on" state, current flows between the collector and

emitter of the transistor. Most of the current is carried by electrons moving from emitter to collector

as minority carriers in the P-type base region. To allow for greater current and faster operation,

most bipolar transistors used today are NPN because electron is mobility higher than hole mobility.

The type of transistor used is the C945 that amplify electrical signal for switching the relay

device. Its maximum current IC is 500mA.

Figure: 2.10.2 NPN Transistor

2.11 Silicon Diode

A diode is two terminal active, non-linear device used in containing voltage and current in a circuit.

29
It allows current to flow in one direction, the device is said to be forward current biased when the

voltage applied the diode is positive related to the cathode. The direction of forward biased the

effective resistance across the diode is very low. But when reversed biased would be a perfect

conductor for forward current and a perfect insulator for reverse current.

Carrying such currents requires a large junction area so that the forward resistance of the diode is

kept as low as possible. Even so the diode is likely to get quite warm. The black resin case helps

dissipate the heat.

The resistance to current in the reverse direction (when the diode is "off") must be high, and the

insulation offered by the depletion layer between the P and N layers extremely good to avoid the

possibility of "reverse breakdown", where the insulation of the diode fails due to the high reverse

voltage across the junction.

Silicon diodes are made in many different forms with widely differing parameters. They vary in

current carrying ability from milli-amps to tens of amps, some will have reverse breakdown

voltages of thousands of volts; others use their junction capacitance to act as tuning devices in radio

and TV tuners. Look in suppliers lists to see the many types available.

Fig 2.11: Diode Symbol

2.12 Passive Components

2.12.1 Resistor

30
 A resistor is a device designed to have a specific amount of resistance to the passage of

current. Resistor is used in circuit to limit current flow, provide a voltage drop or other related

functions like limiting current passing through some components like the liquid crystal display

(LCD), transistor and diodes. The value of each resistor determines the current flowing through it

and the value can be determined by the color band on the resistor. The resistance of a resistor is a

fundamental property of such resistor as shown.

R = V/I

Where;

R = Resistance of the resistor

V = voltage of the resistor

I = Current of the resistor

Resistor can be connected in series or parallel depending on the need. Its unit is measured in Ohms

()

2.12.2 Resistor in Series

The resistors are joined end-on-end as shown below. It can be proved that the equivalent resistance

or total resistance between points A and D is equal to the sum of the three individual resistances.

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ………

2.12.3 Resistor in Parallel

They are joined in parallel, in this case the potential difference across one resistance is the

same and the current in each resistor is different and is given by ohm‘s law

I/RT = I/R1 + I/R2 + I/R3 + ……

2.12.4 Resistor Colour Codes

31
 Plate 1: Resistor Colour Code

The colors brown, red, green, blue, and violet are used as tolerance codes on 5-band

resistors only. All 5-band resistors use a colored tolerance band. The blank (20%) “band” is only

used with the “4-band” code (3 colored bands + a blank “band”).

2.12.5 Potentiometer

A potentiometer, informally a pot, is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating

contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, one end and the

wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat.

32
 (a) External View (b) Internal View

2.13 Quartz Crystal Oscillators

An electronic circuit or electronic device that is used to generate periodically oscillating

electronic signal is called as an electronic oscillator. The electronic signal produced by an oscillator

is typically a sine wave or square wave. An electronic oscillator converts the direct current signal

into an alternating current signal. The radio and television transmitters are broad casted using the

signals generated by oscillators. The electronic beep sounds and video game sounds are generated

by the oscillator signals. These oscillators generate signals using the principle of oscillation. One of

the most important features of any oscillator is its frequency stability, or in other words its ability to

provide a constant frequency output under varying load conditions. Crystal Oscillator symbol and

picture;

(a) Symbol (b) Picture

33
2.13.1 Microprocessor Oscillator

Fig 2.13.1: Microprocessor Oscillator connection

Most microprocessors, micro-controllers and PIC’s have two oscillator pins labelled OSC1

and OSC2 to connect to an external quartz crystal circuit, standard RC oscillator network or even a

ceramic resonator. In this type of microprocessor application the Quartz Crystal Oscillator produces

a train of continuous square wave pulses whose fundamental frequency is controlled by the crystal

itself. This fundamental frequency regulates the flow of instructions that controls the processor

device.

2.13.2 Quartz Crystal Oscillator Calculation

A quartz crystal has the following values after being cut, Rs = 1kΩ, Cs = 0.05pF, Ls = 3H

and Cp = 10pF. Calculate the crystals series and parallel oscillating frequencies.

The series oscillating frequency is given as:

 The parallel oscillating frequency is given as:

34
 Then the frequency of oscillation for the crystal will be between 411kHz and 412kHz

2.14 Capacitor

A capacitor essentially consists of two conducting surface separated by a layer of an

insulating medium called dielectric. The conducting surface may be in the form of either circular

(or rectangular) plates or be of spherical or cylindrical shape. The purpose of a capacitor is to store

electrical energy by electrostatic stress in the dielectric. Its plates are at different potential and it is

referred to as capacitance of the capacitor. The unit of capacitance is farads (f), which may be

defined as the capacitance of a capacitor between the plates of which there appears a potential

difference of 1volt when it is charged by 1 coulombs of electricity.

Charge (coulombs) = capacitance (farads)

Applied p.d (volts)

Or symbol Q/V = C

Therefore Q = CV coulombs

Capacitors can be connected in parallel or in series. The resultant of capacitance of

capacitors in parallel is the arithmetic sum of their respective capacitances.

CT = C1 + C2 + C3 +……….

35
While the reciprocal of the resultant capacitance of capacitors connected in series is the reciprocal

of their respective capacitance.

I/CT = I/C1 + I/C2 + I/C3

Factors that affect the value of a capacitor depend primarily on:

i. Area of plates

ii. Separation distance between plates and

iii. The dielectric constant of the dielectric material between the plates.

2.14.1 Capacitor symbols

Capacitor Polarized capacitor

Fig 2.14.1: How to find Ceramic Capacitor

36
Multiplier Table (Ceramic)
Number Multiply By (Additional # of Zeros)
0 None (0)
1 10 (1)
2 100 (2)
3 1,000 (3)
4 10,000 (4)
5 100,000 (5)
6 1,000,000 (6)

Common Temperature Coefficient Codes (Ceramic)

Code Tolerance
C ±0.25pF
J ±5%
K ±10%
M ±20%
D ±0.5pF
Z +80% / -20%

Table 2.14.2 General Table

37
Table 2.14.3: Ceramic Capacitor General Table

38
 CHAPTER THREE

DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

3.0 Introduction

The system has three major parts; Moisture sensing part, control section and the output

section. The soil humidity was detected using YL-69 soil sensor (a resistance type sensor). The

control unit was achieved using ATMega328 microcontroller based on arduino platform. The

output was the unit used to control the irrigation system by switching it on and off depending on

the soil moisture contents. Two stages of design were undertaken; hardware and software.

3.1 Block diagram of the System

Fig 3.1: Block diagram

39
3.1.1 Block Diagram Description

There are three functional components in this project. They are the moisture sensors, gravity

tank & reservoir sensor and the motor/water pump. Thus the Arduino Board is programmed using

the Arduino IDE software. The function of the moisture sensor is to sense the level of moisture in

the soil. The motor/water pump supplies water to the plants.

This project uses Arduino Uno to controls the motor. Follow the schematic to connect the Arduino

to the motor driver, and the driver to the water pump. The motor can be driven by 230volt. The

moisture sensor measures the level of moisture in the soil and sends the signal to the Arduino if

watering is required. The motor/water pump supplies water to the plants until the desired moisture

level is reached.

3.2 Hardware (System Design and Analysis)

3.2.1 Power Supply

Electrical power is the rate of movement of electrons that create energy. As a result of the

electronic age many products need electrical power to perform certain activities. Being able to

manipulate electrical power comes at a cost. In today's world there is always the bottom line, cost.

Power supplies are the devices that can manipulate electrical power to be used in various

applications. Power supplies can be expensive but there are cheaper alternative solutions that can

produce the same output. A power supply includes conversion steps and has to be reliable enough

not to damage what it is hooked up to. Both aspects need specific parts in a certain orientations to

create those specific outputs.

3.2.2 Design of Power Supply (12V & 5V Combo power supply)

Every circuit runs on a different voltage, some circuits’ runs on 5V, 9V and so on. But in this

project we will be using 5V and 12V if we are using an ATMEGA 16bit micro control then we

40
need a 5V power supply because the operating voltage for ATMEGA 16 micro control is 5V. If

you will give voltage greater than 5V than your micro controller may get damaged. For avoiding

this we always use a 5V power supply for micro controller circuits.

Below is a block diagram of dc power supply in which four steps are given named as:

Fig 3.2.2: Block Diagram of Power Supply

1. Transformer (Stepping Down)

2. Rectifier (ac to dc conversion)

3. Filter (Removing ripples from dc current)

4. Voltage Regulator (To set regulated dc supply)

Stepping down voltage:-First step is scale down the voltage by a step down

transformer. Step down transformer converts the 230 AC voltages to the lower AC voltage.

Maximum people think that a transformer give dc output voltage because we do not get shock

by touching its output wire. But this is totally wrong. A step down transformer gives (alternating

current) at output

41
 Fig 3.2.3 Transformer

Mathematically:

N s Es Es
= , Ns ¿ N p x
N p EP EP

I P N s Es
And for current, I = =
I S N p EP

Where, Ns = Secondary Turns

Np = Primary Turns

Es = Secondary Voltage

Ep = Primary Voltage

Is = Secondary Current

Ip = Primary Current

Rectifier: These are the equipment that converts the alternating current into direct current.

T process of conversion from ac (alternating current) to dc (direct current) is known a

rectification. These are very important circuits in the designing the dc power supply. In our

power supply we are using full wave bridge rectifier. This rectifier is made up of pn-

42
junction diodes.

Fig 3.2.4 Full Bridge Rectify Connection

When terminal 1 is positive with respect to 2, diodes D1 and D3 conduct. When terminal

2 is positive with respect to 1, diodes D2 and D4 would conduct, thereby giving a pulsating D.C

output as shown below:

Voltage, V

Time, t
Fig 3.2.5 Rectifier Output

Filter: After rectification a filtering process of dc current is carried out with the help of fill

because the output of the Rectifier contains some ripples or you can say distortion. So we ne to

filter these distortions, in our power supply we are using a 50V 1000uF capacitor. You can

also use a 25V 1000uF or 35V 1000uF capacitor instead of 50V 1000uF capacitor.

43
 Fig 3.2.6: Capacitor Filtering connection

Fig 3.2.7 Rectified and Filtered Output Waveform

Equation below refers to the relationship between the filter capacitor and other supply parameters.

Vs
V dc =
I dc
1+
4 FC V s

It is preferable to choose a filtering capacitor that will hold the peak-to-peak ripples at

approximately 10% of the peak voltage. Therefore;

Vripple = 0.1Vpeak

Vripple = 0.1 × 16.97

Vripple = 1.697V

But also, Vripple = I/2fC for full wave

44
Where;I = current taken by the load, f = frequency of supply

C = filtering capacitor, C = I /2fVripple

= 0.17/ (2 × 50 × 1.697) = 1001.7µF

From this calculation, a standard capacitor of 2200µF was chosen.

Where,

Vdc = Expected DC output from the regulator

f= Supply frequency

Idc = Output current of regulator

Vs = Transformer Secondary Voltage

C = Capacitance of the filter capacitor

Voltage Regulator IC: The regulator is a single chip that regulates the ripple free

rectified voltage to give a constant output voltage. Since the circuit needs a supply voltage of

12V and 5V, a 12V and 5V regulators were used. The percentage regulation or simply regulator

of a power supply is given by:

% Regulation = [(Vmax – Vmin)/Vmax] × 100

Where;Vmax = maximum dc output voltage

Vmin = minimum dc output voltage

In a general form

% Regulation = [(Vno load – Vfull load)/Vfull load] × 100

The voltage regulator provides the regulated output. There are many voltage regulator

ICs available in the market. For 5V dc output we are using LM7805 and for 12V dc power

supply we are using LM7812.

45
Description:

This is a simple approach to obtain a 12V and 5V DC power supply using a single circuit.

The circuit uses two ICs 7812(IC1) and 7805 (IC2) for obtaining the required voltages. The AC

mains voltage will be stepped down by the transformer T1, rectified by bridge B1 and filtered by

capacitor C1 to obtain a steady DC level. The IC1 regulates this voltage to obtain a steady 12V DC.

The output of the IC1 will be regulated by the IC2 to obtain a steady 5V DC at its output. In this

way both 12V and 5V DC are obtained. Such a circuit is very useful in cases when we need two DC

voltages for the operation of a circuit. By varying the type number of the IC1 and IC2, various

combinations of output voltages can be obtained. If 7806 is used for IC2, we will get 6V instead of

5V.Same way if 7809 is used for IC1 we get 9V instead of 12V.

Fig 3.2.8: Power Supply Circuit Diagram

Notes:

 Assemble the circuit on a good quality PCB or common board.

 The transformer T1 can be a 230V primary, 15V secondary, 1A step-down transformer.

 The fuse F1 can be of 1A.

 The switch S1 can be a SPST ON/OFF switch.

46
  The LED D1 acts as a power ON indicator.

 If 1A bridge B1 is not available, make one using four 1N4007 diodes.

 78XX series ICs can deliver only up to 1A output current.

3.3 Switching Unit

This unit consists of a transistors (BC109) operating as a switch, relays and a DC motor.

3.3.1 Transistor

This is a three terminal, three layer device formed by adding a second p or n region to a p-n

junction diode. With two n-regions and one p-region, two junctions are formed and it is known as

an NPN transistor. The common emitter configuration for an NPN transistor is generally used in

switching applications and it is shown below;

NPN

Fig 3.3.1: NPN Transistor

3.4 Relay Switching Circuit/Connection

This is an electromagnetic switch which is activated when a current is applied to it. A relay

uses small currents to switch huge currents. Most relays use principle of electromagnetism to

operate but still other operating principles like solid state are also used. A contactor is a type of

relay which can handle a high power required to control an electric motor or other loads directly.

Solid state relays have no moving parts and they use semiconductor devices to perform switching.

47
 Figure 3.4: 5VDC Coil Relay

Relays are switches and thus terminologies applied to switches are also applied to relays. A relay

switches one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil in one

of three ways.

 NO contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is disconnected

when the relay is inactive.

 NC contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is connected

when the relay is inactive.

 CO or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits: one normally-open contact and

one normally-closed contact with a common terminal.

A contact relay switches one or more poles each of whose contacts can be thrown by

energizing the coil in three ways namely; normally open(NO), normally closed(NC) or change

over(CO). Just like manual switches the relay switch part is available in various configurations.

Double pole, double throw (DPDT) configuration is most common configuration. DPDT means

that the relay separately controls two switches that work together. Both switches have a

normally NO and NC contacts. Other commonly used configurations are:

 SPST – Single Pole Single Throw. This relay configuring has four terminals. Two of the

terminals are coil terminals.

 SPDT – Single Pole Double Throw. This configuring has five terminals. One of the

48
 terminals is a common terminal which connects to either of the two others.

Figure 3.4.1: Inside a SPST relay

 DPST ( Double Pole Single Throw):- This relay configuring has six terminals. It is

equivalent to SPST in that it is actuated by a single coil.

A simple example of relay switching unit (application) where a 12VDC circuit can be used

to turn on/off a 230v

Figure 3.4.2: Simple relay interfacing

Whenever a relay is driven from a circuit that has delicate components such as integrated

circuits or transistors, a diode is always included across the relay coil to prevent the relay from

damaging the circuit.

49
The working of the relay for various test conditions is tabulated below

S/ N Voltage Soil Amplifier Relay Relay Water

Q reference 'NO' pump
range condition output
pin contact operation
(digital)
voltage
1 > 5V Excess wet 0 1 1 open OFF
Optimally
0 1 1 open OFF
2 < 5V & Wet
Optimally 1 0 0
> 3V closed ON
Dry
3 < 3V Dry 1 0 0 closed ON

Table 3.4: Operation of relay for various soil moisture conditions

3.5 Sensing Unit

3.5.1 Soil Moisture Sensor Connection to Arduino

Soil moisture sensor was interfaced to the arduino through a digital a PCB drive. The PCB

drive has a digital potentiometer. The digipot is used to alter the sensitivity of the sensor when

connected in digital mode. The out of the PCB drive has four connections pins as shown in the

table below.

Sign Connect

Vcc Connected to 5VDC

GND Connected to ground

A0 Analog value output connector

D0 Digital value output connector（0 or 1）

Table 3.5.1: PCB pins

The analogue configuration was selected as its more stable compared to the digital

configuration. The PCB drive pin A0 was connected to the arduino analog pin A0.

50
 Figure 3.5.1: Connection to arduino board

The output of the sensor to the arduino analog pin A0 was resistance. The resistance to flow

of current between the sensor probes changes with soil moisture level and soil type. The current

passing through the sensor probes (Iout) for different soils and different soil moisture levels was

calculated as shown below:

V cc
I ou t=
{S oil R e si s tan c e v a lue( R S )}

Equation 3.5 Current calculation

3.6 Output Units

3.6.1 Testing LCD interface with Arduino

To affect display a 16x2 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) was chosen. LCD pins D4, D5,

D6 and D7 were used as data lines in a 4 bit mode configuration. These pins were connected to

arduino pins 5, 4, 3 and 2 respectively. Pin 15(A) was connected to Vcc and pin 16 (K) was

connected to GND. These pins (A and K) are for the LEDs integrated on the LCD circuit board.

LCD’s pin E (Enable) was connected to digital pin 11 on the arduino board. Pin RS (Register

Select) on the LCD was connected to arduino digital pin 12. R/W pin of the LCD was connected to

51
GND (ground). The figure below shows the LCD-microcontroller interface.

Figure 3.6.1: LCD Connection to Arduino Board

3.7 Testing Water Pump Connection to the Arduino

To implement the final bit of the automated irrigation system an electric motor (240VAC)

was selected as the water pump. The first two units of the system i.e. sensing unit and the control

unit (microcontroller) are powered by 5VDC. To interface the two units a 5VDC relay (SLT73-

5D-1Z) was used as the isolation unit. The microcontroller was connected to the relay via an NPN

transistor (2N4123). To protect the transistor; while turning it on, a resistor was used. The resistor

limits the current flowing through the transistor. As was the case with LEDs ohms law was used as

shown below.

( 5−0.7 ) V
Rmin = = 107.5
40 mA

A resistor of 470𝛺 was selected and thus the current through the transistor was limited to;
I = 4.3V / 470𝛺 = 9.12 mA
To protect the microcontroller from back e.m.f during switching a diode was connected

across the relay. The connection was as shown below.

52
 Figure 3.7 Relay interfacing of arduino to the 230VAC pump

3.8 Software Design (Programming)

3.8.1 Proteus ISIS

Proteus allows engineers to run interactive simulations of real designs for circuit simulation.

It has a range of simulator models for popular micro-controllers and a set of animated models for

related peripheral devices such as LED and LCD displays, keypads and more. It is possible to

simulate complete micro-controller systems and thus to develop the software for them without

access to a physical prototype.

It has simulated our hardware model using the software Proteus ISIS. The simulator models

such as Atmega328, LED, LCD display, Switches, pot, Relay, Resistors, Transistor and sources

were used and results were verified with hardware results.

3.8.2 Programming

53
 The Arduino Uno can be programmed with the Arduino IDE software. The Arduino

microcontroller is an easy to use yet powerful single board computer that has gained considerable

traction in the hobby and professional market. The Arduino is open-source, which means hardware

is reasonably priced and development software is free. The Arduino Uno board features an Atmel

ATmega328 microcontroller operating at 5 V with 2 Kb of RAM, 32Kb of flash memory for storing

programs and 1 Kb of EEPROM for storing parameters. The clock speed is 16 MHz, which

translates to about executing about 300,000 lines of C source code per second. The board has 14

digital I/O pins and 6 analog input pins. There is a USB connector for talking to the host computer

and a DC power jack for connecting an external 6-20 V power source, for example a 9 V battery,

when running a program while not connected to the host computer. Headers are provided for

interfacing to the I/O pins using 22 g solid wire or header connectors.

The Arduino programming language is a simplified version of C/C++. If you know C,

programming the Arduino will be familiar. If you do not know C, no need to worry as only a few

commands are needed to perform useful functions. An important feature of the Arduino is that you

can create a control program on the host PC, download it to the Arduino and it will run

automatically. Remove the USB cable connection to the PC, and the program will still run from the

top each time you push the reset button. Remove the battery and put the Arduino board in a closet

for six months. When you reconnect the battery, the last program you stored will run. This means

that you connect the board to the host PC to develop and debug your program, but once that is done,

you no longer need the PC to run the program.

3.8.3 Flow Chart of the System

54
 START

Initialize Processor

Monitor Soil Sensor

Input

Is Soil WET?

Yes

No
Is Tank Dry? Is Tank Full?

No Yes No Yes

Open Tap, Open Tap, Close Tap, Close Tap,

Turn OFF pump, Turn ON pump, Turn ON pump, Turn off pump,
3.6.4 Source
Turn Code
ON LED Turn ON LED Turn ON LED Turn ON LED

Figure 3.8.3: Flowchart of Program Executed by Microcontroller

55
CHAPTER FOUR

56
 TESTS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.0 Introduction

This chapter deals with the description of tests performed on the various sections of the

overall system and their corresponding results as well as the result of the overall system. In order to

verify the correct functionality of the system, each component had to be tested individually. To

achieve the effective testing of these various components, the following tools were used:

 Digital Multimeter

 Vero board/Bread board

 Sensor Probes

 Soldering Iron & Lead Cable

 Light emitting diodes

 Proteus and Multisim LAB simulation software

 Designing the PBC board, mounting the component and soldering them

 Arduino Uno board

 USB programming cable (A to B)

 Solid wire for connections

The testing was done on each and every components/sections that make up the circuit to ensure

proper and satisfactory operation of the safe lock. The debugging was done using the Arduino Uno

and Proteus LAB simulation software; Each and every section of the code was debugged properly

to ensure proper functionality thus a step debugging was done. This is a facility in the Arduino Uno

and Proteus LAB simulation software that enables you step into program and at the same Time

views the registers and flag settings.

4.1 Working Principle of the Overall System

57
 The system consists of Soil Moisture Sensor, a PIC Microcontroller and a Relay interface

board. The irrigation system consists of lanes through which each segment of the land is flooded

and the flooding is controlled using valves as shown in the Figure 5. There is also a motor pump

that is used to fill the water Tanker.

Fig: 4.1: Simple wiring diagram of the system

4.2 Power Supply

The power supply unit of +5V and +12V were tested for the output voltage under no-load

and full-load conditions.

Under no-load, the voltage of the +5V supply section was measured to be 4.95V while that

of the +12V supply was measured to be 11.94V. At full- load, the respective voltages were

measured as 4.85V and 11.83V.

4.2.1 Voltage Regulation (V.R)

58
 V NL V FL
V .R   100 %
V NL
Where,

VNL = No-load Voltage

VFL = Full-load Voltage

For the units operating on +5V,

4.95 4.85 2.02 %

V .R   100 % =
4.95

For the units operating on +12V,

11.89 11.41 4.03 %

V .R   100 % =
11.89

From the results obtained above, the performance of the power supply is satisfactory.

4.3 Result Analysis

4.3.1 Simulation results using MultiSim

By varying the resistance (700 kΩ) in the potential divider circuit as a representation for the

dry/wet condition of the sample soil, the circuit was tested and the results are tabulated below:

S/N Soil Moisture level Output of the sensor circuit Output of the main pump
(in Volts) controlling circuit (in Volts)
1 Below lower level 2.375 0

2 Increasing but below 3.262 0

higher level
3 More than higher level 5.265 10

4 Decreasing but higher 4.372 10

than lower level

Table 4.3.1: Simulation results

59
 4.3.2 The working of the relay for various test conditions is tabulated below

S/N Voltage Soil condition Q Amplifier Relay Relay 'NO' Water pump
output reference contact operation
range
(digital) pin voltage
1 > 5V Excess wet 0 1 1 open OFF

Optimally wet 0 1 1 open OFF

< 5V &
2 Optimally dry 1 0 0 closed ON
> 3V

3 < 3V Dry 1 0 0 closed ON

Table 4.3.2: Operation of relay for various soil moisture conditions

4.3.3 Soil Condition Analysis

The VWC Of sand soil, red soil and black soils were calculated. The raw data collected

from the soil moisture sensor was recorded as shown in table 4.4.3. The soil was measured in equal

amount of 250gramms. Water was added in the soils in steps and the sensor values recorded.

3 Sensor
Soil water content (cm )
Loam soil Sand soil
Reading Red soil

0 1021 1022 1020

50 580 546 781

75 360 234 568

100 237 243 295

125 203 184 274

150 191 180 235

175 180 170 220

The data obtained from the sensor reading and recorded in table 3.1 was used to plot a graph

of Soil water content against sensor reading.

60
 Figure 4.3.3: Graph of Soil Condition

Comment:

The SMS (YL-69) used is a resistance sensor type. Its output is the resistance in the soil

between the two SMS probes. The obtained graph is an exponential one. The value of the soil

resistance decreases with increase in water content to a certain point.

To come up with the results the three soils were dried using a frying pan until all the moisture

content was lost. 250 grams was measured for the red soil, black soil and the sand soil. Water was

added in steps of 25cm3 and sensor value recorded. The value of soil sensor at dry soil was almost

equal for the three soils at 1021, 1022, 1020 for black soil, sand soil and red soil respectively. On

adding 50cm3 the resistance value reduced drastically to the range of 500. On adding more water

the resistance value kept reducing. At around 100cm3 of water the reduction on the soil resistance

61
stated reducing at a much lower rate. This is because at this point the soil is now becoming

saturated with water and thus adding more water has a small effect on the soil resistance. The

sensor was calibrated and three states defined. The states are soggy, moist and dry. When the dry

state was achieved the control unit (micro controller) switched the water pump on via a relay

circuit. The three states were indicated using three different LEDs and an LCD. The LCD also

indicated when the pump was running. The control circuit and the sensor circuit were powered

using a 9V alkaline battery which was connected via a voltage regulator with an output of 5V.

4.4 Discussion

In this design, not all benchmark elements have been fully studied and tested. This was

mostly due to time constraints. However, the following observations were made:

i. The installation of the automated irrigation system is very simple. The layout of the

geotextile is the most cumbersome step. No technician is required. An installation manual

should be provided to the user as well as a chart of the water needs of common

houseplants and a list of compatible soil types. The pipe network should also be easy to

set up. A tank and a compatible pipe may be included or recommended by the manufacturer.

More elaborate work may be required to connect the valve to the water mains.

ii. Water savings have not been studied for the system as a whole. Nevertheless, the

performance of the geotextile and of the moisture probe has been demonstrated by previous

experiments in real agricultural contexts.

iii. An experiment showed that it is difficult to maintain a constant soil moisture level with only

human feedback. In the short periods over which this system has been tested, virtually no

human intervention was required. The user must only verify that the system is operational

and that the water tank, if used, is not empty. On the other hand, there is no way to inform

the user of emergencies such as overflow, empty tank, component failure, etc.

62
iv. Further testing should be done in a real home or greenhouse environment to assess the

reliability and durability of the system. These tests should also be prolonged to determine

the significance of the savings in water and labour. Furthermore, all measurements and tests

were done on a very limited collection of plants of a single species. Different plants have

different water requirements and are unequally resistant to deficiencies in the water supply.

v. All the components were selected to achieve some degree of power efficiency. All the

electronic components consume less than 400mW on a constant basis. The probe consumes

a maximum of 41mW, but only for one minute per 5:20-hour duty cycle; in average, it

should require less than a milliwatt. The valve is the element that uses the most power

(8.41W maximum, 26mW average). On average, the whole system should require less than

450mW of electricity with peak consumption of less than 8.9 W.

vi. Regular maintenance of the irrigation system is not required, except to refill the water tank

(if used), to clean the geotextile, pipes and valve, and to replace parts when broken. Most

replacement components can be found in an electronic shop or a hardware store.

63
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.0 Introduction

The entire system will act as a crop and garden insurance system, as it will protect the crops

by shielding it from untimely rain, hail stones, and temperature, thereby helping the farmers to get

optimum cultivation. Also, it will help to make proper use of water, as the soil moisture level differs

from crops to crops and this will be taken care of by the soil moisture sensor. As the entire system

will be powered by solar energy which will be stored in the rechargeable batteries, one need not

think of the electricity consumption, as life of solar panel which is available these days is 25 years.

5.1 Summary

The basic concept of a soil moisture sensor system is to place a sensor in a representative

part of the lawn and allowing the sensor to “sense” if there is sufficient moisture in the soil for the

grass. If there is sufficient moisture, then the sensor will prevent the sprinkler system from

activating and applying water. However, if it senses that the soil is dry, it allows irrigation to take

place. The following information is to help explain in simple terms, the different types of soil

moisture sensors that are available and how they work. Also included is a short summary report of a

comparative demonstration of soil moisture sensors controlling irrigation for turfgrass.

The Microcontroller based irrigation system monitors and controls all the activities of drip

irrigation system efficiently. The moisture of the soil and the temperature of the surroundings will

be measured and water is supplied to the crop accordingly which prevents water clogging. This

system saves water because the water is directly fed to the root and the quality of the crop gets

improved. It also helps in time saving, removal of human error in adjusting available soil moisture

levels and to maximize their net profits.

64
5.2 Conclusion

Thus, the “AUTOMATIC SOIL MOISTURE SENSOR IRRIGATION SYSTEM USING

MICROCONTROLLER” has been designed and tested successfully. It has been developed by

integrated features of all the hardware components used. Presence of every module has been

reasoned out and placed carefully, thus contributing to the best working of the unit. Thus, the

Automatic Soil Moisture Sensor Irrigation System Using Microcontroller has been designed and

tested successfully. The system has been tested to function automatically. The moisture sensors

measure the moisture level (water content) of the different plants. If the moisture level is found to

be below the desired level, the moisture sensor sends the signal to the IC (Microcontroller) which

triggers the Water Pump to turn ON and supply the water to respective plant using the Rotating

Platform/Sprinkler. When the desired moisture level is reached, the system halts on its own and the

Water Pump is turned OFF. Thus, the functionality of the entire system has been tested thoroughly

and it is said to function successfully.

5.3 Recommendation

To improve on the effectiveness and efficiency of the system the following

recommendations can be put into considerations:

i. Cost effective techniques to overcome the limitation of requiring a soil specific

calibration should be employed.

ii. An automated irrigation was successfully designed and assembled. It serves to reduce

the consumption of water used, the human monitoring time and the labour associated with

standard methods.

iii. Integrating a technology which can be used, such that whenever the water tank and reservoir

is finished, it trigger the LED and alarm indicating “Empty” regarding the status of the

pump.

65
 iv. The system can also be controlled automatically or manually.

v. The system can be integrated with temperature and humidity sensors to monitor the weather

conditions in the farm.

vi. This design uses a timed feedback control to measure the soil moisture and turn on the

valve on demand, in regular intervals.

vii. Such a system can be manufactured at a relatively low cost using simple

electronic parts. The soil moisture probe is the most expensive component.

viii. It can be installed easily in a home environment and requires little resources.

ix. The design is still in a prototype stage. More tests need to be conducted before the

efficiency, durability, and reliability can be demonstrated. Additionally, many

improvements can be made to make the system more versatile, customizable, and user-

friendly.

66
 REFERENCE

A. Khriji et al, and B. Karuppanan, “Remote Sensing and Control for Establishing and
Maintaining Digital Irrigation”, International Journal of Advanced Information
Technology, Vol. 2, No.1, pp.11-25, February 2012.

Christos “Maximizing Water Use Efficiency of Pearl Millet by Water and Drip Irrigation
Management” Natural Resources Dept., Ins. of African Research and Studies, Cairo
Univ., Egypt.., published in the 2nd International Conf. on Water Resources & Arid
Environment (2014).

Farid e-tal Irrigation System Based on Wireless Network”, International Conference on Control and
Automation, ICCA, 2010, pp.2120-2125.

J.S. Awati and V.S. Patil, “Automatic Irrigation Control by Using Wireless Sensor Networks”,
Journal of Exclusive Management Science, Vol. 1, Issue 6, pp. 1-7, June 2012.

M. Yildirim and M. Demirel, “An Automated Drip Irrigation System Based on Soil Electrical
Conductivity”, The Philippine Agricultural Scientist, Vol. 94, No. 4, p.343-349,
December, 2011.

M.A. Mazidi, R.D. McKinlay and D. Causey, PIC “Microcontroller and Embedded Systems: Using
Assembly and C for PIC18”, Pearson Education Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey,
2008.

Mohamed Said Abdall El Marazky, Fawzi Said Mohammad and Hussein Mohamed Al-Ghobari.,
“Evaluation of Soil Moisture Sensors under Intelligent Irrigation Systems for
Economical Crops in Arid Regions”, American Journal of Agricultural and Biological
Sciences 6 (2): 287-300, 2011ISSN 1557-4989.

Nolz et al and Govinda Bhandari, “EFFECT OF PRECIPITATION AND TEMPERATURE

VARIATION ON THE YIELD OF MAJOR CEREALS IN DADELDHURA
DISTRICT OF FAR WESTERN DEVELOPMENT REGION, NEPAL” published in
International Journal Of plant, Animal and Environmental Science-Volume 3, Issue 1..

Robert, T. Boutraa, A. Akhkha, A. Alshuaibi and R. Atta, “Evaluation of the Effectiveness of an

Automated Irrigation System Using Wheat Crops”, Agriculture and Biology Journal of
North America, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp.80-88, 2013.

R.M. Faye, F. Mora-Camino, S. Sawadogo, and A. Niang, “PC- Based Automation of a

Multi-Mode Control for an Irrigation System, International Symposium on Industrial
Embedded Systems”, Lisbon, 4-6 July, 2007, pp.310-315.

S. Singh, and N. Sharma, “Research Paper on Drip Irrigation Management Using Wireless
Sensors”, International Journal of Computer Networks and Wireless Communications,
Vol. 2, No. 4, pp.461-464, August 2012.

67
Tahar Boutraa, Abdellah Akhkha, Abdulkhaliq Alshuaibi, Ragheid Atta; “Evaluation of the
effectiveness of an automated irrigation system using wheat crops.” AGRICULTURE
AND BIOLOGY JOURNAL OF NORTH AMERICA; ISSN Print: 2151-7517, ISSN
Online: 2151-7525,doi:10.5251/abjna.2011.2.1.80.88

Rafael Muñoz-Carpena and Michael D. Dukes., “Automatic Irrigation Based on Soil Moisture for
Vegetable Crops” Published in 2nd international conferrance on Irrigation And
Drainage/ May 12-15./ #AE354.

Benzekri, A, Refoufi, L “Design and Implementation of a Microprocessor Based Interrupt-

Driven Control for an Irrigation System”,10.1109/ICELIE.2006.347214, 2006, pp: 68
– 73.

Ashok & K.Ashok,; “ Microcontroller based drip irrigation system”, published in technical paper in
www. Engineers.com on April 30th, 2010.

Xin et al, Herbert Bryan, and Waldemar Klassen., “Automatic soil moisture based drip irrigation
for improving tomato production.” Proc. Fla. State. Hort. Soc. 116:80-85,2013

K.Prathyusha1, M. Chaitanya Suman2.., “DESIGN OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS FOR THE

AUTOMATION OF DRIP IRRIGATION”, International Journal of Application or
Innovation in Engineering & Management (IJAIEM) Volume 1, Issue 2, October 2012
ISSN 2319 -4847

68
 APPENDIX A

Source Code

#include<LiquidCrystal.h>
#include <SoftwareSerial.h>
// LCD CONNECT (RS, E, D4, D5, D6, D7) AND RW, D3-D0 CONECT TO GND
LiquidCrystal lcd(11, 10, 8, 7, 6, 5);
const int PUMP = 13;
const int VALVE = 12;
int alarm = 1;
//ECHO AND TRIGGER PINS
const int reserviorPin= A0;
const int moisturePin= A3;
const int overheadPin = A5;
//INITIAL SETUPS
void setup()
{
pinMode(alarm, OUTPUT);
pinMode(VALVE, OUTPUT); // SET VALVE PIN AS OUTPUT
pinMode(PUMP, OUTPUT); // SET PUMP PIN AS OUTPUT
digitalWrite(alarm, LOW);
digitalWrite(VALVE, LOW);
digitalWrite(PUMP, LOW);
lcd.begin(16, 2); // 16X2 LCD TYPE
lcd.clear(); // CLEAR ALL LCD CONTENT
lcd.setCursor(0,0); // SET CHARACTER FROM COLM_4 AND LINE_1 (COLM_4 TO
COLM_15)
lcd.print("Microcontroller");
lcd.setCursor(0,1); // SET CHARACTER FROM COLM_0 AND LINE_2

69
lcd.print("Irrigation System");
delay(5000);
lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("By: Adamu Muh'd");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("PGS/15-16/2579");
delay(5000);
lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("Supervised By:");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("Engr. Musa Idi");
delay(5000);
}
void loop() {
float moisture = analogRead(moisturePin);
float moistureLevel = (300*moisture)/1024;
float overhead = analogRead(overheadPin);
float overheadLevel = (300*overhead)/1024;
float reservior = analogRead(reserviorPin);
float reserviorLevel = (300*reservior)/1024;
lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("Moist.=");
lcd.print(moistureLevel,0);
lcd.print("% ");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);

70
lcd.print("Res=");
lcd.print(reserviorLevel,0);
lcd.print("% ");
lcd.print("Tnk=");
lcd.print(overheadLevel,0);
lcd.print("% ");
delay(1000);

//all low
if (moistureLevel <= 20 && overheadLevel >=30){
digitalWrite(VALVE, HIGH);
delay(10); // wait for a second
lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("Low Moisture");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("VALVE is ON");
delay(1000);
}

if (moistureLevel >= 100){

digitalWrite(VALVE, LOW);
delay(50);
}

if (reserviorLevel >= 30 && overheadLevel <=20){

digitalWrite(PUMP, HIGH);

delay(10); // wait for a second

lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Low Overhead");

71
lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print("PUMP is ON");

delay(1000);

if (reserviorLevel <= 30 && overheadLevel <=20){

digitalWrite(PUMP, LOW);

digitalWrite(alarm, HIGH);

delay(10); // wait for a second

lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("Low Reservior");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print("Alarm is ON");

delay(500);

digitalWrite(alarm, LOW);

delay(500);

if (overheadLevel >= 100){

digitalWrite(PUMP, LOW);

delay(50);

if (reserviorLevel >= 50){

digitalWrite(alarm, LOW);

delay(50);

72
 APPENDIX B

External View of the System

Internal View of the System

73
Side View of the Complete System

74