ROBOTICS

CHAPTER 2: ROBOT COMPONENTS

PhD. NGUYỄN HOÀNG GIÁP

CONTENTS
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM

2.2. SENSORS
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Robot as a system
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Functional units of a robot

❖ Mechanical units (robot arms)

❖ Rigid links connected through rotational or prismatic joints (each 1 DOF)
❖ Mechanical subdivisions: supporting structure (mobility), wrist (dexterity), end-
effector (task execution, e.g., manipulation)
❖ Sensor units
❖ Proprioceptive (internal robot state: position and velocity of the joints)
❖ Exteroceptive (external world: force and proximity, vision, …)
❖ Actuation units
❖ Motors (electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic)
❖ Motion control algorithms
❖ Supervision units
❖ Task planning and control
❖ Artificial intelligence and reasoning
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Functional units of a robot

Power = Force x Speed = Torque x Angular Speed [Nm/s, W]

Efficiency = PowerOut/PowerIn [%]
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Transmissions

❖ Optimize the transfer of mechanical torque from actuating motors to driven links
❖ Quantitative transformation (from low torque/high velocity to high torque/low velocity)
❖ Qualitative transformation (e.g., from rotational motion of an electrical motor to a linear
motion of a link along the axis of a prismatic joint)
❖ Allow improvement of static and dynamic performance by reducing the weight of the actual
robot structure in motion (locating the motors remotely, closer to the robot base)
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Transmissions in Industrial Robots
❖ Spur gears, Helical gear, herringborn gear: modify direction and/or
translate axis of (rotational or translational) motor displacement
❖ Problems: deformations, backlash
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Transmissions in Industrial Robots
❖ Lead screws: convert rotational into translational motion (prismatic
joints)
❖ Problems: friction, elasticity, backlash
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Transmissions in Industrial Robots
❖ Toothed belts and chains: dislocate the motor w.r.t. the joint axis
❖ Problems: compliance (belts) or vibrations induced by larger
mass at high speed (chains)
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Transmissions in Industrial Robots
❖ Harmonic drives: compact, in-line, power efficient, with high
reduction ratio (up to 150-200:1)
❖ Problems: elasticity
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Transmissions in Industrial Robots

Rack and Pinion Epi-cycloidal gear train Planetary gear set

2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Optimal choice of reduction ratio
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Inside view on an industrial KUKA robot
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Servo Motors: Pneumatic

❖ Pneumatic: pneumatic energy (compressor) → pistons or chambers →

mechanical energy
❖ Difficult to control accurately (change of fluid compressibility) → no
trajectory control
❖ Used for opening/closing grippers
❖ ... or as artificial muscles (McKibben actuators)
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Servo Motors: Hydraulic
❖ Hydraulic: hydraulic energy (accumulation tank) → pumps/valves → mechanical energy
❖ Advantages: no static overheating, self-lubricated, inherently safe (no sparks),
excellent power-to-weight ratio, large torques at low velocity (w/o reduction)
❖ Disadvantages: needs hydraulic supply, large size, linear motion only, low power
conversion efficiency, high cost, increased maintenance (oil leaking)
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Servo Motors: Electrical Servo Motors
structure category Characteristic Usage
Encoder Brush
Permanent magnet Advantages Disadvantages
❑DC servo motor ➢Simple control ➢Maintenance required ▪ Conveying machine
structure ➢Dust and noise generation
➢High power rate ➢Difficult to rotate at high
Rotor winding
speed

Stator winding
❑ Permanent magnet ➢Convenient maintenance ➢Need a position sensor ▪Machine tools
Encoder
type AC servo motor ➢Excellent environmental ▪robot
resistance ▪Industrial machinery
➢High efficiency, small size ▪Semiconductor equipment
and light weight
Permanent magnet ➢High power rate

Stator winding
Encoder Cage rotor ❑High-speed ➢Convenient maintenance ➢Control is complex ▪Machine tools
spindle motor ➢Excellent environmental ➢Low efficiency ▪Large Plant
❑Vector control motor resistance ➢No electrostatic braking
❑Induction type ➢High speed, large torque
AC servo motor ➢The structure is solid

❑ Stepping motor ➢Simple control structure ➢High torque ripple ▪OA / small equipment
❑ SRM ➢Small, low cost ➢Low precision ▪Conveying machine
➢High stopping torque ➢High vibration and noise
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Servo Motors: Electrical Servo Motors
❖ Permanent-magnet DC servo motor/ Wound field DC servo motor
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Servo Motors: Electrical Servo Motors
❖ Permanent-magnet DC servo motor/ Wound field DC servo motor

Torque-speed curves of brushed DC motors

2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Servo Motors: Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Servo Motors: Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Servo Motors: AC Induction Motors
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Servo Motors: AC Induction Motors
2.1. JOINT ACTUATING SYSTEM
■ Servo Motors

Desired characteristics for robot servo motors:

❖ Low inertia
❖ High power-to-weight ratio
❖ High acceleration capabilities: variable motion regime, with several stops and inversions
❖ Large range of operational velocities : 1 to 2000 rpm (round per min)
❖ High accuracy in positioning: at least 1/1000 of a turn
❖ Low torque ripple: continuous rotation at low speed
❖ Power: 10W to 10 kW
2.2. SENSORS
■ Properties of measurement systems

❖ Accuracy: agreement of measured values with a given reference standard (e.g., ideal
characteristics)
❖ Repeatability: capability of reproducing as output similar measured values over
consecutive measurements of the same constant input quantity
❖ Stability: capability of keeping the same measuring characteristics over time/temperature
(similar to accuracy, but in the long run)
2.2. SENSORS
■ Properties of measurement systems

❖ Linearity error:
❖ Maximum deviation of the measured
output from the straight line that best fits
the real characteristics
❖ As % of the output (measurement) range
❖ Offset error:
❖ Value of the measured output for zero input
❖ Sometimes not zero after an operation
cycle, due to hysteresis
❖ Resolution error:
❖ Maximum variation of the input quantity
producing no variation of the measured
output
❖ In absolute value or in % of the input range
2.2. SENSORS
■ Accuracy and Repeatability in Robotics
❖ Accuracy is how close a robot can come to a given point in its workspace
❖ Depends on machining accuracy in construction/assembly of the robot, flexibility effects
of the links, gear backlash, payload changes, round-off errors in control computations, ...
❖ Can be improved by (kinematic) calibration
❖ Repeatability is how close a robot can return to a previously taught point
❖ Depends only the robot controller/measurement resolution
2.2. SENSORS
■ Classes of sensors for robots

❖ Proprioceptive sensors measure the internal state of the robot (position and velocity of
joints, but also torque at joints or acceleration of links)
❖ Kinematic calibration, identification of dynamic parameters, control
❖ Exteroceptive sensors measure/characterize robot interaction with the environment,
enhancing its autonomy (forces/torques, proximity, vision, but also sensors for sound,
smoke, humidity, …)
❖ Control of interaction with the environment, obstacle avoidance in the workspace,
presence of objects to be grasped, …
❖ Mobile-base robots: localization in a map, navigation in unknown environments, …
2.2. SENSORS: PROPRIOCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ Position Sensors

❖ Provide an electrical signal proportional to the displacement (linear or angular) of a

mechanical part with respect to a reference position
❖ Linear displacements: potentiometers, linear variable differential transformers (LVDT),
inductosyns
❖ Angular displacements: potentiometers, resolvers, syncros (all analog devices with A/D
conversion), optical encoders (digital), Hall sensors, ...
2.1. SENSORS: PROPRIOCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ Absolute Encoders

❖ Rotating optical disk, with alternate transparent

and opaque sectors on multiple concentric tracks
❖ (Infrared) light beams are emitted by leds and
sensed by photo-receivers
❖ Light pulses are converted into electrical pulses,
electronically processed and transmitted in
output
❖ Resolution = 360°/ 2Nt
❖ Digital encoding of absolute position. When the
optical disk is rotating fast, the use of binary
coding may lead to (large) reading errors, in
correspondence to multiple transitions of bits
2.2. SENSORS: PROPRIOCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ Absolute Encoders

❖ Ready to measure at start (no “homing”)

❖ Two modes for permanent operation
- when switching off the drive, position
parameters are saved on a flash memory (and
brakes activated)
- battery for the absolute encoder is always
active, and measures position even when the
drive is off
- data memory > 20 years
❖ Single-turn or multi-turn versions, e.g.
- 13-bit single-turn has 213 = 8192 steps per
revolution (resolution = 0.044o )
- 29-bit multi-turn has 8192 steps/revolution
+ counts up to 216 = 65536 revolutions
2.2. SENSORS: PROPRIOCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ Incremental Encoders
2.2. SENSORS: PROPRIOCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ Incremental Encoders

❖ Optical rotating disk with three tracks,

alternating transparent and opaque areas:
measures incremental angular displacements by
counting trains of Ne pulses (“counts”) per turn
(Ne = 100÷5000)
❖ The two A and B tracks (channels) are in
quadrature (phase shift of 90° electrical),
allowing to detect the direction of rotation
❖ A third track Z is used to define the “0”
reference position, with a reset of the counter
(needs “homing” at start)
❖ Some encoders provide as output also the three
phases needed for the switching circuit of
brushless motors
2.2. SENSORS: PROPRIOCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ Incremental Encoders

❖ “Fractions of a cycle” of each pulse train are

measured in “electrical degrees”
❖ Signals are fed in a digital counter, with a D-
type flip-flop to sense direction + reset
❖ To improve resolution (4×), the leading and
trailing edges of signals A and B are used
❖ The sequence of pulses C will clock now the
counter (increments or decrements)
2.2. SENSORS: PROPRIOCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ Application of position encoders: Indirect measure of velocity
❖ Numerical differentiation of digital measures of position
❖ to be realized on line with Backward Differentiation Formulas (BDFs)
1 ∆𝑞𝑘
❖ 1-step BDF (Euler): 𝑞ሶ 𝑘 = 𝑞ሶ 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑞𝑘 − 𝑞𝑘−1 =
𝑇 𝑇
1 25 4 1
❖ 4-step BDF: 𝑞ሶ 𝑘 = 𝑇 𝑞 − 4𝑞𝑘−1 + 3𝑞𝑘−2 − 3 𝑞𝑘−3 + 3 𝑞𝑘−4
12 𝑘
❖ Convolution filtering is needed because of noise and position quantization: use of non-causal
filters (e.g., Savitzky-Golay) helps, but introduces delays
❖ Kalman filter for on line state estimation (optimal, assuming Gaussian noise)
2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS

❖ FORCE/TORQUE SENSORS
❖ PROXIMITY/DISTANCE SENSORS
❖ Infrared (IF)
❖ Ultrasound (US)
❖ Laser
❖ With structured light
❖ VISION
2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ FORCE/TORQUE SENSORS: STRAIN GAUGES
❖ Indirect information obtained from the measure of deformation of an elastic
element subject to the force or torque to be measured
❖ Basic component is a strain gauge: uses the variation of the resistance R of a metal
conductor when its length L or cross-section S vary
2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ FORCE/TORQUE SENSORS: STRAIN GAUGES
❖ Principal measurement axis
∆𝑅/𝑅
𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐺𝐹 = ∆𝐿/𝐿
(typically GF≈ 2)

❖ Wheatstone single-point bridge connection(for accurately

measuring resistance)
❖ R1, R2, R3 very well matched (≈R)
❖ RS ≈ R at rest (no stress)
❖ Two-point bridges have 2 strain gauges connected
oppositely (➚ sensitivity)

❖ if R1 has the same dependence on T of RS thermal variations

are automatically compensated:
𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑉0 = −𝑅 𝑉𝑖
𝑅1 +𝑅2 3 +𝑅𝑆
2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ FORCE/TORQUE SENSORS: DAISOCELL
- SPEC. -
1. FORCE SENSOR ( 500K-LUGB-D) ▪ Capacity : 5000 N ( 500 kgf )
▪ Rated Output : 2.0 mv/v ± 0.5 %
▪ Input Resistance : 420 Ω ± 5 %
▪ Output Resistance : 350 Ω ± 1 %
▪ Zero Balance : ± 2.0 % R.O.
▪ Temperature Effect on Zero Balance : ±0.03%R.O./10°C
▪ Temperature Effect on Rated Output : ±0.03%Load/10°C
▪ Compensated Temp. Range : -10 ~ 70 °C
▪ Nonlinearity : 0.20 % R.O.
▪ Hysteresis : 0.20 % R.O.
▪ Excitation Recommended : 10 V DC
▪ Input : Red(+), White(-) : 24 V DC
Output : Green(+), Black(-) : ± 10 V DC

-SPEC.-
▪ Capacity : 2000 N ( 200 kgf )
2. FORCE SENSOR ( 200K-CUG-K) ▪ Rated Output : Appro. 2.0 mv/v
▪ Input Resistance : 400 Ω ± 5 %
▪ Output Resistance : 350 Ω ± 1 %
▪ Zero Balance : ± 2.0 % R.O.
▪ Temperature Effect on Zero Balance : ±0.03%R.O./10°C
▪ Temperature Effect on Rated Output : ±0.03%Load/10°C
▪ Compensated Temp. Range : -10 ~ 70 °C
▪ Nonlinearity : 0.10 % R.O.
▪ Hysteresis : 0.05 % R.O.
▪ Excitation Recommended : 10 V DC
▪ Input : Red(+), White(-)``
Output : Green(+), Black(-)
2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ FORCE/TORQUE SENSORS: DAISOCELL

3. FORCE SENSOR ( 10K-BSM ) -SPEC.-

▪ Capacity : 100 N ( 10 kgf )
▪ Rated Output : Appro. 2.0 mv/v
▪ Input Resistance : 350 Ω ± 5 %
▪ Output Resistance : 350 Ω ± 1 %
▪ Zero Balance : ± 2.0 % R.O.
▪ Temperature Effect on Zero Balance : ±0.03%R.O./10°C
▪ Temperature Effect on Rated Output : ±0.03%Load/10°C
▪ Compensated Temp. Range : -10 ~ 70 °C
▪ Nonlinearity : 0.50 % R.O.
▪ Hysteresis : 0.20 % R.O.
▪ Excitation Recommended : 10 V DC
▪ Input : Red(+), White(-)
Output : Green(+), Black(-)
2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ FORCE/TORQUE SENSORS: DAISOCELL
1. TORQUE SENSOR ( 150N-TS ) -SPEC.-
▪ Capacity : 150 Nm ( 1500 kgf.cm )
▪ Rated Output : 1.50 mv/v ± 2.0 %
▪ Input Resistance : 350 Ω ± 5 %
▪ Output Resistance : 350 Ω ± 1 %
▪ Zero Balance : ± 2.0 % R.O.
▪ Temperature Effect on Zero Balance : ±0.03%R.O./10°C
▪ Temperature Effect on Rated Output : ±0.03%Lo ad/10°C
▪ Compensated Temp. Range : -10 ~ 70 °C
▪ Nonlinearity : 0.50 % R.O.
▪ Hysteresis : 0.50 % R.O.
▪ Excitation Recommended : 10 V DC
▪ Input : Red(+), White(-)
Output : Green(+), Black(-)

-SPEC.-
▪ Capacity : 100 Nm ( 1500 kgf.cm )
2. TORQUE SENSOR ( 100N-TS ) ▪ Rated Output : 1.50 mv/v ± 2.0 %
▪ Input Resistance : 350 Ω ± 5 %
▪ Output Resistance : 350 Ω ± 1 %
▪ Zero Balance : ± 2.0 % R.O.
▪ Temperature Effect on Zero Balance : ±0.03%R.O./10°C
▪ Temperature Effect on Rated Output : ±0.03%Load/10°C
▪ Compensated Temp. Range : -10 ~ 70 °C
▪ Nonlinearity : 0.90 % R.O.
▪ Hysteresis : 0.50 % R.O.
▪ Excitation Recommended : 10 V DC
▪ Input : Red(+), White(-)
Output : Green(+), Black(-)
2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ FORCE/TORQUE SENSORS: APPLICATIONS
2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ FORCE/TORQUE SENSORS: APPLICATIONS
2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ PROXIMITY/DISTANCE SENSOR
❖ Infrared: a light source (LED) emitting a ray beam (at 850±70 nm) which is then
captured by a receiver (photo-transistor), after reflection by an object
❖ Received intensity is related to distance
❖ narrow emitting/receiving angle; use only indoor; reflectance varies with object
color
❖ Typical sensitive range: 4÷30 cm or 20÷150 cm

SHARP GP2YOA41SK0F 4-30cm Optical sensor 5V

2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ ULTRASOUND SENSOR
❖ Use of sound wave propagation and reflection (at > 20 kHz, mostly 50 kHz), generated
by a piezoelectric transducer excited by alternate voltage
❖ Distance is proportional to the Time-Of-Flight (TOF) along the sensor-object-sensor
path
2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ ULTRASOUND SENSOR: APPLICATION

Robotic Mapping with Ultrasonic Sensor

2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ LASER SCANNER
❖ Two-dimensional scan of the environment with a radial field of infrared laser beams
(laser radar)
❖ Time between transmission and reception is directly proportional to the distance to the
object (Time-of-Flight)

SICK 2D LiDAR sensors

Type: LMS1104C-111031S01
Product family: LMS1000
Product family group: 2D LiDAR sensors
•Working range: 0.2 m ... 64 m
•Aperture angle: Horizontal (275°)
•Enclosure rating: IP65, IP67
•Color: Gray (RAL 7042)
•Integrated application: Integrated field evaluation with
flexible fields, Data output
•Electrical connection: M12 round connectors (D-coded,
aligned) with swivel connector
•Scanning frequency: 150 Hz, 4 x 37,5 Hz
2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ LASER SCANNER

HOKUYO UST-05LN

• 2D scanner for measuring distance between the

sensor and its surroundings.
• Supply voltage 10 to 30V
• The smallest and lightest of its kind
• Measurement distance, 5m
• Faster response, 66msec
• More flexible field setting available
2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ LASER SCANNER

YUJIN YRL3 series

Key Features
•ToF (Time of Flight) Single Channel LiDAR
•Low Cost and Compact
•Wider Field of View : 270˚(Horizontal) x
90˚(Vertical)
•Adjustable Vertical Angle
•ROS Compatible
•Quick, Scalable Software Support
2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ LASER SCANNER: APPLICATION
❖ SLAM (Simultaneous Localization and Mapping) with a laser scanning sensor
mounted on a mobile robot
❖ An “extended” state estimation problem: determine at the same time
❖ A map of the environment (sometimes, of its “landmarks” only)
❖ The robot location within the map using an incremental, iterative measurement
process (large scale data) illustrating the benefit of “loop closure” on long range
data (map correction)
2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ STRUCTURED LIGHT 3D SCANNER
❖ A structured light 3D scanner is a 3D scanning device for measuring the three-
dimensional shape of an object using projected light patterns and a camera system
❖ The position of the “red pixels” on the camera image plane is in trigonometric relation
with the object distance from the sensor
2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ STRUCTURED LIGHT 3D SCANNER

Automated Laser Scanning Inspection Easily Taught Using Robotiq Plug + Play Solutions
2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ VISION SYSTEMS
2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ SENSOR FOR VISION
❖ Arrays (spatial sampling) of photosensitive elements (pixel) converting light energy into
electrical energy
❖ CCD (Charge Coupled Device): each pixel surface is made by a semiconductor device,
accumulating free charge when hit by photons (photoelectric effect); “integrated”
charges “read-out” by a sequential process (external circuitry) and transformed into
voltage levels
❖ CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor): each pixel is a photodiode,
directly providing a voltage or current proportional to the instantaneous light intensity,
with possibility of random access to each pixel
2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ SENSOR FOR VISION: CMOS VS CCD
❖ Reduction of fabrication costs of CMOS imagers
❖ Better spatial resolution of elementary sensors
❖ CMOS: 1M pixel, CCD: 768×576 pixel
❖ Faster processing speed
❖ 1000 vs. 25 fps (frames per second)
❖ Possibility of integrating “intelligent” functions on single chip
❖ Sensor + frame grabber + low-level vision
❖ Random access to each pixel or area
❖ Flexible handling of ROI (Region Of Interest)
❖ Possibly lower image quality w.r.t. CCD imagers
❖ Sensitivity, especially for applications with low S/N signals
❖ Customization for small volumes is more expensive
❖ CCD cameras have been since much longer time on the market
2.2. SENSORS: EXTEROCEPTIVE SENSORS
■ SENSOR FOR VISION

COGNEX Machine Vision Systems