Asean Convergence Towards An Asean Ident

i
ASEAN CONVERGENCE
Towards an ASEAN Identity:
Discourses on Communication and Culture
Alexander G. Flor
Benjamina Gonzalez-Flor
ii Towards an ASEAN Identity: Discourses on Communication and Culture iii
ASEAN CONVERGENCE
iv Towards an ASEAN Identity: Discourses on Communication and Culture v
ASEAN CONVERGENCE
Alexander G. Flor
Faculty of Information and Communication Studies

University of the Philippines
OPEN UNIVERSITY
2019
vi Towards an ASEAN Identity: Discourses on Communication and Culture vii
ASEAN Convergence
Alexander G. Flor and Benjamina Paula G. Flor
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Published by:
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Associate Editor and Book Layout Artist: Bernabe M.Remoquillo
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viii Towards an ASEAN Identity: Discourses on Communication and Culture ix
Acknowledgement
Our sincere thanks to: the University of the Philippines Office
of the Vice President for Academic Affairs, for supporting this
knowledge sharing project through the Academic Productivity
Improvement (API) facility; Chancellor Melinda Bandalaria,
who championed Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)
and Open Educational Resources (OERs) at the UP Open
University; and the ASEAN Studies Program of the UPOU
Faculty of Management and Development Studies.
The authors also wish to acknowledge the contribution

of the following: our artist-illustrator, Bernie Remoquillo;
our associates, Gian Rose Cerdena, Emely M. Amoloza,
Margaret Jarmin-Suarez and Jennifer Pareja; our students,
Ayo Ujorongbe, Phonevilay Keopaseuth, Ruth Moselle
Tumangil, Angel Magsino, April Camacho and Ailyn Capuno
who assisted in data gathering and analysis; and our
peer reviewers from Chulalongkorn University, Sukhothai
Thammathirat University and the Colombo Plan Staff College
who, while remaining anonymous, have substantively made
us reconsider our respective positions reflected in these
chapters.
x Towards an ASEAN Identity: Discourses on Communication and Culture xi
ASEAN CONVERGENCE
Towards an ASEAN Identity: Foreword
Discourses on Communication and Culture ASEAN Convergence is a volume that explores the ASEAN
identity from the perspective of communication and culture.
CONTENTS It was prepared as an eBook for a Massive Open Online
Course (MOOC) on the same subject offered by the Faculty
1 Communication, Culture, and the of Information and Communication Studies through UPOU’s
Collective Mind: A Theoretical Framework MODeL platform. This open educational resource may now be
For The Extra-Economic Dimension of used as a reference for DEVC 242. Media and Communication
ASEAN Integration from an ASEAN Perspective, offered under the Master of
Alexander G. Flor Development Communication Program cross-listed as AS
231 in the UPOU Faculty of Management and Development
19 Ten Countries, One Nation?
Studies.
DEVC 242/AS 231 was conceived as a specialized course in

the Master of ASEAN Studies (MAS) Joint Program of the five
open universities in Southeast Asia: the UP Open University;
Universitas Terbuka in Jakarta; Sukhothai Open University in
Bangkok; the Hanoi Open University; and the Open University
51 The ASEAN Media Landscape
of Malaysia. The MAS was meant as a major initiative for the
regionalization of education in the ASEAN region. Hence, this
course takes on a regional outlook on communication. By
communication, we refer to information and communication
technologies and media (traditional, mass and new media).
69 Carving ICT Industry Niches within the The book is made up of four papers independently prepared
ASEAN in A Globalized Higher Educational by the authors, hence, the individual chapter ascription. These
and Knowledge Environment chapters argue that a prerequisite to ASEAN Integration is
Alexander G. Flor an ASEAN identity, a sense of self that extends beyond the
concept of regionalizing ten independent nations. That sense
of self is formed and crystalized through communication.
88 APPENDIX A As Luhmann asserts in his Theory of Society (1997), the
ASEAN Agreements/Policies entire social world is constituted through communication
on Communication and through communication only. ASEAN as a regional body
105 APPENDIX B
Course Guide
Faculty of Management and Development Studies

UP OPEN UNIVERSITY
xii Towards an ASEAN Identity: Discourses on Communication and Culture xiii
List of Acronyms
ADB Asian Development Bank
AIBD Asian Institute for Broadcasting Development
came before the societal communication process that would
ANEX ASEAN News Exchange
have constituted the community, formed it as an entity, or APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
developed it as an organism. Conception precedes birth. ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
Convergence comes before formation. However, in this case, BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
conceptualization of the ASEAN identity came later in the day. CNN Cable News Network
COCI Committee on Culture and Information
Nevertheless, it is never too late as the four chapters of this
Devcom Development Communication
book maintain. EU European Union
F2F Face-to-face communication
GIS Geographic Information System
ALEXANDER G. FLOR HBO Home Box Office
HDI Human Development Index
University of the Philippines Open University
HDR Human Development Report
HPI Human Poverty Index
BENJAMINA GONZALEZ-FLOR IBM International Business Machines
University of the Philippines Los Baños ICT Information and Communication Technologies
ICT4D Information and Communication Technology
for Development
ISP Internet Service Provider
IT Information Technology
K+12 Kindergarten to 12th grade
KM Knowledge Management
MAGS My ASEAN Guide Supporter-mobile
MIS Management Information Systems
MTV Music Television
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement
Pace Conference Parliamentary Assembly of the Council
of Europe
PC Personal computer
PNA Philippines News Agency
SEAMEO South East Asian Ministers of Education Organization
TADS Trans boundary diseases
TCON Ten Countries, One Nation
TNA Thai News Agency
TV Television
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
UPLB University of the Philippines Los Baños
UPOU University of the Philippines Open University
US United States
USA United States of America
WIVS Worldviews, ideologies, values, and
social structure
XML Extensive Markup Language
xiv Towards an ASEAN Identity: Discourses on Communication and Culture 1
COMMUNICATION, CULTURE, AND THE

COLLECTIVE MIND:
A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE
EXTRA-ECONOMIC DIMENSION OF ASEAN
INTEGRATION1
Alexander G. Flor2
INTRODUCTION
In 1995, as the inaugural lecture for a Metro Manila
Commission Professorial Chair on Development
Communication, I gave a presentation titled
Communication, Culture, and the Collective Mind. The
paper was inspired by a seven-year, seven-country
study that we were conducting with Dr. Godwin
Chu of the East West Center Institute of Culture and
Communication. The underlying thesis of that paper is
that history was a function of what Chu referred to as
the “national character.” It was dictated by a zeitgeist, a
ghost of the times; Collective Mind, if you will. And that
this Mind is molded by societal communication. This
is the gist of the course, Communication and Media
from an ASEAN Perspective, which I have developed
and am teaching for both the Master of Development
Communication and ASEAN Studies Programs. The
course title itself appears counter-intuitive since I cannot
grasp the concept of an “ASEAN perspective.”
1
Paper presented during the Second International Conference
on ASEAN Studies (ICONAS2), 3-5 August 2015 Chulalonkorn
University, Bangkok, Thailand.
2
Alexander G. Flor, Ph.D. is Professor of Information and
Communication Studies, University of the Philippines,
OPEN UNIVERSITY.
2 Towards an ASEAN Identity: Discourses on Communication and Culture Communication, Culture, and the Collective Mind 3
In my professorial lecture, I cited European ideologically. Further, it does not extend to individuals
integration as a product of the Collective Mind. When the nor the populace (there are no ASEANs, only Filipinos,
countries of Europe decided to formally integrate as the Vietnamese, Indonesians, Thais nor, at most, Southeast
European Union from its initial status as a geopolitical Asians). Hence, the ASEAN sense of self is non-existent.
association under the European Commission, there was The lack of an ideological center is manifested in the
an element present that we do not see in the case of the manner by which the ASEANization discourse plays out
ASEAN. That element is a center that would hold a union even in this forum, where participants attach different
together. meanings to the concept. ASEAN does not have a
center, a Collective Mind that may hold this Integration
The initial group of countries in the European Union together.
was predominantly Christian in outlook. This common
worldview is absent in the case of the ASEAN. Many THE COLLECTIVE MIND
Thai Muslims identify themselves more with Malaysia
than Thailand. The same may be true with many Filipino Historians refer to it as the zeitgeist, the ghost or
Muslims. Perhaps, the Timorese seceded from Indonesia spirit of the times, determining social outlook and
because of the exclusion they felt with their Christian historical events. Psychologists, specifically those
cultural roots from mainstream Muslim Indonesian associated with the Jungian school of thought, call it the
culture. On the other hand, the Thai, Lao, Vietnamese Collective Unconscious. Marxists allude to it as class-
and Burmese hardly identify themselves with one consciousness. The concept of the Collective Mind is
another even if all of them share the Buddhist faith. nothing new. It is an extension of the holistic principle that
And Catholic Philippines does not identify with anyone nature has a built-in tendency to produce wholes from the
else for that matter. Ideology-wise, there are significant ordered grouping of units. It may follow that an “ordered
differences within ASEAN. There is socialism (Mekong grouping” of individual minds give way to a Collective
Subregion), emergent fundamentalism (Malaysia- Mind.
Indonesia-Brunei), communitarianism (Singapore),
authoritarianism (Myanmar) and libertarianism cum In 1928, the British physicist Sir Arthur Eddington
oligarchy (Philippines) represented in the region, hardly wrote in his book, The Nature of the Physical World:
bi-polar outlooks.
The idea of a Universal Mind or Logos would be, I
At present, one cannot discern a Collective ASEAN think, a fairly plausible inference from the present
Mind. It is difficult to conceive of a distinct ASEANess state of scientific theory; at least it is in harmony
compared to Asianess or Europeaness. The ASEAN with it.
concept appears to lack a genuine socio-cultural
dimension. By definition, it is an association wherein Exploring the unconsummated but possible unification
membership is determined geographically rather than of Europe, Baigent, Leigh and Lincoln (1982) wrote:
A Europe of this sort would constitute a new Ravi Batra describes the four general types of collective
and unified political force in international affairs mentalities forwarded by Sarkar. Towsey (1986), another
- an entity whose status would ultimately be student of Sarkar, writes:
comparable to that of the Soviet Union, or the
United States. Indeed, it might well emerge Why do people keep voting for politicians who
stronger than either, because it would rest on obviously do not have their best interests at
deep-rooted spiritual and emotional foundations, heart? Why is there a worldwide trend for
rather than abstract, theoretical or ideological democratic countries to vote in conservative
ones. It would appeal not only to man’s head, and reactionary governments even when those
but to his heart as well. It would draw its strength governments make no secret of their monetarist
from tapping the collective psyche of Western policies which leave the majority of people worse
Europe, awakening the fundamental religious off? Why are young people taking up smoking
impulse. in increasing numbers when the ill effects are
better known than ever? Why was Coca Cola,
Such a program may well appear quixotic. But the global symbol of capitalist culture, amongst
history by now should have taught us not to the first Western commercial products to be
underestimate the potential of the collective marketed in communist China? There are
psyche, and the power to be obtained by apparently simple answers to these questions. .
harnessing it. . But there is more here than the simple answers
suggest. A more subtle phenomenon is involved;
Recent history provide many illustrations of the little known but beginning to attract the attention
manifestation of the Collective Mind: the rise of the of historians, sociologists and political scientists,
Ayatollah Khomeini in Iran in 1979; the people power this is the phenomenon of the Collective Mind.
revolution in the Philippines in 1986; the toppling of the
Iron Curtain in 1990; the Arab Spring of 2011. These Politicians would be the first to brush away talks about
are concrete illustrations of the power of the collective the Collective Mind. Yet their calling is the most concrete
psyche. Such a force without the benefit of an army, a manifestation of its existence. Much of politics deals with
political party and logistical support are able to topple the manipulation of the Collective Mind. The next to deny
modern, superbly equipped and well-funded regimes. its existence are the behaviorists, and the scientific and
dialectic materialists.
Perhaps, the most recent and most extensively
written accounts on collective psychology may be found Indeed, collective consciousness has become a
in literature dealing with Sarkar’s Progressive Utilization recognized factor in Marxists-Leninist social dynamics.
Theory (1959). In the book, The Great Depression of the Progressive ideologies have even extolled on the dialectic
1990’s (1986), Southern Methodist University economist superiority and social desirability of class-consciousness
over individual consciousness. Yet, their theoreticians What exactly is the Collective Mind? Before this
would argue that class-consciousness exists at the question can be answered, first, we should note that there
individual level. Extending this concept further to an is not one statement on the nature of the mind, which
actual “Mind” of society would be taking it out of context. is generally acceptable to all branches of contemporary
science, even among neurologists themselves. The
Scientific and dialectic materialists reject its existence conservative belief that mind is a product of neurological
mainly because one cannot find a material basis, a processes, that it is created by the body -- specifically, the
physical “brain” wherein the social psyche resides. Like brain (Damasio, 1994).
the behaviorists, they contend that mind is a product
of physical, biological, and chemical processes in the This theory has been challenged by respected
brain and the central nervous system. “How does this neurologists such as Wilder Penfield, the founder of the
Collective Mind function? What ideas does it generate,” Montreal Institute of Neurosurgery. In his book, The
they would ask. Mystery of the Mind, Penfield describes how his research
has led him to the conclusion that mind is made up of
Idealists, on the other hand, would argue that an entirely different essence altogether and, supporting
consciousness may be equated with idea, and idea may Descartes’ assertion, that the mind is independent from
be equated to mind. How can we ascertain the existence the brain.
of the Collective Mind? By the same manner by which we
are sure of our individual mind’s existence. Cogito, ergo Some scientific treatises have adopted a middle path.
sum. By experiencing it. By being conscious of it. And The first forwards a Concentric Theory of Consciousness
to those who experienced it, corporeal proof would seem (Greenfield, 1995) that acknowledges the dependence
inutile. of the mind on the brain but suggests that its workings
are guided by networking behavior and “gestalts”
The Collective Mind is at work whenever a group, or a parallel to social interactions. The second comes from
collective, functions as one. It could be subtly discerned the co-discoverer of the structure of DNA, Sir Francis
in rallies, parades, in the celebration of the holy mass, Crick (1994). He offers in his book, The Astonishing
even in rock concerts. Experiences such as these have Hypothesis, that although the mind is a by-product of
demonstrated and brought to popular awareness this the simultaneous, high-frequency firing of neurons in
prime force in social dynamics. Perhaps, the most moving different parts of the brain, it is in the meshing of these
aspect of these events is the exhilaration and inspiration frequencies that it is produced. In other words, the mind is
that these afford to all those who participate in and not a function of fixed electro-chemical processes but of
witness it. It is a feeling difficult to describe, a feeling of interrelationships between these processes.
oneness with the multitudes that are there and a grand
realization of being an integral part of a profound social Psychologists likewise come to a disagreement on
force. this point depending upon their professed tradition,
i.e., behaviorism, Freudianism, transpersonalism or
differentialism. Psychologists from the psychosynthesis - the physicists, if only for their refutation of scientific
tradition refer to the mind as the distinctly rational aspect materialism at the quantum or sub-atomic level.
of the human psyche from whence conscious thought Physicists have observed that elementary particles are not
and reason arise as in “the polarity between the mind solid material objects but “patterns,” “interconnections”,
and the heart. “ If such is the case, then social systems or “sets of relationships.” In other words, matter is not
cannot have a mind since the Collective Psyche can be made up of concrete materials but of “abstractions,” as
characterized as everything but rational (as in instances of the physicist Niels Bohr puts it. Indeed, the quantum
mob rule). physics of Heisenberg, Planck and Bohr has forwarded a
new association between matter, energy, and information.
One popular view is that the mind is a quality that In fact, a novel theory known as the Superstring Theory
emerges or comes into being when organisms reach a just falls short of proposing that matter, energy, and
certain level of complexity in development (Kobler, 1986). thought may have sprung from the same cosmic stuff
If we may relate this to the systems view that society is altogether. Hence, mind may be a dormant property of all
an organism, then the possibility of it developing a mind things.
becomes less far-fetched.
Sarkar’s cosmology is not inconsistent with this
Fritjof Capra writes in The Turning Point: view. He maintains that every cell in the human body,
every object - even a sand particle - has an independent
Because the systems view of mind is not limited mind, although it is in an extremely undeveloped and
to individual organisms but can be extended to unexpressed state.
social and ecological systems, we may say that
groups of people, societies, and cultures have Generally, contemporary science accepts that mind
a collective mind, and therefore also possess a is some form of energy since thoughts are physically
collective consciousness. We may also follow observed as waves (i. e. alpha, beta, theta). Similarly,
Jung in the assumption that the collective mind, the Collective Mind is the synergy produced by the
or collective psyche, also includes a collective individual minds that make up a social system, not
unconscious. As individuals, we participate unlike what quantum physicists refer to as relationships,
in these collective patterns, are influenced by patterns, and abstractions. As Jan C. Smuts and the
them, and shape them in turn. In addition, the Organicists declare, the whole is greater than the sum of
concepts of a planetary mind and a cosmic mind its parts, and the determining factors in nature are these
may be associated with planetary and cosmic “wholes.” Society cannot be reduced to the individuals
levels of consciousness. who comprise it. The Collective Psyche, as a distinct
force in social dynamics, exists and its corpus is the social
Fritjof Capra represents another sector that may system.
lend a measure of qualified support to this argument
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Dimensions of the Collective Psyche

How does the Collective Mind relate to The conscious dimension is societal communication.
communication? How does it relate to culture? This encompasses sectoral communication, mass
media, inter and cross cultural communication. Its
We submit that the collective psyche has three point of intersection with social policy is at the sectoral
dimensions. This is what we refer to as the social communication end. Its point of intersection with culture
dynamics triad. Social dynamics is a function of a triad is at the indigenous communication end.
of factors – societal communication, culture, and social
policy. The triad concept here relates to the continuity of The intuitive dimension is culture. This includes
these three variables, that is, their interrelations are in the society’s concepts of morality and virtue, values,
nature of a continuum. perceptions (of family, environment, religion, land, etc.)
and worldview. Its point of intersection with social policy
Within this triad, not unlike the “all seeing eye” on the is at the perception level.
apex of the pyramid printed on a one-dollar bill, is the
Collective Psyche, the social mind that we discussed at The influence of culture on social dynamics is no less
length earlier. In effect, this triad of factors represents profound as may be deduced from Chu (1989). Similarly,
dimensions of the Collective Psyche. relating culture to the collective psyche form part of the
gist of Senate Committee Report No.415 (Shahani et al,
The validity of enumerating three dimensions that are 1989).
not mutually exclusive may be questioned. As a matter
of fact, it would be difficult to draw the line between The rational dimension is social policy. Within this
communication and culture. The anthropologists among category are the national ideology, the Constitution, the
us would argue that communication is subsumed laws of the land, the social agenda, and the leadership.
under culture. On the other hand, the communication
scientists among us would say that culture is nothing but Societies as Living Systems
the expression of collectivity, expression being part of
communication. We could argue ourselves blue in the face Systems theorists such as Emery define living
without ever reaching a consensus. systems as systems made up of living organisms. Any
social system is a living system by virtue of the fact that
However, these are not operationalized variables but it is made up of live interacting human beings. Hence,
constituent concepts. In fact, we propose that these three organizations, gangs, clans and communities are living
dimensions exist in a three-way continuum. systems. We may add that these social systems have
their respective collective mentalities and their own sub-
cultures developed in various degrees depending upon
their cohesiveness. Society, being a macro-system is an At the empirical level, we may relate this to the
organism with a distinct, albeit often dormant, psyche. Its Gulf War. This crisis situation has a direct bearing on
subtle expression is called culture. the degree of societal stability. Decreased stability has
prompted a change in programming among television
Miller, the high priest of general systems theory, posits networks all over the world. The shift is particularly
that all living systems, from the smallest protozoa to the felt in the United States and the Philippines, wherein
largest organization, perform certain critical functions public affairs/ special events programs have preempted
or processes that are necessary for their existence and entertainment programs. This may be interpreted as an
survival. Communication, the transfer of information from increase in the centrality of information offered by media
one point in time or space to another, is one of these systems. Media dependency has likewise increased,
critical functions. According to K. Thayer (1968), another prompting CNN to declare that Americans have become
leading systems theorist, communication is “a dynamic TV addicts overnight.
process underlying the existence, growth, the behavior
of all living beings… Communication is as fundamental The effects are particularly obvious in terms of
to the living system. . . as the ingestion and consumption consumer behavior. Panic buying has become wide
of food and fuel to run its physical and physiological spread, which has feedback on societal stability as well as
machinery.” Obviously, this statement likewise applies to the media systems. In the Philippines, panic buying has
social systems and collectives. Communication allows an increased the prices of prime commodities. In the US, on
individual to acquire a sense of self. Mass communication the other hand, both advertisers and network executives
allows a society to acquire a sense of self. have voluntarily withdrawn their scheduled commercials
because these might be found by the public to be in “poor
Communication is one of the major variables of social taste.”
transformation and should thus be employed to achieve
the highest social goals at the shortest amount of time. PROPOSITIONS
This argument originated from the writings of Lasswell
(1948), Lerner (1963) and Schramm (1967). Theories such This paper forwards that every society, every social
as the Agenda-Setting Function of Media and the Media system, every collectivity, has a mind, a Collective Psyche.
Dependency Model are supportive of this line. The degree of development of this Mind is directly
proportional to the degree of collective consciousness
Contemporary studies (e.g. Flor, 1989) and current among the individuals who make up the social system.
events have contributed to the validation of the Media Culture, being the manifestation of collectivity, is the
Dependency Theory of DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach (1982). expression of this Collective Mind.
This model proposes that correlations exist between the
degree of societal stability, the centrality of information of Communication, among other things, is the basic
media systems, and media dependency. This dependency mechanism of integration into any social system or
in turn brings about certain effects on the audience, which collectivity. What the anthropologist calls acculturation
feedback on societal stability and media systems.

or what the sociologist calls socialization, is only difference between these two is the manner by which
achieved through communication. A child learns about each is initiated. In the communication scientist’s jargon,
his culture and is subsequently acculturated through cross-cultural communication is “one-way,” while inter-
subtle messages transmitted to him by his environment. cultural communication is “interactive.” In other words,
Similarly, an individual newly transplanted into a different one is imposed while the other is a natural process of
community gets to socialize only after a series of exchange.
communication-initiated rites and rituals.
Insofar as social dynamics is concerned, cross-cultural
Social control and consequently social equilibrium, communication results to any of the following: cultural
twin concepts of Talcott Parsons, are likewise functions diffusion, cultural subservience, or cultural integration.
of communication. The Collective Mind is not only On the other hand, inter-cultural communication results
sustained by, but manifested as culture through to cultural convergence. This is not to say, however,
communication. Furthermore, communication contributes that dominance is achieved through the manner of
to the regeneration or the disintegration of culture and communication. Dominance or social power is equated
subsequently, society. to social will, a property of the Collective Mind. The
degree to which a culture succumbs to the onslaught of
By virtue of the above propositions, communication cross-cultural communication is a function of the strength
and culture are inextricably linked. One cannot study and magnitude of its Collective Mind, variables that are
communication without touching upon culture. Similarly, inversely related to the decadence of society.
the study of culture oftentimes becomes an attempt to
study communication patterns such as in the case of In terms of collective psychology, cultural diffusion and
linguistics. subservience mean the absorption of one Collective Mind
by another. Cultural integration refers to the integration
The central factor in this conceptual schema, however, of individual minds to the dominant Collective Psyche.
is the Collective Mind in whose workings culture is Cultural convergence means the unification, the merging
possible. The psychology of the Collective Mind is, in of Collective Minds.
effect, the science of social dynamics. Since the state
of the social psyche is a function of communication, it We can apply these propositions within the context of
follows that social transformation is likewise determined cultural convergence of the 11 Southeast Asian nations
by communication. and deduce the fate and outcomes of ASEAN Integration.
At the macro level, this may be exemplified by relating

cultural dominance (at times called cultural imperialism)
and communication. Communication between
and among cultures is of two types: cross-cultural
communication and inter-cultural communication. The
REFERENCES Emery, F.E. and E. Trist. The Causal Texture of

Organizational Environments. Human Relations, Vol.
Batra, Ravi. 1986. The Great Depression of the 1990s. 18, No.1.
Simon and Schuster, New York.
Greenfield, Susan A. 1995. Journey to the Centers of
Baigent, Michael, Richard Leigh and Henry Lincoln. 1982. the Mind: Toward a Science of Consciousness.
The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail. Corgi Books, Oxford University Press, Cambridge.
London.
Shahani, Leticia. 1989. Moral Recovery Program:
Capra, Fritjof. 1982. The Turning Point: Science, Society Building a People - Building a Nation. Committee
and the Rising Culture. Simon and Schuster, New Report No.415. The Philippine Senate.
York.
Thayer, K. 1968. Communication and Communication
Chu, Godwin. 1989. Studies of Cultural Change in China Systems. Richard D. Irwin, Inc, Homewood, Illinois.
and Thailand: Some Preliminary Findings. Limited
circulation paper. East-West Center Institute of Culture Towsey, Michael B. 1986. Eternal Dance of Macrocosm.
and Communication, Honolulu. Proutist Publications, Copenhagen.
Crick, Francis and Christof Koch. 1994. The Astonishing

Hypothesis: The Scientific Search for the Soul.
California Institute of Technology.
Damasio, Antonio. 1984. Descartes Error. University of

Iowa.
DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach. 1982. Theories of Mass

Communication. Fourth Edition. Longmen Inc., New
York.
Eddington, Sir Arthur Stanley. 1928. The Nature of the

Physical World. Oxford University Press, Cambridge.
Flor, Benjamina G. 1989. Media Dependency During

Crisis Situations. MS Thesis. University of the
Philippines at Los Baños.
18 Towards an ASEAN Identity: Discourses on Communication and Culture 19
TEN COUNTRIES, ONE NATION?1

Benjamina Gonzalez Flor2
INTRODUCTION
Collectivity is a cultural manifestation of homogeneity,
at least at a certain level. The ASEAN community as
a phenomenon adheres to imaginary borders that set
these countries apart. While community building is
possible politically and economically, much needs to be
done socio-culturally.
Since the vision of the ASEAN is to have One

Community, it implies that the Ten-member country must
have a common understanding of being a citizen of this
amalgamation. Such coming together cannot be left
to policy decision-makers alone or entirely be decided
on by its political leaders if the ideal state cannot be
communicated to each and every citizen of the ASEAN
community. Farmers, housewives, students, teachers,
technocrats, scientists, and policymakers cannot be
treated in isolation, because each one has the right to
know and understand the implication of being a member
of a consummation that happened between and among
heads of countries or have been agreed upon in their
behalf.
1
Best paper awardee, International Conference on ASEAN Studies,
2-4 August 2015, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.
Findings derived from a class project, DEVC 215 (Communication
and Culture) for the first semester of SY 2014-2015 of UP Los Baños
composed of Ayo Ujorongbe (Nigeria), Phonevilay Keopaseuth
(Lao PDR), and from the Philippines, Ruth Moselle Tumangil, Angel
Magsino, April Camacho, and Ailyn Capuno.
2
Benjamina Gonzalez Flor, Ph.D. is Professor of Development
Communication, University of the Philippines Los Baños.
20 Towards an ASEAN Identity: Discourses on Communication and Culture Ten Countries, One Nation? 21
Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao Therefore, the questions needing some answers
PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand, are: How can ASEAN culture be contextualized
Singapore, and Vietnam have forged to be one through using communication as lens? What are the cultural
the efforts of their leaders to strengthen economic determinants of ASEAN integration; and what are the
growth in Southeast Asia. Little did they know that their ways for cultural integration?
constituents have limited, if not have any, idea on the
expectations or implications of what it means to be a REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
member of the ASEAN community. For policymakers,
this is nothing to be wary about, but for an ordinary Studies about ASEAN cultural integration are
citizen of each member country, this could be an added limited if not nil, since the plan for integration was
layer of confusion especially among indigenous groups more focused on economic affairs. However, little
and the grassroots, which comprise a relatively large has been done, if none at all, to ensure socio-cultural
proportion of the ASEAN community. integration. This review will look at cultural integration
through communication. Hence, a discussion on the
The diverse cultural profile of each country when cultural determinants of communication with ASEAN as
combined together is unthinkable, given the inherent context will be theorized. The cultural determinants of
differences and idiosyncrasies they possess. Each communication in point include worldviews, ideologies,
member country has their own worldviews, ideologies, values, and social structures or WIVS. Each of these
values, and social structures that make them different determinants will be discussed separately and will end
from other countries. Putting them together as one is with how these concepts can hasten or impede ASEAN
not only absurd but also seems impossible. However, integration through communication.
these arguments are no longer up for debate since the
ASEAN had been in existence since 1964. It envisions Worldview. Worldviews deal with a culture’s most
creating political-security, economic, and socio- fundamental beliefs about its place in the cosmos,
cultural community by 2015. The vision would like beliefs about God, and beliefs about the purpose of
to ensure a strong, peaceful, stable, and prosperous life, nature of humanity, and nature (Sarbaugh, 1987).
region. “The grand goal is to transform the 10-member According to Pope Paul VI (1967), “there is more to
organization into a genuine ASEAN community” (www. progress than economic growth. Genuine progress must
asean.org). Despite the provision, it seems that this is be complete. No one can be left out. No part of anyone
not happening. By definition, a community refers to a can be left out.” Alkire (2007) forwards that “despite
“group of people having cultural, religious, ethnic, or being neglected in the post-war Western-centered
other characteristics in common” (Dictionary.com). Thus, development discourse, religion remains a significant
what is of value right now is how to create an ASEAN force in public and private spheres.” Deneulin and
culture that will truly depict who is an “ASEAN national” Rakodi (2011) further add that “religion is a key aspect
as perceived by the world.
of the majority of the world’s population (more visible in It can be implied then that human beings by nature
the global south), and it influences millions of people’s are governed by trust, fear, belief, or faith in a supreme
lives in multi-level ways.” James (2009) concurs that being to guide one’s behavior regardless of what religion
religion can offer an alternative to a secular development one belongs to. Some people are born to a specific
discourse, bringing back focus on the human being as religion, but others get to choose as they reflect on its
its center, revising its values, meanings and goals, and epistemology. Worldviews as cultural determinant may
links into people’s sense of well-being. Eilers (2009a) be a deterrent to ASEAN integration since all nations
emphasizes that religion is an integral part of the social have their respective beliefs as to how one should live
system; it should have the potential for grounding values their lives. How then can the ASEAN be integrated in
beyond individualism, power, and consumerism. this regard?
The worldview tabulation of ASEAN countries Ideology. Ideology as cultural determinant refers to
(Magsino, 2014) reveals varied perceptions about the the press system that always takes on the form and
world. A Moslem-dominated country like Indonesia coloration of the social and political structures within
strongly believes in God and a penchant for social which it operates (Siebert and Schramm, 1956). Hewison
justice; Malaysia is marked with an acceptance of fate (1999) summarizes the political ideology of Southeast
and a belief in self-discipline, and a respect for ritual Asia as follows: Brunei (absolute monarch); Vietnam and
and Islam. Brunei Darussalam, on the other, prides Laos (authoritarian post-socialist regimes); Myanmar
the concept of God, revelation, religion, and morality. (military-dominated dictatorship); Indonesia (crumbling
The Philippines, being predominantly Christian, has a authoritarianism); Singapore and Malaysia (electoral
transpersonal worldview where human beings are seen authoritarianism); Thailand and the Philippines (various
as part of a bigger collectivity. Singapore puts premium versions of elected representative governments);
on community support and respect for the individual, and Cambodia (unclassified oddity). Currently, much
while Thailand looks at group orientation, which sees have changed. Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia have
that group welfare supersedes individual concerns. embraced democracy or in transition. Post-conflict
Vietnam that cannot be outdone takes comfort from societies find it difficult to mainstream democratic
their traditional values stemming from Confucianism. processes given their historical roots. Efforts from these
Lao PDR practices Buddhism Philosophy and like its countries, however, show that leaders try to implement
neighboring country, Myanmar highly regards the monks. the tenets of true democracy to some degree. Thus, the
Cambodia adheres to “The Noble Eightfold Path” of: press systems in these countries also vary.
right views, right intention, right speech, right action,
right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right Of the cultural determinants, perhaps ideology is
concentration. the most sensitive and complex. It is something that
people do not openly discuss, but should be taken
into account if the intention is to have One Community,
which the press normally talks about. The power that
media and communication have in any form of society likelihood of communicating with each other is hastened,
can be explained by the concept of media imperialism. but what information to disseminate is something that
Media imperialism refers to the use of media to advance should be decided on. It is not only the message that
the interests of a dominant country over a subordinate should matter, but also the manner, and who should
nation; or of a dominant organization or group of receive those messages. What does this imply? For the
people over subordinated and marginalized groups. Asian media, this consolidation and transnationalization
Critical theorists such as Habermas (German), Schiller of media means is a tough competition. The challenge,
(American), Beltran, and Bordanave (South American) therefore, is to find niche and add value in providing
have extensively theorized on media imperialism. news, information, and entertainment to targeted
audiences. Beyond competition, however, both Asian
Transnational media like CNN, BBC, Hollywood, and global media companies have a stake in the
Bollywood, MTV, HBO, and Koreanovelas are some continued economic progress of countries in the region,
of the examples that display the power of information which translates into greater and sustained purchasing
societies and the ways in which they tell the audience power of the people. Temptations to sensationalize and
what to watch, what to think, what to consume, how exaggerate issues or even demonize some countries
to dress, how to look, what to eat, and so on. In must be mitigated with some sense of responsibility, if
most cases, people’s decisions in life are being taken not in moderation, for the common good.
based on the information that is being transmitted by
commercial media culture, and recently also by social Values. Values are set of beliefs about what is important
media. Think about it, why so many people from different or unimportant, good or bad, right or wrong - that
Asian countries “worship” Chinese/ Korean styles? strongly influence what, when, how, and with whom one
Or, why are people obsessed with buying expensive does those things (Sarbaugh, 1987). Values are material
branded clothes and accessories (promoted as coming or immaterial things that people regard as important.
from the “West”…but produced in most ASEAN What is important to Cambodia may not be important
countries)? Media culture and the world of advertising to the Philippines for instance. According to Eilers
indeed play a strong role in driving consumers’ decisions (1987), people’s behaviors as offshoots of values are
on what to buy, what to choose, how to look, and so on. reflections of learning and acculturation. Meaning, most
of these are inborn or inherent among cultures. Suffice
The Structural Theory of Imperialism formulated to say that values vary from culture to culture. However,
by Johann Galtung in the 1970s, takes as a point of Lasswell (1948) had developed a value classification
departure the key fact that inequality between and framework with eight categories that could perhaps
within nations exists at all levels of human existence lead to a better understanding of ASEAN culture: power,
and it is difficult to eradicate these inequalities and respect, rectitude, affection, wealth, well-being, skills,
bring about change. In the context of the ASEAN, how and enlightenment. With these categories, no doubt, the
should the press system work? With the advancement Magic 10 has different values.
in ICT (Information and Communication Technology), the
The first category is power. Lasswell describes power talking to people with high regard. This could sound
as the strongest political value in cognizance of the strange to some foreigners because unlike in European
ability to participate in decision-making, especially when countries, greetings are shown by a handshake or beso-
it comes to politics. Some follow a democratic form beso (rubbing the cheeks of each other). In Buddhist
of government, while others employ “democratic-like” countries, one cannot enter a temple in shorts or
since they still practice their authoritarian, monarchial, or sleeveless; in like manner, entering the mosque is not for
communism roots. These differences in political power everyone. The Catholic Church also prohibits wearing
will definitely affect relationships. spaghetti straps or mini skirts inside, especially when
attending church services. These are practices that
The second category is respect. It refers to how one ASEAN member nations should be familiar with not only
treats or regards another. This could refer to matters like because they want to show respect, but also because
religion, belief systems, or anything that is important one should value what member countries do to have
to the person, or in this case, country. In countries a harmonious relationship. Respecting one another’s
like Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Thailand, practices no matter how strange, is having an open
Buddhism is prevalent. Hence, respect for monks is mind, thus could possibly embrace each other’s values.
highly regarded. In the Philippines, being predominantly
Catholic, Filipinos give high regard to the priest, the The third category is rectitude. This refers to behavior
bishop, or the pope by kissing their ring as show of that is correct, upright, and honorable. All 10 nations
respect. In Buddhist countries, walking alongside the value rectitude. Each country upholds righteousness,
monks is prohibited; normally people give way to them. which more often than not, is bound by their religion.
One cannot also sit beside them inside a tuktuk or bus Thus, religion plays a key role in building a community.
as a sign of respect. In Thailand, when the King or the While each religion carries their own beliefs and
Princess is in front, one cannot look at them straight practices, one thing common is the belief in a supreme
in the eye as a show of respect. In Lao PDR, when the being, which is enough to guide the moral values of
minister is about to enter the building, one has to step a nation. However, sometimes, rectitude is relative
aside to give way to him/her as a show of respect. In especially if a national is an atheist. Fear of God guides a
these countries, the “nop” or placing hands together in person’s uprightness.
a prayer like position with tips of fingers touching the
forehead with the head bowed, is given to the king or The fourth category is affection. It alludes to how
Buddha; for teachers or high officials, the fingers touch one likes or loves something. Visits to different ASEAN
the tip of the nose and arms are in triangle form just countries like Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, and
above the waist that comes with saying “sawadee kha” Indonesia revealed citizens’ attitudes towards foreigners.
in Thai or “sabaidee” in Lao as a form of greetings. In the They are warm and loving people. Word of mouth
Philippines, respect is shown to elders by putting their also conveys that Burmese are the same warm and
hands on one’s forehead or kissing their hand and saying loving people, so are the Filipinos. Singaporeans are
“mano po” or saying the words “po” or “opo” when a bit formal and reserved, much like Vietnamese and
Malaysians even in department stores, hotels, or malls.
The fifth category is wealth. As the name suggests, The seventh category is skills. Skills refer to one’s
assets can make or unmake a country. This is precisely abilities and capacities to perform a given function or
the reason why ASEAN integration was envisioned. role. The ASEAN needs a complex labor force to propel
Country leaders want to synergize their efforts to gain a its economy. However, with differing levels of skills and
foothold on economic growth in this part of the region. the cultural differences of workers, how can integration
Some members are rich while others are not so rich. materialize especially if a foreign worker gets a higher
Wealth, however, does not only refer to economic or pay compared to the locals? At present, all 10 countries
material possessions. Each country’s culture is wealth have adopted K+12 as basic education system. This
in itself. Its people are its wealth. These can serve as implies that learning standards or competencies across
showcase to visitors to these countries. Each one can countries are the same, and can be assumed as equal.
brag about their cultural heritage, artifacts, customs, and Is this the case? Fernandez and Powell (2010) noted that
traditions, especially their ecotourism sites. However, there is a gap between skills acquisition and business
according to Accenture.com, there are several factors needs in the region.
that need to be addressed such as: the lack of an
effective supra-national authority; strong nationalism; The last category is enlightenment. This refers to
persistent political tensions and instability; wide disparity education. Education is being valued by all ASEAN
in social economic progress; and ambiguity in building member nations. However, there is that grim reality that
an ASEAN identity. How then, can this be leveled-off? quality could be a problem. It is assumed that shifting
to K+12 can remedy the condition to some degree,
The sixth category is well-being. Etymologically, well- but there is no guarantee that this will be the case.
being refers to one’s state of being healthy, happy, or Differences in content, manner of teaching, instructional
comfortable. The question now is “what is the status of materials provided, learning resources, and teacher-
the well-being of the ASEAN?” Well-being can refer to student relationship may pose as a problem. A graduate
status of climatic conditions, health risks, environment, student from Lao PDR studying in the Philippines, for
disasters –manmade or natural–, and mental health. instance, cannot directly ask a teacher for guidance
A landlocked country like Lao PDR is vulnerable to because this is something that is frowned upon in their
airborne and water diseases. Transboundary diseases country. In the Philippines, students are encouraged to
or TADS from neighboring countries can easily spread to discuss their problems or clarifications inside or outside
the Greater Mekong Sub-region, given their geographical the classroom. This is not seen as a gesture of weakness
location. With climate change, all countries can be but learning, unlike in Laos. Hence, it becomes more
greatly affected, but others like the Philippines bear the difficult for a student to study abroad because of this
brunt more. According to Hashim et al (2012), looming cultural view of education.
chronic disease epidemics in all regions remain to be a
challenge. In the poorest countries, non-communicable Social Structures. Social structures are equated
diseases kill more people than do communicable, with social institutions: family, religion, education,
maternal and perinatal conditions combined. These government, economics (Eilers, 1987); and are
deaths mostly occur before old age.
dependent on types of society (tribal, peasant, not stop here. There must be a way for integration apart
modern). Filbeck (1985) as cited by Eilers, defines from economic, while the contention of the study is
social institutions as “a comparable, durable system of cultural.
interrelated folk ways and laws organized around a given
function of society.” Looking at the social structures, CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
one can surmise the parallelism with what cultures
value. Given the role social structures play in a country’s Given the cultural determinants of communication, it
culture, what similarities and differences can be drawn can be assumed that ASEAN integration can be made
among the ASEAN? possible through understanding and embracing each
country’s worldviews, ideologies, values, and social
Eilers (1987) further forwards that social institutions structures using multimedia platforms. Making known to
such as governments, economics, education, family, the different nationalities in the region the intent of being
and religion have five basic functions: maintenance of an ASEAN community, however, needs a more concrete
law and order; production and distribution of goods approach. Education and participation are keys to
and services; dissemination of knowledge and skills ensure holistic integration. Such process is what is called
especially for the next generation; procreation and as development communication or devcom. Professing
nurture of the young, including the establishment of devcom as cure-all is not the intention of this paper,
obligation and privileges of kinship in view of providing but using it as an approach to educate the ASEAN
for the aged in society; and provision of a rationale community about its nature and expectations is.
for group cohesion, including an explanation of one’s
ultimate destiny as a member of the group. Government Development Communication as defined by Dr. Nora
promulgates laws; economics takes care of wealth; Quebral (2012), the mother of devcom, is the “science
education provides enlightenment; the family, as the of human communication linked to the transitioning of
basic unit of society, is the nurturing ground for culture; communities from poverty in all its forms to a dynamic,
and belief in God as moral guidance of society. Filbeck overall growth that fosters equality and the unfolding of
(1987) categorizes societies into three types: tribal, individual potential.” The discipline imbibes a process
peasant, and modern. Tribal society involves a holistic that aims to capacitate and empower people through
interrelation between the government, economy, strategic messages for specific audiences. Unlike mass
education, family, and religion. Peasant society depends communication, devcom focuses on intended groups,
on the urban elite; and modern society is where “social in this case the ASEAN Community, towards social
institutions of government and economics share transformation that will eventually lead to behavior
the heaviest and most important functional load in change. Transformation cannot happen overnight.
maintaining the society.” It is a process that involves social mobilization if the
community was contiguous using face-to-face or
WIVS, then, can be assumed as breakers or makers mediated communication. In the case of the ASEAN,
of ASEAN Integration. While this is the case, it should face-to-face may not be possible physically, but can
be done electronically. This approach, also called as a community. While English is the assumed lingua
“communication for planned social change,” may franca, there is a high possibility that ASEAN nationals
be seen as appropriate, given the groundwork that can learn each other’s language especially Singapore,
needs to be done to ensure that citizens of the ASEAN Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brunei who speak Bahasa
community are well aware of what their leaders have Melayu; Laos and Thailand perfectly understand one
planned for them. Access to information to educate another; while Cambodia, Myanmar, Vietnam, and the
every citizen is what is needed, both young and old. Philippines have to learn all these languages. These can
In order to ensure timely, relevant, and substantive also be integrated in the curriculum as one of the foreign
dissemination of information, multimedia platforms languages that students can take, and with the aid of
like MAGS (My ASEAN Guide Supporter-mobile or multimedia access, this could be learnt faster. This
electronic apps), ASEAN alerts (on mobiles); ASEAN integration should be seen as participatory. The ASEAN
dictionary, ASEAN newspaper, and an ASEAN website Secretariat may be tasked to act as clearinghouse or
have to be developed not only to inform but to educate administrator of MAGS, wherein citizens of each country
ASEAN nationals, if this label is to be observed. The can beef up the database on information that they think
geographical location being close to each other should everyone should be familiar with. The signs, symbols,
be considered since environmental health needs to hymn, or clothing may very well be featured using
be taken care of as well. Understanding each other’s these applications. Figure 1 presents the conceptual
language, the basic information that is communicated by framework of the study.
using the various media platforms may ease integration.
Knowing how to say “thank you, welcome, greetings, Cultural Country integration
or how are you, how much, or what is your name” are Determinants by
country
initiatives
ASEAN policies
useful phrases to start a conversation on. Making the

10 languages available on electronic gadgets such as Worldviews
Development
Communication
mobile phones, tablets, netbooks, laptops, or PCs can • My ASEAN Guide
assist travelers to be more familiar with their community Ideology
Supporter (MAGS)
• ASEAN alerts 2015
ASEAN
despite their origin. • ASEAN dictionary
• ASEAN newspaper Integration
• ASEAN interactive
website
Values
In due time, if these interventions are in place,
there is no doubt that ASEAN integration may come Social structures
Geographical location
into fruition not only in pushing economic growth, Language

but bringing their people as one. The warm Laotians,
Independent Mediating Dependent
Burmese, Thais, Cambodians, Indonesians, and Filipinos Variables Variables Variables
can influence the serious and reserve Singaporeans,

Vietnamese, Malaysians, and Bruneians if they become Figure 1. Ten Countries, One Nation (TCON) Integration Framework:
familiar in speaking their language. Knowing how to A Socio-Cultural Perspective
speak their language to some degree can indeed make
MATERIALS AND METHODS other’s rights and practices. The differences in beliefs
may affect social behavior, but understanding these
The study employed a purely descriptive research worldviews can broaden perspectives and ultimately
design using secondary data with key informant build a multicultural society who harmoniously lives in
interviews as triangulate measure. This was a class diversity. Having an open mind to others’ cultures will not
project for DEVC 215 (Communication and Culture) only strengthen the relationships among its constituents,
that the author handled during the first semester but can also synergize its potentials to become a greater
of SY 2014-2015. The six students were asked to nation. Through constant exchange of information and
research about how ASEAN integration can be realized, intercultural communication (meaning each other’s
given that the assumption for such to occur in 2015 country will imbibe one another’s culture), there is no
using communication and culture as lens. The Lao doubt ASEAN integration will no longer be a lip service,
student specifically interviewed some students from but a policy that is understood by everyone.
the 10-member country who are studying in UPLB. A
research of the literature was conducted to establish The differing ideologies like democracy, authoritarian,
how cultural determinants of communication like monarchy, and communism definitely can affect
worldviews, ideology, values, and social structures integration but if the 10 nations can agree to have a
can hasten or hamper ASEAN integration. The results national policy that will be observed, then, ideologies
were analyzed and synthesized in this paper as can be sorted out. This can be done if each member
context of TCON. The author did the implications and country can use multimedia
interpretations of the results as well as the approaches platforms to share information
that can be considered in mainstreaming TCON. to increase knowledge
about each other. Close
collaboration should not be
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION limited to higher ups, but
the grassroots as well. The
There is no doubt, worldviews, ideology, values, and different media platforms
social structures vary. Such variation, however, should can be used to beef up
be seen as strength rather than a weakness. information access and
heightened awareness about
The belief in God is a common characteristic of the ASEAN countries being
10-member country despite the differing denominations. one. Having an ASEAN flag
They all respect a supreme being that is above all alongside the national flag
men. They are also fatalistic, which should be revered in schools and local government offices can perhaps
because fear of something like belief on a mighty ruler educate students and citizens what ASEAN means.
can guide a moral and upright life. The worldviews of the ASEAN signs, symbols, or logos can be used to promote
ASEAN countries can serve like a shield to protect each the integration, like what Singapore is doing. Singapore’s
disembarkation form for visitors includes the ASEAN the diverse cultural contexts of ASEAN countries, they
logo indicating their membership. Other member may lead to intercultural misunderstandings and conflict
countries can do the same. Making the logo visible if there is a violation in the use of signs, symbols, or
in strategic locations and publications can educate language from one culture to another. Thus, it is very
a larger audience at any one time. Localizing ASEAN important to become media literate, use the media
integration through multimedia platforms can also hasten responsibly and critically, and understand which content
integration. is being shared in information societies. One example of
an Internet meme is the video “Gangnam Style” which
One must also think about the speed of new media or became the first YouTube clip to be viewed more than
digital media in transmitting and sharing information. For one billion times. Thousands of its viewers responded
example, a tweet that goes instantly viral like memes can by creating and posting their own variations of the video.
increase knowledge, affect attitudes, or change behavior “Gangnam Style” and its parodies and imitations are one
towards a phenomenon. Therefore, the content that is of the most famous examples of an Internet meme: a
being shared by the media and through digital media piece of digital content that spreads quickly around the
may have a strong impact in shaping the ASEAN identity web in various iterations and becomes a shared cultural
and its cultures. experience. How can memes be used to promote
ASEAN integration?
It is worth to learn more about memes since these
are part of popular and everyday culture. Even if the term The media encompasses all the channels of
“meme” was coined by Richard Dawkins (1976) long communication, through which information and
before the digital era, this concept incorporates some knowledge are disseminated and shared with one or
of the most fundamental aspect of the Internet and of more individuals. There are different forms of media:
participatory culture and Web 2.0. Limor Shifman (2014) mainstream media, community media, and new
defines memes as: media. Mainstream media consists of radio, TV, print
or newspapers; community media are smaller and
Pieces of cultural information that pass along community-based, for example, community newspapers,
from person to person, but gradually scale into localized radio programming, cable TV, wall newspapers,
a shared social phenomenon. Although they puppet shows, theater, or community communication
spread on a micro basis, their impact is on the channels. Terry Flew (2005) defines new media as
macro level: memes shape the mindsets, forms digital media. Digital media covers media content that
of behavior, and actions of social groups. combines data, text, sound, and images stored in digital
formats and distributed through networks such as
This attribute is highly compatible to the way culture broadband optic fiber cables, satellites, and microwave
is formed in the Web 2.0 era, which is marked by transmission systems. New media such as World Wide
platforms for creating and exchanging user-generated Web sites generate old content into digital format.
content. Memes can be empowering or damaging. Given Social media is another form of media that, compared to
mainstream media, is more interactive and participatory In addition, a study conducted in 2004 in Sri Lanka,
– a “two-way” communication rather than a “one-way” Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, and the
communication. Philippines showed that another important issue and
obstacle to narrowing the digital divide in the region is
In ASEAN, one may argue that the booming of mobile the need for appropriate information and communication
technology and social media networks has brought the policies. Despite some of the listed countries having
biggest change in the media landscape. Southeast Asia well-developed media systems, most countries do not
is enthusiastically surfing the digital wave and it is in have clearly defined media and communication policies.
the midst of the mobile revolution, which is increasingly Rules and regulations have developed, sometimes as
enabling people to access e-services and connect with executive actions, to meet specific situations.
one another beyond physical constraints. For instance:
Can the media in ASEAN achieve regional
• Over 2.7 billion people, 39% of the world’s integration? Kavi Chongkittavorn, assistant group
population, are using the Internet (ITU, 2013); editor of Nation Multimedia Group and Senior Media
• There are almost as many mobile-cellular Specialist in the region, argues: “Strange but true, while
subscriptions as people in the world, with more ASEAN leaders often praise the region's achievements
than half in the Asia- Pacific region – 3.5 billion in economic, social, and political areas in moving
out of 6.8 billion total subscriptions (ITU, 2013); towards the long-awaited single community, they seldom
and appreciate the role of media in the process of regional
• 194 million new Internet users will come online integration.”
between 2010 and 2020 in the six ASEAN
nations, 91 million of them from Indonesia alone According to Kavi:
(Accenture, 2012)
Such an attitude mirrors the deep-seated
Despite this digital hype, Southeast Asia is also mistrust of media, as well as the existence of
home to a number of least developed countries where distinctive media cultures and institutions within
ICT development is among the lowest in the world. For individual member nations. The ambitious
example: ASEAN Economic Community to be launched in
2015 would not be possible without the active
• In the developing world, 31% of the population is participation of journalists and media workers
online, compared to 77% in the developed world within the grouping. In Europe, North America,
(ITU, 2013); and and Latin America, media are the major driving
• An estimated 1.1 billion households worldwide are force behind regional integration and the sense of
not yet connected to the Internet, 90 percent of belonging.
which are in the developing world (ITU, 2013).
Media landscapes in Southeast Asia are the state-owned media together to ensure
diverse and uneven. That helps explain why it media unity and commonality of views. However,
is extremely difficult to offer a general image without the participation of the private media
of the regional media. That has been the main sector, the Confederation of ASEAN Journalists
attribute hampering discussions and closer with more than a three-decade history, has not
collaboration throughout these years in media- been able to tap in and connect with the new
related activities, especially in setting common generation of media workers or catch up with the
norms and standards of media practice. Although new media revolution in the region.
the charter, and the region's political-and-security
and social-and-cultural blueprints, specifically In addition, he said:
mention the need to promote the free flow of
and access to information - as well as the role Without broader media cooperation and
of media in promoting ASEAN identity and understanding, social networks through new
awareness in community-building and integration media platforms will set a precedent, if not
efforts - ASEAN leaders have yet to make serious conditions, for the future of ASEAN integration.
efforts to push forward this platform. With the proliferation of mobile technologies
coupled with a meteoric rise in the number
At the recent summit in Bandar Seri Begawan, of citizen informants, their few words and
Brunei, ASEAN leaders tasked their ministers audio clips could impact on the whole effort
with finalizing the ASEAN Communication Master of regional integration. Somehow, ASEAN still
Plan, which will focus on the common people. lacks the media strategies for utilizing traditional,
For the time being, it has been left to individual mainstream, and new media to forge regionalism.
members to do so. Within ASEAN, as it turns out,
Myanmar has reformed the most when it comes Currently, there are well over 100 professional
to the media. In the past 18 months, Naypyidaw organizations associated with ASEAN, but none
has surprised ASEAN with its bold media reforms is a media-related organization. Media and
despite some imperfections. For instance, its social networks must help to articulate the
the international community has welcomed benefits of regional integration and cooperation.
Myanmar’s on-going media openness and rapid The National Press Council of Thailand and the
reformation and institutionalization towards Indonesian Press Council are currently working
public media services. This paradigm shift has on a common plan to establish the ASEAN Press
caused wariness among ASEAN members of the Council, which will be the first time in the region
possible impact on their countries. for such an undertaking. Thailand, Indonesia, and
the Philippines have independent media self-
During the second decade of ASEAN, Indonesia regulatory bodies. Myanmar set up an interim
under Suharto played a dominant role in bringing press council last year.
As ASEAN community-building continues, the The determinant values likewise differ but one
media in ASEAN must also be able to manage would notice that ASEAN values religion, health,
the expectations of ASEAN citizens regarding respect for elders, well-being, and education. With
the outcome of economic integration and future these characteristics, a more strategic communication
implications to mitigate unfounded fears and approach can be developed to address the gaps. ASEAN
concerns surrounding a single community. integration can happen by capitalizing on these values.
The tendency to adhere to a common way of thinking
Different communication channels provide can hasten the intention of having One Community, if
information from which the decisions of political leaders, it can be communicated using these characteristics.
and those of the general public, are based. People The social relevance of being a part of One Community
still greatly depend on mass media for information can be played using these avenues. The monks can
whether this be at the local, national, or global levels talk about ASEAN integration, as well as the priests,
(even if this is changing with the advent of new media). pastors, or imams. What is good for the ASEAN should
It is imperative, therefore, that people as receivers of be popularized to increase advocacy and hasten social
information are able to read, understand, and decide transformation. There is a need to establish regional
for themselves on issues affecting them. The mass norms at the local level.
media also has a role in creating public opinion. This
is true for both democratic and authoritarian countries. With existing social structures, the change should
While this function is encouraged, some countries in start with the family as the basic unit of society.
ASEAN restrict information dissemination to limited Families must be educated on what ASEAN integration
audiences, especially if this will affect or lead to political means. This implies that non-formal education through
and social instability. As a thinking public, members of orientation, webinars, or face-to-face focus group
a population should be able to evaluate and discern discussions can be done to increase awareness about
what information is being sent to them, and what actions being an ASEAN national. The communication process
must be taken to foster truth and transparency. The may take awhile, but if this will not be initiated, who
media play an important role both in creating public would? The ASEAN Secretariat should expand its
opinion, and reflecting and showcasing the opinions of network to local government units, or up to the desa,
members of the society, for instance through editorials, ban, or barangay levels to ensure that everyone knows
columns, commentaries, newspapers, magazines, new what the ASEAN is all about. Thus, being familiar with
media or the Internet, among others. Media also function the 10-member countries’ WIVS through development
as watchdogs–raising awareness on issues of public communication using ICTs, can realize ASEAN
interest, and the wrongdoings of institutions and people integration in due time. While promotion is being done,
in power. advocacy is low because the approach used was more
on the use of technocrats, rather than the masses.
CONCLUSION Bock, M. J. (2013) ‘Mind the Gap; Perceptions On ASEAN

Inequality’ adaptive-energy-solution.com/2013/04/09/
Embracing one’s roots is not an obstacle to imbibing mind-the-gap-perceptions-on-ASEAN-inequality.
another’s if the intention is for the common good.
Having an ASEAN Culture by understanding one’s Capuno, Ailyn. 2014. ASEAN Communication.
worldviews, ideologies, values, and social structures and (Unpublished paper).
taking those as they are cannot only create one nation,
but a great nation. With the advent of ICTs, through Camacho, April. 2014. Quantity or Quality? (Unpublished
development communication approaches, there is no paper).
doubt that integration can be realized by the current and
enjoyed by the next generations. Thus, ASEANs should Carden, D. L. (2014) ‘The Challenges for Asean’s next
consider cultural determinants of communication in generation as it moves towards community: ASEAN
“weaving ASEAN integration smoothly as silk”, instead of needs greater inclusion and fresh ideas’ www.sr-
purely economic. Indonesia.com/in-the-journal/view/ the-challenges-
for-asean-s-next-generation as-it-moves-towards-
community-asean-needs-greater-inclusion-and-fresh-
ideas?
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Abdulrahim, R. (2014) ‘Security for an ASEAN Identity’? for ASEAN; Strengthening Social Protection System in
www.sr-Indonesia.com/in_the_journal_/view/security- ASEAN’.
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Deneulin, S., & Rakodi, C. (2011). Revisiting Religion:
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doing-it-right-30184240.html worlddev.2010.05.007
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Vision in 2020’ Paul VI. (1967, March 26). Encyclical Populorum
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aspp.12057 www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/
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Challenge to Construct a Shared Destiny’. www. Building ASEAN Identity, and Narrowing the
academic.edu/981239/Forging-an-ASEAN-identity- Development Gap’. www.jcie.org/japan/j/pdf/
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come together. The Nation. Available at: http://www. Shifman, L. (2014). Memes in Digital Culture. The MIT
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media-sector-to-come-together-30205456.html
Suryodinigrat, M. (2004) ‘Looking for Common Values, A
Kihl, Y. W. (1989) ‘Intra-regional conflict and Community Driven ASEAN’. global.yale.edu/content/
the ASEAN Peace process’www.jstor.org/ looking-common-values- community-driven-ASEAN.
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uid = 373882, International journal-vol. 44. No 3. Tumangil, Ruth Moselle. 2014. ASEAN Values: Key to
Regional Unity (Unpublished paper).
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Ujorongbe, Ayo. 2014. Towards an ASEAN Worldview

(Unpublished paper).
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Systems and Structures’. www.dpiap.org/ASEAN_
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www.asean.org/communities/asean-socio-cultural-
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Yusuf, I. (2013) ‘Muslim Understanding as key to

ASEAN Integration’ www.travel-impact-newswire.
com/2013/09/first-conference-to-promote-Buddist-
Muslim- understanding-as-key-to-ASEAN-integration
THE ASEAN MEDIA LANDSCAPE1

Benjamina Gonzalez-Flor2
ASEAN AS AN INFORMATION SOCIETY

What is the information society? The information
society is defined in different ways by organizations
working in different sectors. In our context, we will refer to
the information society as a social system that capitalizes
on information in order to survive. This occurs in the
Information Age, also defined by Alvin Toffler (1980)
as “Third Wave” – an age that is powerfully driven by
information technology and that is based not so much
on muscles and physical strength, but rather on mind
and knowledge. It is important to distinguish the terms
information society and Information Age:
An information society refers to a social system

while the Information Age refers to an era in human
civilization, a worldwide phenomenon. Hence,
it is possible for a group of people to live in the
Information Age but not within an information
society” (Flor, A., p.13).
The Information Age is the third era of human

civilization, with its predecessors being the Agricultural
Age (first era) and the Industrial Age (second era).
Paradoxically, the Information Age cannot exist without the
previous two eras, or without the agricultural and industrial
societies supplying their products and commodities.
1
Initially prepared as an ASEAN Communication module with editorial
input from Ms Sarah Gabai, Consultant, Sukhothai University, Bangkok.
Some of the contents found here interface with the previous chapter.

2
Benjamina Gonzalez Flor, Ph.D. is Professor of the College of
Development Communication, University of the Philippines Los Baños.
52 Towards an ASEAN Identity: Discourses on Communication and Culture The ASEAN Media Landscape 53
Porat came up with the phrase “information In an information society, not all members of the
society” as one in which informational activities or population are information workers. Alongside information,
information exchanges engage the majority of the there must be agricultural and industrial workers to
workforce and account for the greater share of economic maintain the balance of food production and industrial
transactions. This means that even information becomes needs. However, the dominant capital remains to be
a commodity (or commercial good) to be purchased, information. This means that there are rich information
consumed, or shared. Information gains economic value. societies and poor information societies brought about
One may argue that in Asia, people are moving towards by the digital divide locally, nationally, internationally,
information societies – just think about the growing globally, or ASEAN-wide. Such landscape, however, is
demand for mobile devices and software broadband, changing due to the exponential growth of Information and
Wi-Fi, eLearning programs, and any other information Communication Technologies (ICTs).
exchange platforms.
The Global Information Technology Report 2014 finds
Vimal Dissanayake outlines the characteristics of little progress in bridging the gap between the world’s
the information society, and differentiates it from the most networked economies and the rest of the world.
agricultural and industrial societies as follows: However, the Asia Pacific region is very dynamic and active
in developing ICTs. Click on the Network Readiness Index
Table 1. Characteristics of IS 2014 to see the ranking of ASEAN countries. Found below
Categories of are some highlights:
Agricultural Industrial Information
change
Product Food Goods Information § Malaysia ranks 30th and confirms its leadership as
Factors of Land Capital Expertise the highest ranked economy in Developing Asia.
production The government uses ICTs extensively, highlighting
Production Household Factory Information utility the high priority of this sector.
venue § Indonesia ranks 64th, the third best result among
Actors Farmers Factory workers Technicians members of ASEAN after Singapore and Malaysia.
Nature of Tool-oriented Power Information technology § Thailand ranks 67th and its main strength lies in
technology technology relative affordability of ICTs.
Methodology Trial and error Experiment Abstract theory and § Philippines ranks 78th with improved access to ICT
simulation infrastructure and better skills.
Guiding factor Tradition Economic Codification of § Vietnam ranks 84th, and the overall quality of the
growth knowledge political and regulatory environment and ICT
Prerequisite to Speech Verbal/visual and Computer literacy infrastructure limit the expansion of the ICT sector,
success aural literacy
while available skills show no signs of development.
Preferred rule Hierarchical/ Representative Participatory § Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Myanmar are at the
authoritarian democracy democracy
bottom of the regional rankings.
Unifying Regionalism Nationalism Globalism
principle
Media, Information and Power: nations exists at all levels of human existence and it is
difficult to eradicate these inequalities and bring about
Center and Periphery change. Galtung distinguishes between Centers (C)
and Periphery (P) nations. Each nation, in turn, has its
The social structures in which we live greatly affect own centers (c) and peripheries (p). Imperialism sets
the power that media and communication have in the relations of dominance between these nations. The
information societies. This can be explained by the Center nation has power over the Periphery nation,
concept of media imperialism. Media imperialism to bring about a condition of disharmony of interest
refers to the use of media to advance the interests between them. Media and communication are also seen
of a dominant country over a subordinate nation; or by Galtung as a form of imperialism where the Center
of a dominant organization or group of people over nation provides news and the means of communication,
subordinated and marginalized groups. Critical theorists while the Periphery nation provides less influential
such as Habermas (German), Schiller (American), information. The information and communication
Beltran, and Bordanave (South American) have resources that are being produced and transmitted by
extensively theorized on media imperialism. the Center nations often repurpose the dominance of the
Center nations on Periphery nations.
Transnational media like CNN, BBC, Hollywood,
Bollywood, MTV, HBO, and Koreanovelas are some On the occasion of the 15th Asian Media Information
of the examples that display the power of information and Communication Centre Annual Conference titled
societies and the ways in which they tell the audience “Media in Asia: Aspirations, Choices and Realities,”
what to watch, what to think, what to consume, how H.E. Ong Keng Yong, Former Secretary-General of
to dress, how to look, what to eat, and so on. In most ASEAN addressed in his speech that “dominant media
cases, our decisions in life are based on the information conglomerates remain profit-driven and therefore have a
that is being transmitted by commercial media culture, stake in the region’s prosperity and stability”.
and recently also by social media. Think about it, why
so many people from different Asian countries “worship” H.E. Ong Keng Yong highlights:
Chinese/ Korean styles? Or, why are people obsessed
with buying expensive branded clothes and accessories § Consolidation of transnational and western
(promoted as coming from the “West”…but produced media continues. The biggest of the top five is
in most ASEAN countries)? Media culture and the Time Warner with a total revenue of US$ 29,795
world of advertising indeed play a strong role in driving billion in 2013 (Source: Institute of Media and
consumers’ decisions on what to buy, what to choose, Communication Policy). Time Warner has global
how to look, and so on. reach with over 200 subsidiaries worldwide and
owns CNN, Warner Bros Pictures, 24 magazines
The Structural Theory of Imperialism, formulated including Time, People and Sports Illustrated,
by Johann Galtung in the 1970s, takes as a point of among others.
departure the key fact that inequality between and within
§ Time Warner is followed by Disney (owns Disney Despite the digital divide being increasingly narrowed
Channel, ESPN, etc.); Bertelsmann (owns 19 down, information societies continue to exercise
European TV channels and 23 radio stations, etc.); their dominant power over developing societies.
Viacom (owns MTV, etc.); and News Corporation How is this happening? While many subscribe to
(owns Fox TV and some 132 newspapers Google, Facebook, Yahoo, Wikipedia, and post in
worldwide, including the London Times and the an online forum, open a blog etc., few are aware of
New York Post). the implications of using different forms of media, for
example issues of privacy and online hate speech,
For the Asian media, this consolidation and among others. The misuse of communication and
transnationalisation of media means tough competition. media, and accessing sensitive information and media
The challenge, therefore, is to find niche and add value content may affect the ways in which people from one
in providing news, information, and entertainment to country interact with and understand each other. This is
targeted audiences. But beyond competition, both particularly relevant in the ASEAN context, where one of
Asian and global media companies have a stake in the the roles of the media is to foster greater social, cultural,
continued economic progress of countries in the region, political, and economic understanding about ASEAN.
which translates into greater and sustained purchasing
power of the people. Temptations to sensationalize and One must also think about the speed of new media or
exaggerate issues or even demonize some countries digital media in transmitting and sharing information. For
must be mitigated with some sense of responsibility, if example, a tweet that goes instantly viral like memes can
not moderation, for the common good. increase knowledge, affect attitudes, or change behavior
towards a phenomenon. Therefore, the content that is
From this speech, we can have a better being shared by the media and through digital media
understanding of the differences between Center and may have a strong impact in shaping the ASEAN identity
Periphery in mainstream media where, as often is the and its cultures.
case, the West (or USA) is the Center and other countries
and regions in the world are the Periphery. People in the It is worth to learn more about memes since these
Periphery consume information delivered by the Center are part of our popular and everyday culture. Although
and strive to compete, both to raise their economic and the term “meme” was coined by Richard Dawkins (1976)
commercial power, and to bring their stories to the world. long before the digital era, this concept incorporates
While mainstream media are more centralized and easily some of the most fundamental aspect of the Internet
controllable by the few (Center), new media or digital and of participatory culture and Web 2.0. Limor Shifman
media (Periphery) are more accessible to the people and (2014) defines memes as:
may be an “alternative” medium to produce and share
information with the public nationally and internationally. Pieces of cultural information that pass along
from person to person, but gradually scale into
a shared social phenomenon. Although they
spread on a micro basis, their impact is on the Mainstream media

macro level: memes shape the mindsets, forms consists of radio, TV,
of behavior, and actions of social groups. (p.18) print or newspapers;
community media
This attribute is highly compatible to the way culture are smaller and
is formed in the Web 2.0 era, which is marked by community-based, for
platforms for creating and exchanging user-generated example, community
content. Memes can be empowering or damaging. Given newspapers, localized
the diverse cultural contexts of ASEAN countries, they radio programming, cable
may lead to intercultural misunderstandings and conflict TV, wall newspapers,
if there is a violation in the use of signs, symbols, or puppet shows, theater, or
language from one culture to another. Thus, it is very community communication
important to become media literate, use the media channels. Terry Flew (2005)
responsibly and critically, and understand which content defines new media as
is being shared in information societies. digital media.
In December 2012, the video “Gangnam Style” Digital media covers

became the first YouTube clip to be viewed more than media content that
one billion times. Thousands of its viewers responded combines data, text,
by creating and posting their own variations of the video. sound, and images
“Gangnam Style” and its parodies and imitations are one stored in digital formats
of the most famous examples of an Internet meme: a and distributed through
piece of digital content that spreads quickly around the networks such as
web in various iterations and becomes a shared cultural broadband optic fiber cables, satellites & microwave
experience. transmission systems. New media such as World Wide
Web sites generate old content into digital format. Social
MEDIA MAPPING IN THE ASEAN REGION media is another form of media that, compared to
mainstream media, is more interactive and participatory
Forms of Media in ASEAN and in the – a “two-way” communication rather than a “one-way”
Information Society communication.
The media encompasses all the channels of In ASEAN, one may argue that the booming of mobile
communication, through which information and technology and social media networks has brought the
knowledge are disseminated and shared with one or biggest change in the media landscape. Southeast Asia
more individuals. There are different forms of media: is enthusiastically surfing the digital wave and it is in
mainstream media, community media, and new media. the midst of the mobile revolution, which is increasingly
enabling people to access • An estimated 1.1 billion households worldwide are

e-services and connect not yet connected to the Internet, 90 per cent of
with one another beyond which are in the developing world. (ITU, 2013)
physical constraints.
In addition, a study conducted in 2004 in Sri Lanka,
• Over 2.7 billion people, Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, and the
39% of the world’s Philippines showed that another important issue and
population, are using the obstacle to narrowing the digital divide in the region is
Internet. (ITU, 2013) the need for appropriate information and communication
• There are almost as policies. “Despite some of the listed countries having
many mobile-cellular well-developed media systems, most countries do not
subscriptions as people have clearly defined media and communication policies.
in the world, with more Rules and regulations have developed, sometimes as
than half in the Asia- executive actions, to meet specific situations.”
Pacific region – 3.5 billion
out of 6.8 billion total The Functions of Media
subscriptions. (ITU, 2013)
• 194 million new In Philippine Communication in the Digital Age,
Internet users will come Maslog (2014) distinguishes three roles that channels of
online between 2010 and communication, and in particular mass media, play in
2020 in the six ASEAN society. These are political, economic, and social roles.
nations. 91 million of them
from Indonesia alone Political. Different communication channels provide
(Accenture, 2012). information from which the decisions of political leaders,
and those of the general public, are based. People
Despite this digital still greatly depend on mass media for information
hype, Southeast Asia is whether this be at the local, national, or global levels
also home to a number of (even if this is changing with the advent of new media).
least developed countries It is imperative, therefore, that people as receivers of
where ICT development is information are able to read, understand, and decide for
among the lowest in the themselves on issues affecting them. The mass media
world. also has a role in creating public opinion. This is true
for both democratic and authoritarian countries. While
• In the developing world, 31% of the population is this function is encouraged, some countries in ASEAN
online, compared to 77% in the developed world. restrict information dissemination to limited audiences,
(ITU, 2013) especially if this will affect or lead to political and social
instability. As a thinking public, members of a population The Role of the Media in ASEAN
should be able to evaluate and discern what information
is being sent to them, and what actions must be taken Kavi Chongkittavorn, assistant group editor of Nation
to foster truth and transparency. The media play an Multimedia Group and Senior Media Specialist in the
important role both in creating public opinion, and region, argues: “Strange but true, while ASEAN leaders
reflecting and showcasing the opinions of members of often praise the region's achievements in economic,
the society, for instance through editorials, columns, social and political areas in moving towards the long-
commentaries, newspapers, magazines, new media awaited single community, they seldom appreciate the
or the Internet, among others. Media also function as role of media in the process of regional integration.”
watchdogs–raising awareness on issues of public
interest, and the wrongdoings of institutions and people
in power. Such an attitude mirrors the deep-seated mistrust of
media, as well as the existence of distinctive media
Economic. The second role of the media is an economic cultures and institutions within individual member nations.
one. As we have seen earlier in this study guide, The ambitious ASEAN Economic Community to be
mass media and mainstream media are a big part of launched in 2015 would not be possible without the
the economy of a country or region. Advertising is active participation of journalists and media workers
where most of the revenue of the media is generated. within the grouping. In Europe, North America and Latin
Advertisers worldwide will spend $545.40 billion on America, media are the major driving force behind regional
paid media in 2014, according to the new figures from integration and the sense of belonging.
eMarketer. Among ASEAN member states, Indonesia is
the country that leads advertising spending growth in Media landscapes in Southeast Asia are diverse and
the Asia-Pacific region; its spending is heading towards uneven. That helps explain why it is extremely difficult to
international levels. offer a general image of the regional media. That has
been the main attribute hampering discussions and
Social. The third role of the media is social. “Mass closer collaboration throughout these years in media-
media help strengthen the social fabric of the nation and related activities, especially in setting common norms and
influence its pattern” (Maslog, 2014). In other words, standards of media practice. Although the charter, and
media are conveyers of culture, and shape the ways in the region’s political-and-security and social-and-cultural
which societies are being built. One of the social roles blueprints, specifically mention the need to promote the
of mass media is to create a popular culture which free flow of and access to information - as well as the role
includes customs, fads, fashions, folk songs, pop tunes, of media in promoting ASEAN identity and awareness
folk art, pop art, lingo, technology, norms, beliefs, in community-building and integration efforts - ASEAN
personalities, and even superstitions. Other social roles leaders have yet to make serious efforts to push forward
are entertainment and development communication. this platform.
At the recent summit in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei, Somehow, ASEAN still lacks the media strategies for
ASEAN leaders tasked their ministers with finalizing the utilizing traditional, mainstream and new media to forge
ASEAN Communication Master Plan, which will focus regionalism.
on the common people. For the time being, it has been
left to individual members to do so. Currently, there are well over 100 professional
organizations associated with ASEAN, but none is a
Within ASEAN, as it turns out, Myanmar has reformed media-related organization. Media and its social networks
the most when it comes to the media. In the past 18 must help to articulate the benefits of regional integration
months, Naypyidaw has surprised ASEAN with its and cooperation. The National Press Council of Thailand
bold media reforms despite some imperfections. For and the Indonesian Press Council are currently working
instance, Myanmar’s ongoing media openness and on a common plan to establish the ASEAN Press
rapid reformation and institutionalization towards public Council, which will be the first time in the region for such
media services have been welcomed by the international an undertaking. Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines have
community. This paradigm shift has caused wariness independent media self-regulatory bodies. Myanmar set
among ASEAN members of the possible impact on their up an interim press council last year.
countries.
As ASEAN community-building continues, the media in
During the second decade of ASEAN, Indonesia under ASEAN must also be able to manage the expectations
Suharto played a dominant role in bringing the state- of ASEAN citizens regarding the outcome of economic
owned media together to ensure media unity and integration and future implications to mitigate unfounded
commonality of views. However, without the participation fears and concerns surrounding a single community.
of the private media sector, the Confederation of ASEAN
Journalists with more than a three-decade history, has not Kavi Chongkittavorn,
been able to tap in and connect with the new generation “Time for ASEAN’s media sector to come together.”
of media workers or catch up with the new media The Nation.
revolution in the region.
Without broader media cooperation and understanding,

social networks through new media platforms will set
a precedent, if not conditions, for the future of ASEAN
integration. With the proliferation of mobile technologies
coupled with a meteoric rise in the number of citizen
informants, their few words and audio clips could
impact on the whole effort of regional integration.
REFERENCES
Accenture (2012). Surfing Southeast Asia’s Powerful
Digital Wave.
Benat Bilbao-Osorio, Soumitra Dutta, and Bruno Lavin.

The Global Information Report 2014. “Asia and the
Pacific”.
Flew, T. (2005). New Media. Oxford University Press
Flor, A. (2009). Developing Societies in the Information

Age: A Critical Perspective. UP Open University.
Galtung, J. (1971). A Structural Theory of Imperialism,

Journal of Peace Research, 8(2): 81–117
Huntington, H. (2013) Subversive Memes: Internet Memes

as a Form of Visual Rhetoric. Selected Papers of
Internet Research 14.0. Denver: USA.
ITU (2013). The World in 2013, ICT Facts and Figures.
Maslog, C. (2014). Philippine Communication in the Digital

Age. New Day Publishers
Shifman, L. (2014). Memes in Digital Culture. The MIT

Press
Toffler, A. (1980). The Third Wave, Bantam Books

CARVING ICT INDUSTRY NICHES WITHIN

THE ASEAN IN A GLOBALIZED HIGHER
EDUCATIONAL AND KNOWLEDGE
ENVIRONMENT1
Alexander G. Flor2
INTRODUCTION
For the past decade, globalization has spawned its
champions and detractors within and outside academic
circles. Many of our peers consider globalization as a
boon to Asian higher education since it opens up our
academic programs to Western students. Consider, for
instance, the increasing number of North American and
European graduate students pursuing their degrees in
Thai universities through English language programs.
However, an even greater number among us consider
globalization as a bane not only to our educational
system, but also to our Asian societies in general.
Localization of resources seems to be the remedy of
choice for the perceived ills of globalization. One would
assume that this would likewise follow in the area of
education and human resource development.
This paper adopts a slightly different point of view.
From where I stand at the moment, and that would

be from the vantage point of the Open Campus of the
1
Paper presented during the International Symposium on Skills
Development for Poverty Alleviation held on 25-26 January 2008 at
the Colombo Plan Staff College, Pasig City, Philippines.
2
Alexander G. Flor, Ph.D. is Professor of Information and
Communication Studies, University of the Philippines, OPEN
UNIVERSITY.
70 Towards an ASEAN Identity: Discourses on Communication and Culture Carving ICT Industry Niches Within the ASEAN 71
University of the Philippines System, globalization is a manpower exports of programmers amount to billions
product of technology. Although as an academic, it is of dollars annually. The Philippines ranks a poor second
very tempting to analyze globalization from a geopolitical compared to India, based on foreign exchange earnings
point of view, I see it realistically from the standpoint attributed to this sub-sector. On the other hand, India
of technological determinism. From this perspective, tails the Philippines as the largest global supplier of
globalization is seen as the natural consequence of call center operators. A strategic advantage that both
information and communication technologies. New India and the Philippines have is that their medium
ICTs have resulted in the death of distance and are of instruction in computer education as well as in
thus actively undermining national as well as regional communication, is English.
boundaries in the economic, financial, communicational,
and educational spheres. However, Asia in general and Southeast Asia
in particular should not be engaged in cut-throat
To me, it is quite clear that globalization, particularly competition against one another. Each country should
in education, is not a product of a conspiracy focus on their respective niches, be these in computer
perpetrated by an ideology or an economic bloc. science, information science, or communication
It is merely the natural outcome of a networked science. These niches may actually be found in the list
world that has shrunk virtually due to advances in of competencies expected from individuals to lead in a
telecommunications and transportation. knowledge-based economy. These competencies are
clustered under a growing field of study, information and
COMPETITION, COMPETENCE, communication technology.
AND COMPETENCIES
ICT as a Body of Knowledge
How does the academe situate itself in such a global
educational environment? How would universities and Information and communication technology may be
subsequently industries, cope to the challenges of a regarded as a body of knowledge, built and shaped over
knowledge society? time by its practitioners. The building blocks of this body
are generated by research, both scientific and anecdotal,
ASEAN universities and industry clusters should involving the documentation of best practice and lessons
position themselves according to their relative strengths learned.
and strategic advantages. Such is the fundamental
ground rule in the globalized playing field, be it in the Like all bodies positioned within time and space,
area of trade or education. this body of knowledge possesses three dimensions. In
this particular case, however, the continuum constitutes
We could very well learn from the example of Indian these dimensions: the hard - soft continuum; the front
educational institutions that are now the largest supplier end - back end continuum; and the high end - low end
of software developers in the entire world. Indian continuum.
The hard-soft continuum refers to the range of ICT Industry Competency Niches
systems involved from hardware technologies to
software technologies and on to content. Somewhere in Hard front high-end Competencies. These
this continuum, information and knowledge is situated, competencies encompass both the practical and
the latter being the softest of the lot. The front end theoretical skills and knowledge involving state-of-
refers to utilization or user technologies, while the back the-art industrial and enterprise ICT hardware and
end refers to design and development technologies. infrastructure. Computer engineering competencies
High and low ends refer to the level of complexity and involved in the architecture and installation of high-end
sophistication of the technologies. enterprise, or network solutions for corporations and
agencies fall under this category. Examples of such skills
Situate these dimensions in a matrix and we arrive at and knowledge are those required in the provision of
the following cells: the hard front high end; the hard front systems and services by IBM, Hewlett Packard, Xerox,
low end; the hard back high end; the hard back low end; and Sun Microsystems.
the soft front high end; the soft front low end; the soft
back high end; and the soft back low end. Hard front low-end Competencies. These
competencies cover both the practical and theoretical
Table 1. Dimensions of ICT skills and knowledge involving the assembly and mass
production of personal ICT gadgets, gizmos, and their
FRONT BACK components. Computer engineering, marketing, and
HIGH LOW HIGH LOW financing competencies (including the generation of
venture capital) involved in the provision of personal
HARD Hard front Hard front Hard back Hard back computers, notebooks, personal digital assistants,
high end low end high end low end
digital devices and their parts (processors, chips,
technologies technologies technologies technologies
motherboards, etc.), fall under this category. Examples
of such skills and knowledge are those required in the
SOFT Soft front Soft front Soft back Soft back provision of parts, products, and services by Nokia,
high end low end high end low end Sony Ericsson, BlackBerry, and iPhone. The biggest
technologies technologies technologies technologies providers in Asia of hard front low-end parts, products
and services are currently found in China.
These eight cells likewise represent ICT competency Hard back high-end Competencies. These
niches that are available in the global educational competencies involve both the practical and theoretical
environment. skills and knowledge involving the design and testing of
state-of-the-art industrial and enterprise ICT equipment.
Computer engineering competencies involved in the
development and fabrication of high-end hardware its attendant skills (i.e., database management)
for corporations and agencies fall under this category. figure prominently under this category. In the area of
Examples of such skills and knowledge are those ICT4D (information and communication technology
required in the development of products by IBM, Fujitsu, for development), soft front high-end competencies
Xerox, and Sun Microsystems, recently acquired by include poverty mapping and GIS skills, as well as ICT
Oracle. program planning and development. Hence, government
programs and agencies are likely clients of these
Hard back low-end Competencies. These services.
competencies include practical and theoretical skills and
knowledge involving the design and testing of personal Soft front low-end Competencies. These
ICT gadgets, gizmos and their components. Computer competencies cover both the practical and theoretical
engineering competencies involved in the development skills and knowledge involving the development of
and fabrication of personal computers, notebooks, operating systems, platforms, and software for personal
personal digital assistants, cellular phones and their computing. Programming competencies for personal
parts (chips, processors, motherboards, etc.), fall under computers, notebooks, personal digital assistants,
this category. Examples of such skills and knowledge cellular phones, and all-in-one models fall under this
are those required in the development of products by category. Examples of such skills and knowledge are
Nokia, Sony Ericsson, Palm Pilot, and Dell. those required in the provision of products and services
by Microsoft, Yahoo, and Google. Web maintenance,
Soft front high-end Competencies. These multimedia utilization, and digital documentation all fall
competencies encompass both the practical and under this category.
theoretical skills and knowledge involving software
enterprise solutions. Programming competencies Additionally, these competencies include the
involved in the architecture and installation of high-end generation of venture capital, and the provision of
enterprise, or network solutions for corporations and knowledge management solutions to projects and work
agencies, fall under this category. Examples of such groups. Content packaging and provision, specifically for
skills and knowledge are those required in the provision individual users figure prominently under this category.
of systems and services by IBM, Cisco Systems, Xerox, In the area of ICT4D, soft front low-end competencies
and Sun Microsystems. include service provision for telecenters and last-mile
linkages.
Additionally, these competencies include the
provision of knowledge management solutions (i.e., Soft back high-end Competencies. These
management information systems or MIS in its current competencies involve both the practical and theoretical
form) to organizations, agencies, communities of skills and knowledge involving the designing and
practice, and even sectors. Content provision and testing of software enterprise solutions. Programming
competencies involved in the development, beta-testing, TOWARDS A REGIONAL COOPERATION

and debugging of high-end software for corporations
and agencies, fall under this category. Examples of such STRATEGY
skills and knowledge are those required in software
development for IBM, Cisco Systems, Xerox, and Sun Regionalization as a Prelude to Globalization
Microsystems including Java and XML.
One common indictment for globalization is
Additionally, these competencies include the design that it is just happening too fast and too sudden for
and development of knowledge management solutions developing countries to cope. To allow the globalization
for organizations, agencies, communities of practice, phenomenon to grow naturally and organically, some
and even sectors. In the area of ICT4D, soft back high- economists suggest regionalization as a prelude. Indeed,
end competencies include GIS programming, knowledge regional aggregations such as the EU, NAFTA, and APEC
networking, and ICT policy formulation. have been established to consolidate regional power.
Within the ASEAN sub-region, perhaps SEAMEO can
Soft back low-end Competencies. These take the lead in consolidating the educational resources
competencies include practical and theoretical skills and of the ten ASEAN nations, in order to better cope with
knowledge involving software development for personal the challenges posed by globalization. Again, these
ICT gadgets or gizmos. Programming competencies nations should focus on their individual strengths and
involved in the development of operating systems strategic advantages, and develop their niches.
for personal computers, notebooks, personal digital
assistants, cellular phones, and all-in-one models The ASEAN Educational Fitness Horizon
fall under this category. Examples of such skills
and knowledge are those required in the provision Nowhere else in the world is the Digital Divide
of products and services by Microsoft, Yahoo, and considered more of an enigma than in Southeast Asia.
Google. Interface design and development, Web writing, This region boasts of countries that are in the forefront
multimedia authoring, and database development all fall of digital technology. Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand
under this category. are producers and exporters of such technology. Also, in
this region are countries which may be considered as the
Additionally, these competencies include the design most deprived in ICT – Lao PDR, Cambodia, Myanmar,
and development of knowledge management solutions and Vietnam.
to projects and work groups. Content provision and
packaging for specialized thematic areas and sectoral To begin with, the differences in the standards of
concerns figure prominently under this category. In the living among countries within the region are quite glaring.
area of ICT4D, soft back low-end competencies include Based on the UNDP Human Development Report, the
the planning and design of telecenters and last-mile human development index (HDI), human poverty index
linkages. (HPI), as well as the HDI ranks of ten ASEAN countries is
given in Table 2.
Out of 174 countries, Singapore is ranked 22nd in Table 2. Poverty and ICT indicators
human development, while Lao PDR is ranked 140th.
Brunei Darussalam is ranked 25th while Cambodia is
ranked 137th. Malaysia is ranked 56th, while Myanmar HDI COUNTRY Human Human ISPs/ Tel PCs/ TV/
is ranked 128th. Within the same region, we find Rank devt poverty 1,000 Lines/ 1,000 1,000
index index 1,000
countries classified under high, medium and low human
development.3 22 Singapore 0.887911 - 15.11 513 216.8 361
25 Brunei 0.877795 - 2.41 263 - 417
Singapore and Brunei’s poverty indices are
56 Malaysia 0.768328 14.2 2.09 183 42.8 228
negligible while Myanmar and Lao PDR’s (38.9 and
32.3, respectively) are quite high. The poverty index of 67 Thailand 0.753147 18.7 0.03 70 16.7 167
Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines (14.2, 18.7, and 77 Philippines 0.739973 16.3 0.21 25 9.3 125
16.5) are within the same range, while those of Indonesia 105 Indonesia 0.680862 27.7 0.11 21 4.8 232
and Vietnam (27.7, 28.7) are moderate.
110 Viet Nam 0.663824 28.7 no data 16 3.3 180
The HDR database also offers some interesting 128 Myanmar 0.579768 32.3 - 4 - 7
insights on the correlation between ICT and poverty. 137 Cambodia 0.514409 no data 0.01 1 - 9
Data on four major ICT indicators, namely, internet hosts
140 Lao PDR 0.491107 38.9 no data 6 1.1 10
per 1000 persons, telephone lines per 1000 persons,
personal computer ownership, and television ownership
were placed side by side with the aforementioned
poverty indices. The correlation is unmistakable.
The gap between hardware and software capabilities
The higher the HDR rank, the higher the ICT indicator also exists. For instance, as earlier mentioned, the
values. The higher the human poverty index, the lower Philippines is considered to be the second largest
the number of ISPs, telephone lines, PCs and TV sets exporter of ICT professionals and software developers
per 1000 persons. The higher the value of ICT indicators next to India. Yet, it has hardly caught up with broadband
(as in the case of Singapore, Brunei, and Malaysia), the and wireless technologies. The Digital Divide within
lower the poverty index. sectors is likewise formidable. In Thailand and the
Philippines, the business sector is fast catching up with
its counterparts in Singapore ICT-wise. However, the
educational sector is lagging far behind. At the tail end of
the ICT utilization spectrum is the agricultural and rural
development sector with the least number of ICT users,
3
Human Development Report, United Nations Development applications, and solutions. In these sectors, we find the
Program and Oxford University Press: New York and Oxford, 1999. preponderance of the information-poor.
Based on these figures, what is the fitness horizon Potentially, each of the remaining six countries in
for Southeast Asia to produce globally competitive ICT our analysis – Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines,
workers? Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam - has more than one
niche in this scenario. Five of them can be focal points in
The following matrix presents a fitness horizon the eight areas identified.
that situates clusters of the ten ASEAN nations within
particular niches. Each cell has a focal point that Thailand is perceived fittest to take the lead in
takes the lead among the countries in the cluster. the hard high front end and hard high back end
These focal points occupy the upper-half percentile of technologies. As a matter of fact, it may have been
Table 2 based on the HDI rank. Brunei has not been taking this role on a de facto basis, because of the high-
included in the analysis because of its current economic end components being manufactured in the country for
status, strategies, and priorities. On the other hand, the past two decades. Thailand could very well supply
the comparative strengths and strategic advantages North American and European hardware companies with
of Myanmar, Cambodia, and Lao PDR in ICT remain the parts and components for their hardware. Thus, its
undetermined at this point. educational institutions should focus on strengthening
their computer engineering curricula to provide adequate
Apart from the given indicators, the matrix is also manpower backstopping for such a role.
based partially on perceived educational strengths within
each country. Thus, at best, it should only be regarded Singapore is seen as the fittest in soft front high-
as an indicative scenario for niche-carving. end and soft back high-end technologies. Excellent
technological education coupled by proficiency in
Table 3. Indicative Niches English has garnered Singapore these niches for
quite some time now. Moreso, among the ten ASEAN
FRONT BACK countries, Singapore is the most advanced in content
management, particularly for corporate clients. Hence, it
HIGH LOW HIGH LOW should continue to focus on their computer science and
information science offerings.
HARD Thailand Vietnam Malaysia Brunei
Malaysia Thailand Singapore Thailand Malaysia is perceived to dominate hard front low-
Singapore Vietnam end and hard back low-end technologies. The country
may become the sub-regional hub for the development
SOFT Singapore Cambodia/ Indonesia Philippines
and provision of consumer ICT products ranging
Philippines Laos Malaysia Vietnam
Malaysia Philippines Philippines Indonesia from personal computers to cellular phones. Thus, its
Vietnam colleges and universities should beef up their computer
engineering and computer science offerings, and revert Knowledge Management Competencies
back to English as the medium of instruction in these
programs. From the preceding list of ICT niches, the most
promising set of competencies can be found in
Indonesia is expected to lead in the soft front low- knowledge management. Knowledge management or
end technologies, i.e. the provision of software packages KM, is a newly emerging discipline that treats intellectual
and content for individual users and consumers. capital as a manageable asset. Its goal is the sharing
Indonesia has the largest consumer base in Southeast and reusing of knowledge. KM is now being offered
Asia. It has inadvertently focused on strategies that are formally as a course in two campuses of the University
addressed to these consumers, ranging from marketing of the Philippines System, a third one (UPOU) soon to
to utilization. Furthermore, Indonesia’s concern for follow. Sets of competencies for the KM student, which
bridging the Digital Divide has been a tradition that dates can best be illustrated in the following diagram, have
back to the launching of the Palapa satellite during the been identified particularly in the Los Baños campus.
late 70s. It has the potential to lead in ICT4D.
Assuming that the goal of knowledge management
Finally, the Philippines is the potential leader in is the sharing and reusing of knowledge, the following
soft back low-end technologies, involving the design competencies are deemed required: referencing skills;
and development of software packages and content documentation skills; proficiency in digital capture;
delivery systems for individual users and consumers. Is proficiency in document management; writing and
it any wonder that Microsoft’s IT manager is a Filipino? presentation skills; multimedia packaging; Web
Consider the talent that spawned the Love Bug, a design and Web writing; messaging and collaboration
computer virus that wreaked havoc around the world, skills; proficiency in content analysis; proficiency in
being put to productive use. network analysis; proficiency in using portals and
search engines; networking skills; and materials
The strength of the Philippines lies in the early development skills. Note that this range of skills
convergence in the academe, as well as in the world of encompasses information science, computer science,
work, of the information, computer, and communication and communication science, and there is a very sound
sciences in proficient English.4 Additionally, Philippine rationale for this.
universities pioneered in programs such as development
communication and knowledge management among Although sharing identical roots, the information and
ASEAN institutions. This background provides the communication sciences have developed separately in
impetus to lead in ICT4D policy and planning. the past 60 years, the former assuming a mathematical-
logical paradigm and the latter adopting a socio-
4
After all, the Love Bug would not spread far and wide had it not been psychological approach. However, the marriage of
packaged enticingly as a love letter written in English. information and communication technologies (ICTs),
have prompted the convergence of both information down by academic debate. Before a new course, let
science and communication science. The synergy alone a new curriculum, can pass through the academic
brought about by this convergence has in turn resulted councils, the knowledge and skills incorporated in the
in new applications, methods, and areas of study course would already be obsolete.
such as ICT4D that we in Southeast Asia may excel in,
considering our unique environment and our tradition in Indeed, large prestigious universities may be too
these disciplines. encumbered by their own bulk and inertia that they fail
to seize the moment. Today, newer, smaller, and “lesser”
CONCLUSIONS academic institutions lead in the offering of innovative
ICT programs. Although serious questions about the
To supplement the repositioning of our curricula quality of their instruction are raised, they may be getting
along the lines earlier described, ASEAN universities the bulk of the future crop of leaders in this knowledge
may consider redirecting its emphasis to flexible learning society.
systems, specifically distance education and open
learning programs, in achieving these competencies. One wonders at times, if these academic debates are
The shift to learner-centered educational paradigms really prompted by concern for quality and rigor. Or are
would likewise be attendant to these curricular and they really just products of parochial minds? As the 70s
delivery system initiatives aimed at achieving localized IT dictum states, “Innovate, if not, then stagnate.” We
competencies in a global educational environment. can never be truly globally competitive with a parochial
outlook.
Such changes may be considered radical by the
conservative traditions of the academe. And it is in these
traditions that we may find our biggest pitfall. REFERENCES
In December 1996, I delivered a paper in the Flor, Alexander G. 2002. Ethnovideography: Video
UNESCO PACE Conference held in Manila. The Based Indigenous Knowledge Systems. Los Baños:
paper, entitled Theory of Decreasing Competencies in SEAMEO SEARCA and UPWARD - International
Communication Education, described an observed trend Potato Center
wherein conservative academic institutions such as
mine, could not cope with changes in technology and Flor, Alexander G. 2002. Digital Tools for Process
the attendant competencies required in these changes. Documentation. Los Baños: SEAMEO SEARCA
Communication curricula at the tertiary and graduate
education levels cannot keep up with the new skills and Flor, Alexander G. 2001. eDevelopment and Knowledge
knowledge requirements of equally new information Management: ICT Applications for Sustainable
and communication technologies. Why? The answer Development. Los Baños: SEAMEO SEARCA.
was simple. Curricular proposals were being bogged
Flor, Alexander G. Information and communications Flor, Alexander G. Development Applications of

opportunities for technology transfer and for linkages. Knowledge Networking. Third SEAMEO-UNESCO
Expert Consultation on Agricultural Extension, Education Congress, December 2000, Manila.
Research-Extension-Farmer-Market Linkages. Food
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Flor, Alexander G. Towards a Global KNET: Setting-Up
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2001.
Flor, Alexander G. Knowledge Management: An Emerging

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88 Towards an ASEAN Identity: Discourses on Communication and Culture Appendix A 89
APPENDIX A: b) Organising film festivals;

c) Encouraging the exchange of film artistes and the
ASEAN POLICIES ON COMMUNICATION undertaking of joint film productions; and
d) Organising seminars and other activities on mass
Agreement for the Promotion of Cooperation media.
in Mass Media and Culture Activities
Cameron Highlands, 17 December 1969 ARTICLE 2
The Governments of the Republic of Indonesia, The Contracting Parties shall promote cultural
Malaysia, the Republic of the Philippines, the Republic of cooperation by:
Singapore and the Kingdom Of Thailand: a) Exchanging artistes in the field of visual and
performing arts:
BEING members of the Association of Southeast Asian b) Undertaking joint research in the arts and in literature.
Nations (hereinafter referred to as ASEAN). c) Organizing seminars in the arts, literature, and related
matters, and
RECOGNIZING, the aims and purposes of ASEAN as d) Organizing cultural festivals
embodied in the ASEAN Declaration.
ARTICLE 3
AND DESIRING to give effect to the decision of the
Second Ministerial Meeting held in Jakarta in August, The Contracting Parties shall undertake to examine the
1968. possibility of exchanging experts, and of organizing
seminars in Mass Media and cultural activities.
AND DESIRING to promote and develop their relations
in the fields of mass media and cultural activities. ARTICLE 4
HAVE AGREED AS FOLLOWS The Contracting Parties undertake to examine the

possibility of establishing ASEAN cultural institutions
ARTICLE 1 in member countries for the purposes specified in the
Preamble.
The Contracting Parties shall promote mass media
activities by: ARTICLE 5
a) Broadcasting regular programmes to reflect the aims,
purposes and activities of ASEAN by the Radio and The Contracting Parties shall consult one another,
Television Services of each member country; whenever necessary, with a view to agreeing upon
matters for the implementation of this Ageement.
ARTICLE 6 Declaration Of ASEAN Ministers Responsible

For Information
This Agreement shall enter into force on the date of
signature by all the member countries and shall remain in Jakarta, 25 May 1989
force until it is terminated by the decision of all the
Foreign Ministers. THE ASEAN MINISTERS RESPONSIBLE FOR
INFORMATION, namely: the Special Adviser to His
ARTICLE 7 Majesty the Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei
Darussalam in the Prime Minister's Office and Minister of
Accession to this Agreement shall take effect from the Home Affairs, the Minister of Information of the Republic
date on which the instrument of accession is deposited of Indonesia, the Minister of Information of Malaysia, the
in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Malaysia, by any new Press Undersecretary of the Republic of the Philippines,
member of ASEAN. the Minister for Communications and Information of the
Republic of Singapore, and the Minister attached to - the
ARTICLE 8 Prime Minister's Office in charge of Information of the
Kingdom of Thailand;
A Contracting Party may at any time give formal notice
of its intention to withdraw from this agreement and such AFFIRMING their commitment to the decisions on
withdrawal shall take effect one year from the date of the information taken by the ASEAN Heads of Government
notification Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Malaysia, which in Manila in December 1987 embodied in the Manila
shall as soon as possible notify all the member countries. Declaration of 1987;
DONE at Cameron Highlands, in a single copy in the RECOGNIZING the importance of the role of the press
English Language this seventeenth day of December, and television, radio, film and video in the national
1969. development of the respective ASEAN member countries
and in enhancing ASEAN regional cooperation;
MOVED by an abiding faith in the capabilities of the

peoples of ASEAN and the potentials for growth of their
nations and with a great hope in the future of ASEAN;
DO HEREBY DECLARE THAT:
1. The ASEAN Ministers Responsible for Information

shall strengthen ASEAN cooperation and their role
in the promotion and development of the press,
television, radio, film and video areas.
2. ASEAN cooperation in the field of information 4. The press is important in enhancing ASEAN
shall promote increasing greater awareness solidarity and urge it to continue to exercise
of ASEAN through wider involvement and sensitivity in handling issues that might affect
increasing participation in ASEAN activities and ASEAN solidarity.
cooperation among the peoples of ASEAN and 5. That the presence of the foreign media and
the development of their human resources. agencies in ASEAN member countries has
3. An effective exchange of news and information been welcomed by the Governments of ASEAN
among member countries shall be promoted countries in accordance with their respective
in order to achieve a free and balanced flow of national policies. However, they also agreed to
information among ASEAN member countries. promote awareness among the foreign media and
4. Considering the importance of the role of the agencies of the unique circumstances prevailing
press and television, radio, film and video in in each ASEAN member country, to avoid future
strengthening ASEAN regional cooperation and difficulties with the foreign media.
cohesion, the ASEAN 6. To share their experiences on the matter in the
5. Ministers Responsible for Information adopted interest of each ASEAN country with a view to
Principles of ASEAN Media Cooperation. developing mutually beneficial relations with the
foreign media.
AND DO HEREBY AGREE AS FOLLOWS: 7. To seek ways to ensure that press reports on
ASEAN countries in the foreign media are more
1. The press and the electronic media are balanced and objective.
encouraged to promote the paramount goals of 8. That the foreign media take into consideration the
ASEAN, including the preservation of political values and sensitivities of ASEAN peoples;
stability, rapid economic growth, social justice,
greater regional cohesion and the development of AND DO HEREBY ADOPT:
human resources to their full potential.
2. The principle of press freedom with social The programmes for the Enhancement of Press
responsibility is the basis of the press in ASEAN Cooperation among ASEAN Countries and The
countries. Enhancement of ASEAN Cooperation in the Television,
3. The press and the electronic media in ASEAN Radio, Film and Video Areas.
have a role and responsibility to continue
promoting greater awareness and understanding DONE in Jakarta, Republic of Indonesia, on the twenty-
among the peoples of ASEAN of their history, fifth day of May One Thousand Nine Hundred and
traditions, ideals and values, and continue to Eighty-Nine.
enhance positive relationships among ASEAN
member countries.
Programme For The Enhancement Of Press importance of the press in enhancing ASEAN
Cooperation Among ASEAN Countries solidarity and in this connection urged the press
to continue to exercise sensitivity in handling
Jakarta, 25 May 1989 issues that might affect this solidarity.
4. Increased contacts among ASEAN editors
Pursuant to the decisions taken by the Third Meeting and journalists to develop the spirit of ASEAN
of the ASEAN Heads of Government in Manila, 14 - 15 consciousness, should be further enhanced.
December 1987, regarding the enhancement of ASEAN
cooperation in the field of information, particularly in the II. Cooperation among ASEAN News Agencies
press area, the First Conference of the ASEAN Ministers (ANEX) Network
Responsible for Information held in Jakarta on 24 - 25
May 1989 adopted the following consensus: 1. The ASEAN News Exchange (ANEX) network
established by Bernama, Antara, The Philippines
I. Principles of ASEAN Press Cooperation News Agency (PNA) and the Thai News Agency
(TNA) in 1980 was meant to be the major source of
1. The Conference recognized the strategic news on major events in the ASEAN region for the
importance of the press and its vital role in the print and electronics media in the ASEAN countries.
process of national development of each of the Brunei Darussalam and Singapore do not have any
ASEAN nations. Considering the interdependence national news agency. However, news provided by
of ASEAN nations, the Conference encouraged ANEX for the print and/or electronic media have been
the ASEAN press to promote the paramount goals welcomed by these ASEAN member nations.
of ASEAN, including the preservation of political
stability, rapid economic growth, social justice, a. Considering the commitment to ASEAN goals,
greater regional cohesion, and the development of news originated by for the print and electronic
human resources to their full potential. media in the ASEAN countries may differ in
2. Within the above framework and the enhancement substance and regional perspective as compared
of the role of the press in national and regional to news originated by transnational news
development, the Conference agreed that agencies operating in the region.
the principle of press freedom with social b. The accuracy, objectivity and regional
responsibility is the basic of the ASEAN press. consciousness of ANEX in providing news on
3. The press in ASEAN has a role and responsibility important events in the ASEAN region would
to continue promoting greater awareness and also help educate and broaden the horizon of the
understanding among the peoples of ASEAN of peoples of ASEAN.
their history, tradition and ideals, and continue c. It is therefore to the benefit of ASEAN nations
to enhance positive relationships among ASEAN to strengthen the in such a manner that it can
member countries. The Conference noted the equal and eventually surpass the effectiveness
and efficiency of transnational news agencies agencies of the unique circumstances prevailing in each
operating in the ASEAN countries. ASEAN member countries, to avoid future difficulties
with the foreign media. The Conference agreed:
2. The Conference agreed that ASEAN countries
involved in the ASEAN News Exchange (ANEX) a. to share their experiences on the matter in the
continue to provide the necessary support for ANEX interest of each ASEAN country with a view to
to achieve its goals, including: developing mutually beneficial relations with the
a. the establishment of a lower common intra- foreign media;
ASEAN telecommunication tariff for the ANEX b. to seek ways to ensure that press reports on
network, in consultation with the respective ASEAN countries in the foreign media are more
ASEAN telecommunication authorities; balanced and objective; and
b. the expansion of the on-going news exchange by c. that the foreign media take into consideration the
establishing a data bank for information exchange values and sensitivities of ASEAN peoples.
through the ANEX network;
c. the improvement of ANEX's capability to IV. Enhancing Further Cooperation in the Field of
disseminate news not only within the ASEAN Information and the Press
region, but outside the ASEAN region as well;
d. to request the ASEAN Committee on Culture The Conference agreed to establish a Working Group
and Information (COCI) to consider increasing its of Senior Officials in consultation with COCI working
financial assistance in order that it can achieve the together with the representatives of the ASEAN press
above goals; and and interested relevant media organizations in ASEAN
e. to explore other sources of funds in order to to explore ways and means to further enhance ASEAN
support the further development press cooperation through:
3. Although Brunei Darussalam and Singapore are not
directly involved however, their continuous support a. holding forums, seminars and workshops,
has always been welcomed. exchanging ideas and studying the history and
development of the press systems in ASEAN
III. Relations with Foreign Media countries;
b. encouraging ASEAN journalists to be trained to
The presence of the foreign media and agencies develop ASEAN consciousness based upon the
contributes to the flow of a vital resource, information, need to promote and preserve political stability,
from the rest of the world to ASEAN and vice-versa. rapid economic growth, social justice, greater
Their presence has been welcomed by the Government regional cohesion and the development of human
of ASEAN countries in accordance with their respective resources to their full potential in the ASEAN
national policies. The Conference, however, also agreed region; and
to promote awareness among the foreign media and
c. undertaking research on the role of the press in Programme For The Enhancement Of ASEAN
national and regional development. Cooperation In The Television, Radio, Film And
Video Areas
To facilitate the undertaking of such activities, it
may be necessary to consider the possibility of Jakarta, 25 May 1989
establishing a centre.
In carrying out the decisions taken by the Third Meeting
V. Annual ASEAN Journalism Awards of ASEAN Heads of Government in Manila, 14 - 15
December 1987 regarding the enhancement ASEAN
The Conference agreed to the establishment of Annual cooperation in the field of information, particularly
ASEAN Journalism Awards in cooperation with COCI in the areas of television, radio, film and video, the
to be given to the journalists selected in the six ASEAN First Conference of ASEAN Ministers Responsible for
member countries who best typify in their writings, for information held in Jakarta from 24 - 25 May 1989
the previous year, the ASEAN ideals of regional unity adopted the following consensus:
and cohesion, the promotion of economic growth and
social justice and the development of ASEAN's human I. Principles of ASEAN Cooperation in the Areas of
resources to their full potential. Television, Radio, Film and Video
VI. Implementation 1. Considering that the Television,- Radio, Film and

Video media have a strategic and vast potential in the
The Conference agreed that a Senior Officials Meeting overall development of each of the ASEAN countries,
for the Conference of ASEAN Ministers Responsible for the ASEAN Ministers Responsible for Information
Information meet as and when necessary to coordinate agreed to encourage these media to play a more
the implementation of the decisions of the Ministers. active and constructive role in promoting the goals of
ASEAN including the preservation of political stability,
DONE in Jakarta, Republic of Indonesia, on the twenty- economic growth, social justice, greater regional
fifth day of May, one thousand nine hundred and eighty- cohesion and the development of human resources
nine. to their full potential.
2. The media in ASEAN have a role and responsibility
to continue promoting greater awareness and
understanding among the peoples of ASEAN of
their history, traditions and ideals, and continue
to enhance positive relationships among ASEAN
member countries.
3. In order to accomplish these objectives, the media ASEAN Songs for Radio and Television. Within the
should strengthen and enhance cooperation in framework of efforts to foster unity, solidarity and
the areas of broadcast technology, programme harmony among the peoples of ASEAN, the Conference
production, improving the standards and quality agreed that Indonesia's contribution of the song
of personnel as well as sharing experiences to "ASEAN Harmony" which reflects this feeling of unity
overcome negative influences from outside the and solidarity be broadcast on radio and television in
ASEAN region. ASEAN countries.
4. The Conference expressed its appreciation and
supported the programmes sponsored by the ASEAN The Conference expressed appreciation to Indonesia
Committee on Culture and Information (COCI) and encouraged composers from other ASEAN countries
designed to facilitate the exchange of information to present their composition for endorsement. (The
including the electronics, film, print and interpersonal melody and lyrics of the Indonesian composition
media in order to strengthen the socio-cultural "ASEAN Harmony" Appears as Annex 1).
relationships among ASEAN member countries.
V. ASEAN Cooperation in Personal and Training for
II. ASEAN Cooperation in Television Radio and Television
ASEAN Exchange of Television Programmes. 1. Facilitating Production Crews. The Conference

The Conference agreed to enhance the exchange of agreed that there should be improvements in
television programmes, featuring new items, the daily life the arrangements for facilitating the work of TV
and culture of the ASEAN peoples. production crews from ASEAN member countries on
location in any ASEAN member country.
III. ASEAN Cooperation in Radio
2. Exchange Programme, Training and Workshop.
Radio Programme on ASEAN. The Conference agreed The Conference agreed that:
to produce specific radio programmes on ASEAN to be 2.1. The exchange of TV personnel, training and
broadcast by national radio stations. pooling of skills be carried out on an attachment
basis on a rotational system;
IV. ASEAN Cooperation in Radio and Television 2.2. A study be undertaken to assess the
possibility of utilizing the already existing Asian
ASEAN Radio - TV Symposium Orchestra. The Institute for Broadcasting Development (AIBD)
Conference agreed to request ASEAN COCI to consider facilities in Malaysia for training purposes;
reviving the "All ASEAN Radio and Television 2.3. TV managers, programme, planners,
Orchestra " (ASEAN Symposium Orchestra) focusing producers, directors and writers be encouraged
on ASEAN music and composers, highlighting the to attend periodic workshops on enhancing and
diversity of talent in the ASEAN region in conjunction accelerating ASEAN TV cooperation, with private
with COCI projects on Music and Song Festivals. TV stations being invited for input.
VII. ASEAN Cooperation in Film/Video 6. That the continuing and effective exchange of
training programmes and information in various
The Conference took note of the following aspects of film making to include students;
recommendations: trainees and experts be implemented in the
earliest possible time;
1. That a study be undertaken to examine and 7. That ASEAN COCI through its programmes
compare the existing laws, policies and taxes facilitate the telecasting of ASEAN films over the
on film production, marketing, distribution, ASEAN national TV networks.
and exhibition, importation and exportation in 8. That a constant exchange of compilations of
the various ASEAN countries, with a view to special film production services, equipments and
working out common standards and incentives to facilities available in each ASEAN country and
stimulate the free flow of ASEAN films throughout prices thereof be conducted;
the region; 9. That a study be conducted on the feasibility of
2. That in order to encourage the promotion and the putting up a plant to manufacture raw film and
dissemination of more ASEAN films, a network magnetic stocks for ASEAN use as well as for
of cineclubs or film societies be established in export; 10. That a periodic exchange of film
the ASEAN member countries to be assisted catalogues and film clips among the ASEAN
by ASEAN COCI 'in the respective member countries be undertaken to serve as a basis
countries; for the distribution of films to ASEAN member
3. That an ASEAN Film Development Fund be countries; and
created to finance the production of films that 10. That the Governments of the ASEAN countries,
promote better understanding among ASEAN through law and public policy, stimulate and
countries and project ASEAN cultures to the rest support the production of more culturally and
of the world, with seed money to be contributed socially valuable films in the region, and agreed
by the ASEAN countries The fund may be to request the COCI to examine the above
managed by the Asian Development Bank (ADB). recommendations for possible implementation.
The fund once establish can solicit grants
from foundations and institutions from affluent VII. ASEAN Cooperation in Interpersonal
countries especially ASEAN dialogue partners; Communication
4. That ASEAN film booths be put up in international
film markets and festivals to be handled either by The Conference recognized the importance of
ASEAN Governments or the private film industries interpersonal communication and agreed on the
sector; continuation and enhancement of the existing
5. That workshop programmes be organized for programmes to foster closer relationship and better
film professionals starting with feature film script understanding among the peoples of ASEAN.
writers and directors;
104 Towards an ASEAN Identity: Discourses on Communication and Culture Appendix B 105
VII. Implementation APPENDIX B

COURSE GUIDE
The Conference agreed that the Senior Officials Meeting
for the Conference of the ASEAN Ministers Responsible
ASEAN STUDIES 231
for Information meet as and when necessary to
coordinate the implementation of the decisions of the Communication and Media in the ASEAN Context
Ministers.
ASEAN STUDIES 231
DONE in Jakarta, Republic of Indonesia, on the twenty- COURSE GUIDE
fifth day of May, one thousand nine hundred and eighty-
nine. CONGRATULATIONS for enrolling in ASEAN Studies
231, Communication and Media in the ASEAN Context.
Before anything else, please read this course guide
carefully and completely.
ASEAN Studies 231 was developed as a contribution of

the UPOU Faculty of Information and Communication
Studies to the Master of ASEAN Studies (MAS) Joint
Program of the five open universities in Southeast
Asia: the UP Open University; Universitas Terbuka in
Jakarta; Sukhothai Open University in Bangkok; the
Hanoi Open University; and the Open University of
Malaysia. The MAS was meant as a major initiative
for the regionalization of education in the ASEAN
region. Hence, this course takes on a regional outlook
on communication. By communication, we refer to
information and communication technologies and media
(traditional, mass and new media). This course is also
crosslisted under the UPOU Master of Development
Communication program as DEVC 242.
ASEAN Studies 231 is a three-unit course structured into

the following: Introduction; Communication as a Social
Force in the ASEAN; and Contemporary Developments
in the ASEAN Communication Scene. Each unit contains
three modules.
The course was so designed that the class will construct COURSE DESCRIPTION:
the content of these modules collectively. The main
readings are contributed by the Faculty In Charge. The role of communication programs, information
Note that the majority of these have all been authored and communications technologies, mass media and
or edited by the FIC. In the spirit of constructivism media systems in the development and evolution of the
and knowledge sharing, you are likewise expected to ASEAN.
contribute to the class resources through a mechanism COURSE GOAL:
that we refer to as the learning log. This mechanism
will be discussed exhaustively in a later section of your The course aims to produce students who are:
course guide.
● knowledgeable with ASEAN ICTs, media systems
Furthermore, this course will experiment on third and communication policies and programs
generation eLearning techniques and approaches. It will ● appreciative of the role of communication as a
be asynchronous, non-linear and non-sequential. It will major social force in the ASEAN region
employ mentoring and coaching instead of tutoring or ● able to apply critical thinking skills in the analysis
instructing. of ASEAN communication policies and programs.
AS 231 is still in the process of evolving. Learners will COURSE OBJECTIVES:

be encouraged to contribute to the content and learning
resources of this new course. Web 2.0 will not only be a At the end of the semester, the student should be able
concept in this course. We will make it a reality. Consider to:
AS 231 another new adventure and this Course Guide ● enumerate and discuss ASEAN ICTs, media
will walk you through it. systems and communication policies and
programs
In the meantime, study the course analysis and try to ● describe the impact of ICTs, media systems and
appreciate the logic adopted in the course design. communication policies and programs on ASEAN
society
● analyze ASEAN communication policies and
COURSE ANALYSIS programs
COURSE CODE: ASEAN Studies 231

COURSE TITLE: Communication and Media in the
ASEAN Context
UNITS: 3 units
PREREQUISITES: None
COURSE METHODS: Module 3 Communication Values, Models and

Systems
This will be an online course using the Modular Object Lesson 1. The Four Theories of the
Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment (MOODLE). Press
Lesson 2. Comparative Communication
METHOD REQUIREMENT Systems
Lesson 3. An Evolving ASEAN Model
Assignments: Individual Three (3) TMAs in the form
reflection & articulation of blogs
Unit II – Communication as a Social Force in the ASEAN
Web search and collective Learning logs
sharing of learning resources Module 4 Media’s Watchdog Function
Class Project Wiki Contributions Lesson 1. Case Study: Singapore
Testing Final Examination Lesson 2. Case Study: Malaysia
Lesson 3. Case Study: Cambodia
COURSE CONTENT: Module 5 Media’s Developmental Function

Lesson 1. Case Study: VietNam’s Media
The course is divided into three parts. Each part Support to Rice Production
constitutes one-third of the content/ learning period. Lesson 2. Case Study: Myanmar’s
Safe Sex Social Marketing
Unit I – Introduction Campaign
Lesson 3. Case Study: Lao PDR’s Bird
Module 1. Elements of ASEAN Media and Flu IEC Campaign
Communication
Lesson 1. Communication Technology Module 6 Media’s Mobilization Function
Lesson 2. Communication Programs Lesson 1. Case Study: People
Lesson 3. Communication Systems Power and the Philippine
Underground Press
Module 2. History of ASEAN Media and Lesson 2. Case Study: Indonesia’s Anti-
Communication Systems Corruption Campaign
Lesson 1. Pre-Colonial Indigenous Lesson 3. Case Study: Thailand’s Yellow
Media and Red Shirts
Lesson 2. The Colonial Press
Lesson 3. Post Colonial Media

Unit III – Contemporary Developments in the ASEAN Flor, Alexander G. 2007. Development Communication
Communication Scene Praxis. UP Open University, Diliman, Quezon City.
Tan, Gerald. 2003. ASEAN Economic Development and
Module 7 Information and Communication Cooperation. Eastern Universities Press.
Technology
Lesson 1. Regional, Sub-regional and Rao, Madanmohan. 2003. News Media and New Media:
National Infrastructures The Asia-Pacific Internet Handbook, Episode V.
Lesson 2. The New Media Eastern Universities Press.
Lesson 3. Digital Opportunities for the
ASEAN FIC RESOURCES:
Module 8 Comparative National Communication 1. Hardcopy: Flor, Alexander G. 2009. Developing

Policies Societies in the Information Age. UP Open University,
Lesson 1. National Media Policies of Diliman, Quezon City.
ASEAN Countries 2. Downloadable from Course Site:
Lesson 2. Telecommunications
Regulatory Environments 2.1.Alampay, Irwin. 2009. Telecom Regulatory and
(TREs) Policy Environment in the Philippines
Lesson 3. Transborder Communication 2.2.Association of Southeast Asian Nations
Issues Secretariat. The ASEAN Charter
2.3.Chib, Arul and Roger Harris (Eds).2012. Linking
Module 9 Communication and the Evolution of
Research to Practice.
ASEAN
Lesson 1. Communication and the 3. Downloadable from Academia.edu (www.up-ou.
Greater Mekong Subregion academia.edu/AlexanderFlor)
Lesson 2. Communication and BIMP- 3..1.Flor, Alexander G. 2009. Carving ICT Niches
EAGA Within the ASEAN in A Globalized Educational &
Lesson 3. Towards an ASEAN Regional Knowledge Environment.
Communication Program
3.2.Flor, Alexander G. 2002. Environmental
REFERENCES: Communication and Peoples’ Participation:
Lessons Learned in Five Natural Resource
Banerjee, Indrajit and Stephen Logan. 2008. The Asian Management Projects.
Communication Handbook. Eastern Universities Press 3.3.Flor, Alexander G. 1991.The Fifth Theory of the
and AMIC, Singapore. Press
COURSE REQUIREMENTS The course site is structured by units and contains:
1. Tutor Marked Assignments in the form of Blogs (3) 1. The online discussion boards.
2. Participation in Online Discussion Forums and 2. Soft copies of all the documents that are being
Contributions of Web-Based Resources in made available to you by the course.
Learning Logs (3) 3. Instructions for accomplishing and uploading your
3. Contribution to a Class Wikipedia page assignments.
4. Instructions for participating in the online forums.
5. The names and profiles of your classmates and
Activity Percentage Due Date
Faculty-In-Charge.
TMA: Blog 1 10% Anytime within the semester
TMA: Blog 2 10% Anytime within the semester You are encouraged to visit the course site at least twice
TMA: Blog 3 10% Anytime within the semester weekly, interact with the class, and contribute your ideas
to the discussion threads uploaded by the Faculty-In-
Learning Log 1 15% Anytime within the semester
Charge and respond to the ideas contributed by your
Learning Log 2 15% Anytime within the semester classmates.
Learning Log 3 15% Anytime within the semester
Class Wiki 25% Anytime within the semester YOUR FIC
Total 100%
I am Alexander G. Flor, your Faculty-in-Charge. My
friends call me Sandy. I have taught at the College of
ON OPEN AND DISTANCE TEACHING AND Development Communication since 1976. In December
LEARNING STYLES 2000, I retired optionally to work with an international
organization (SEAMEO SEARCA). In August 2002,
THE AS 231 “CLASSROOM” I rejoined the University as the Vice Chancellor for
Research and Development of UPOU. My term as Vice
The course has a workspace in the UPOU MyPortal. Chancellor ended in December 2003 and I served as
To enter this workspace, you should be enrolled in the Dean of the newly established Faculty of Information and
course. Upon enrollment, you will receive an enrollment Communication Studies from January 2004 until today.
key that would enable you to register your preferred My current rank in the University is Professor 12 and I
username and password, which allow you to log in the was awarded the designation of UP Scientist I in 2015
course site. If you still do not have your enrollment key, and UP Scientist III in 2018.
please email techsupport@upou.edu.ph cc. fics@upou.
edu.ph. You may contact me at the following numbers: (049)
536 600l-6006 loc 400 or 355. My email addresses are
alexander.flor@up.edu.ph and agflor@up.edu.ph .
As my online students, I feel that it is incumbent upon to form support groups or online study groups among
me to brief you about my predisposition towards an yourselves, using Yahoo Messenger, Google Talk, Skype
open learning system. As you know, we operate within or Facebook. Start communicating with your classmates
policies and guidelines set out by the University of the to form these workgroups.
Philippines System, some of which may not be entirely
consistent with open education, particularly the latter’s Secondly, it means that you require specific qualities in
constructivist character. However, I would like to stretch order to succeed. Paramount among these qualities is
the limits imposed by a residential system upon our discipline, focus and determination. You should likewise
open and distance learning system. Thus, as in earlier possess an analytical or critical mind.
semesters, I will continue to experiment on a non-linear,
non-sequential, open ended arrangement, specifically You should know that you are expected to demonstrate
when it comes to our course requirements. academic integrity and intellectual honesty in your work.
The University has strict rules on intellectual dishonesty.
This means that: Anyone found guilty of plagiarism can be automatically
suspended for at least one year or expelled outright
1. You may upload your TMA blogs anytime and in depending on the gravity of the case. So make sure you
any order, within the semester. do all the requirements on your own. ALL materials lifted
2. Your learning logs are asynchronous and may be from secondary sources must be CITED properly. Give a
visited in any order at any time. All the boards are list of references and materials cited at the end of each
open as of June 2 and will terminate at the end requirement you submit.
of the semester. There is no specific timeframe
provided for each unit or topic. ASSIGNMENT PACK
3. You may proceed with your readings as you
are comfortable with, i.e., begin at the middle, TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
proceed at the end and end at the beginning of
your reading. All students must upload their TMAs as individual blogs
4. The idea is to make the online DEVC242 in the AS 231 course site. Please do not submit hard
experience as learner-centered as possible. copies. Do not email your TMAs to me either.
There is of course a downside to this approach: The blogs may be posted in any order anytime within
the semester. Although you are given this leeway, let
Firstly, the responsibility for learning falls squarely upon us be reminded of the tendency for procrastination
your shoulders. If you succeed, the credit belongs to inherent among many of us. Consider this leeway as an
you exclusively. If you fail, you have no one to blame opportunity to exercise your sense of responsibility and
but yourself. However, this does not mean that learning manifest your sincerity of purpose. Thus, we strongly
should be an individual activity. You are fully encouraged advise that you complete these requirements as soon as
you can.
TMA: BLOG 1. Introduction to ASEAN Media and TMA: BLOG 2. Communication as a Social Force in
Communication the ASEAN
Go to our Moodle course site and download the book, Visit www.academia.org. Search for the paper
Developing Societies in the Information Age. This reading titled Environmental Communication and People’s
is relevant to Modules 1 and 2. Visit www.academia.org. Participation: Lessons Learned in Five Natural Resources
Search for the papers titled Carving ICT Niches Within Management Projects by Alexander G. Flor. This paper
the ASEAN in a Globalized Educational and Knowledge is relevant to Module 6. Download the paper, read and
Environment and The Fifth Theory of the Press, both by study it.
Alexander G. Flor. These papers are relevant to Modules
1 and 3, respectively. Download the two papers. Read Post a blog on your thoughts about this reading. You will
and study the book and the papers. arrive at your blog site by clicking on your name listed
under the participants list at the upper left hand corner
Post a blog on your thoughts about your readings. You of our course site. Once your profile appears, click on
will arrive at your blog site by clicking on your name the Blog tab. Click on the Add a new entry link. Enter
listed under the participants list at the upper left hand the title of this TMA: Communication as a Social Force in
corner of our course site. Once your profile appears, the ASEAN.
click on the Blog tab. Click on the Add a new entry link.
Enter the title of this TMA: Introduction to ASEAN Media Write your blog in the appropriate box. Give your
and Communication. thoughts on this reading. Remember that blogs by nature
are not long expositions but short and thoughtful pieces.
Write your blog in the appropriate box. Give your Be clear and concise. Limit your blog to 500 words. You
thoughts on your readings. Remember that blogs by can download an indicative assessment rubric for your
nature are not long expositions but short and thoughtful blogs in our course site.
pieces. Be clear and concise. Limit your blog to 500
words. You can download an indicative assessment Before saving and posting it, scroll down to the “Publish
rubric for your blogs in our course site. to” menu and choose “Anyone on this site.” Make sure
that you perform this last instruction. Otherwise your
Before saving and posting it, scroll down to the “Publish blog cannot be read by people other than yourself.
to” menu and choose “Anyone on this site.” Make sure Hence, I will not be able to mark it and you stand the risk
that you perform this last instruction. Otherwise your of getting an EXT or a failing grade.
blog cannot be read by people other than yourself.
Hence, I will not be able to mark it and you stand the risk
of getting an EXT or a failing grade.
TMA: BLOG 3. Contemporary Developments in the LEARNING LOGS

ASEAN Communication Scene
Your individual Learning Logs will be the basis for your
Go to our Moodle course site and download the book, Forum Participation and Learning Resource Contribution
Linking Research to Practice (Chib and Harris, Eds). grades. These constitute 45 percent of your final grade.
Read and study Section 3, which is relevant to Module 7.
Visit www.academia.org. Download the paper, Telecom There are three Learning Logs, each corresponding to a
Regulatory and Policy Environment in the Philippines course unit. After reading the course materials provided
by Erwin Alampay. This paper is relevant to Modules 8. for each unit, do a Google search of related materials
Download, read and study the paper. available on the World Wide Web. These may be in the
form of text documents, podcasts, video or presentation
Post a blog on your thoughts about your readings. You materials. Choose what you think is the best among the
will arrive at your blog site by clicking on your name lot and post the universal resource locator or URL for the
listed under the participants list at the upper left hand material to share with your classmates. Your classmates
corner of our course site. Once your profile appears, are expected to study the material and post their
click on the Blog tab. Click on the Add a new entry link. reactions towards it. Thirty (30) percent of your grade
Enter the title of this TMA: Contemporary Developments depends on the three materials, which you have chosen
in the ASEAN Communication Scene. to share. Fifteen (15) percent of your grade depends on
the reactions that you post on the three materials shared
Write your blog in the appropriate box. Give your by your classmates.
thoughts on your readings. Remember that blogs by
nature are not long expositions but short and thoughtful Please take note. Do not upload the material. Just
pieces. Be clear and concise. Limit your blog to 500 post the URL. Uploading the material to our course
words. You can download an indicative assessment site may be a violation of intellectual property rights
rubric for your blogs in our course site. (IPR).
Before saving and posting it, scroll down to the “Publish Your contributions to the Learning Logs may be posted
to” menu and choose “Anyone on this site.” Make sure in any order anytime within the semester. Again,
that you perform this last instruction. Otherwise your although you are given this leeway, do not procrastinate.
blog cannot be read by people other than yourself. Consider this an opportunity to exercise your sense of
Hence, I will not be able to mark it and you stand the risk responsibility and demonstrate your sincerity. You are
of getting an EXT or a failing grade. strongly advised to complete these requirements as
soon as you can. The earlier you complete these, the
better for you.
Learning Log 1. Introduction to ASEAN In turn, study the material of the links posted by
Communication and Media your classmates. Post your reactions towards it with
corresponding replies.
After reading the course materials on Unit I, do a Google
search of related materials available on the Web on the Learning Log 3. Contemporary Developments in the
following topics: ASEAN Media and Communication ASEAN Communication Scene
Systems, Southeast Asian communication values,
Southeast Asian traditional media. After reading the course materials on Unit III, do a
Google search of related materials available on the Web
These resources may be in the form of text documents, on the following topics: telecom regulatory environment
podcasts, video or presentation materials. Choose one in ASEAN countries other than the Philippines; new
material which you think is the best among the lot for media use in ASEAN countries; and the ASEAN AMRI.
each of the three topics. Include the universal resource
locator or URL for each of the three materials on your These resources may be in the form of text documents,
learning log post to share with your classmates. podcasts, video or presentation materials. Choose one
material which you think is the best among the lot for
In turn, study the material of the links posted by each of the three topics. Include the universal resource
your classmates. Post your reactions towards it with locator or URL for each of the three materials on your
corresponding replies. learning log post to share with your classmates.
Learning Log 2. Communication as a Social Force in In turn, study the material of the links posted by
the ASEAN your classmates. Post your reactions towards it with
corresponding replies.
After reading the course materials on Unit II, do a Google
search of related materials available on the Web on the CLASS WIKI
following topics: media watchdogs, social mobilization,
and development communication campaigns in any It is the intention of ASEAN 231 that this class would
ASEAN country. contribute to the existing body of knowledge. The
best and most expedient way of doing this is through
These resources may be in the form of text documents, Wikipedia. Thus, I am requiring each one of you to
podcasts, video or presentation materials. Choose one become Wikipedia contributors. Five years ago, my
material which you think is the best among the lot for students put together a new page in Wikipedia on
each of the three topics. Include the universal resource Informatization (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatization).
locator or URL for each of the three materials on your This year, you are expected to create a section on the
learning log post to share with your classmates. Wikipedia page on the ASEAN. The proposed title of that
section is ASEAN Media Cooperation.
Note that Wikipedia encourages class projects of this Index

nature. However, when you do become a contributor, you Community 14, 19, 20, 22, 23, 27, 31,
A Acculturation 13, 25
are expected to adhere to Wikipedia’s standards of quality. Advertising 24, 54, 62 32, 33, 37, 39, 40, 42, 43, 58, 59, 63,
To begin: Agenda-Setting Function of Media 12 64, 65
ASEAN 2, 3, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, Community media 37, 58, 59
1. Go to the Wikipedia Front Page www.wikipedia.org. 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, Community-building 40, 42, 63, 65
40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 51, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58, Competency niches 72, 73
2. Click “English” to get to the Main Page. Concentric Theory of Consciousness 7
59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 69, 70, 77, 80,
3. At the left hand side of the Main Page, click About 81, 82, 84 Confederation of ASEAN Journalists
Wikipedia. Read this article carefully and completely. ASEAN Communication Master Plan 40, 64 41, 64
4. Go back to the top of the Main Page and click “Create ASEAN community 19, 20, 31, 32, 42, 65 Conscious Dimension 11
Account” at the upper right hand corner. Proceed to ASEAN cultural integration 21 Cross-cultural Communication 14, 15
ASEAN culture 20, 21, 25, 44 Cultural context 37, 58
create an account. Take note that Wikipedia advises Cultural convergence 15
]ASEAN Economic Community 39, 63
that usernames should not reflect your real names. ASEAN identity 28, 36, 40, 57, 63 Cultural determinants 21, 23, 31, 34, 44
Protect your privacy. ASEAN integration 17, 21, 23, 28, 30, 31, Cultural diffusion 15
5. When your usernames and passwords are validated, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 41, 43, 44, 64 Cultural dominance 14
Log In the Wikipedia site. ASEAN leaders 39, 40, 63, 64 Cultural imperialism 14
ASEAN perspective 1 Cultural integration 15, 21
6. Go back to the Main Page and input “ASEAN” to the Cultural subservience 15
ASEAN Press Council 41, 65
Search box found on the left hand side. Click “Go” to ASEANization 3 Culture 2, 5, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
arrive at the ASEAN page. Authoritarianism 2, 23 20, 21, 24, 25, 28, 30, 34, 35, 36, 37,
7. Edit the page and create a new section titled ASEAN 39, 44, 54, 57, 58, 62, 63
Media Cooperation if it does not exist yet. Make C Center nation 55
Class-consciousness 3, 5, 6 D Development Communication 1, 31, 43,
sure that your contributions are neutral and objective Collective ASEAN Mind 2 44, 62
but, more so, substantive and accurate. Cite your Collective Consciousness 5, 8, 13 Digital divide 39, 53, 57, 61, 77, 79, 82
references. Wikipedia has an army of editors from all Collective Mind 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Digital hype 38, 60
over the world. Some of them will go through your 13, 14, 15 Digital media 36, 37, 56, 57, 59
Collective Psyche 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15
inputs with a very critical eye and may communicate E Economic integration 42, 65
Collective psychology 4, 15
with you directly. Others would offer to assist you. In Collective Unconscious 3, 8 Emergent fundamentalism 2
the spirit of Web 2.0, your inputs are subject to editing. Collectivity 10, 13, 19, 22 European Commission 2
8. If you want to use a sandbox to test your inputs before Commercial media culture 24, 54 European integration 2
Communication 1, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, European Union 2
finalizing, feel free.
21, 24, 31, 32, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42,
9. Email me your user names to enable me to monitor F Face-to-face communication 31, 43
43, 44, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 70, 71,
your inputs and edits. Front end-back end continuum 71, 72, 81
82, 83, 84
Communication channels 37, 42, 59, 61 G Geopolitical association 2
Communication, Culture and the Global education environment 70, 72, 84
Collective Mind 1, 10 Globalization 69, 70, 77
Communitarianism 2 Grassroots 20, 35
124
Index Towards an ASEAN Identity: Discourses on Communication and Culture 125
H Hard-soft continuum 72 Media Dependency Theory 12 Society 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 24, 30,
High end-low end continuum 71, 72, 76, Media imperialism 24, 54 35, 42, 43, 51, 52, 53, 58, 61, 62, 70, 85
81 Media landscapes 40, 63 Socio-cultural integration 21
Homogeneity 19 Media platforms 31, 32, 35, 36, 41, 64 Superstring Theory 9
Human Development Index (HDI) 77, 79, Mediated communication 31 Synergy 9, 84
80 Meme 36, 37, 57, 58
Human Development Report (HDR) 78 Mind 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 15, 27, 35, T Technological determinism 70
Human Poverty Index (HPI) 77 51, 85 The Media Dependency Model 12
Modern society 30 The Noble Eightfold Path 22
I ICT4D 75, 76, 82, 84 The Structural Theory of Imperialism 24, 54
Ideologies 5, 20, 21, 31, 35, 44 N National character 1 Three-way continuum 10
Indigenous communication 11 National Press Council of Thailand 41, 65 Trans boundary diseases 28
Indigenous group 20 New media 36, 37, 41, 42, 56, 57, 58, Transnational media 24, 54
Individual consciousness 6 59, 61, 62, 64, 65 Tribal Society 30
Indonesian Press Council 41, 65
Information Age 51 O One Community 1, 23, 43 V Values 11, 20, 21, 22, 25, 27, 31, 34, 43, 44, 78
Information and communication Ordered grouping 3
technology (ICT) 24, 39, 44, 53, 60, 71,
W Watchdogs 42, 62
72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 83, 85
P Panic buying 13 WIVS 21, 30, 43
Peasant society 30 Worldview 2, 11, 20, 21, 22, 23, 31, 34, 35, 44
Information exchange 52
Periphery nation 55
Information Society 51, 52, 53, 58 Z Zeitgeist 1, 3
Popular culture 62
Information workers 53
Progressive Utilization Theory 4
Inter-cultural Communication 14, 15
Interrelationship 7 R Rational Dimension 11
Intuitive Dimension 11 Regional integration 39, 41, 63, 65
K K+12 29 S Schema 14
Knowledge Management 74, 75, 76, 82, Sectoral communication 11
83 Social control 14
Knowledge society 70, 85 Social dynamics 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15
Social equilibrium 14
L Libertarianism cum oligarchy 2
Social institutions 29, 30
Linguistics 14
Social media 24, 37, 38, 54, 59
M Mainstream media 37, 38, 56, 58, 59, Social mobilization 31
62 Social networks 41, 64, 65
Marxists 3, 5 Social policy 10, 11
Mass communication 12, 31 Social structures 20, 21, 29, 30, 31, 34,
Mass media 11, 42, 61, 62 43, 44, 54
Media 12, 13, 24, 25, 32, 35, 36, 37, Social system 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 22, 51
38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 51, 54, 55, 56, 57, Social transformation 12, 14, 31, 43
58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65 Socialism 2
Media culture 24, 39, 54, 63 Societal communication 1, 10, 11
Media dependency 12, 13 Societal stability 12, 13
126 Towards an ASEAN Identity: Discourses on Communication and Culture
ASEAN Convergence is a volume that explores the ASEAN

identity from the perspective of communication and culture.
It was prepared as an eBook for a Massive Open Online
Course (MOOC) on the same subject offered by the Faculty
of Information and Communication Studies through UPOU’s
MODeL platform. This open educational resource may now be
used as a reference for DEVC 242. Media and Communication
from an ASEAN Perspective, offered under the Master of
Development Communication Program cross-listed as AS
231 in the UPOU Faculty of Management and Development
Studies.
-- from the Foreword

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COMMUNICATION, CULTURE, AND THE

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Dimensions of the Collective Psyche

At the macro level, this may be exemplified by relating

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TEN COUNTRIES, ONE NATION?1

Since the vision of the ASEAN is to have One

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CONCLUSION Bock, M. J. (2013) ‘Mind the Gap; Perceptions On ASEAN

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THE ASEAN MEDIA LANDSCAPE1

ASEAN AS AN INFORMATION SOCIETY

An information society refers to a social system

The Information Age is the third era of human

spread on a micro basis, their impact is on the Mainstream media

In December 2012, the video “Gangnam Style” Digital media covers

enabling people to access • An estimated 1.1 billion households worldwide are

Without broader media cooperation and understanding,

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CARVING ICT INDUSTRY NICHES WITHIN

This paper adopts a slightly different point of view.

From where I stand at the moment, and that would

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Flor, Alexander G. Information and communications Flor, Alexander G. Development Applications of

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APPENDIX A: b) Organising film festivals;

HAVE AGREED AS FOLLOWS The Contracting Parties undertake to examine the