Zakka et al: Leveraging on Agricultural Entomology in Precision 61

NJE Vol. 35: 61-77, 2019

Nigerian Journal of Entomology
Published by the Entomological Soc. of Nig.
www.esnjournal.com.ng
DOI.10.36108/NJE/9102/53.01.60

1965

Leveraging on Agricultural Entomology in Precision Farming

for Sustainable Agriculture in Developing Countries

Zakka, Usman,1 Lawal, Olariwaju and Nwosu, Luke Chinaru

1
Department of Crop and Soil Science, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria
2
Department of Geography and Environmental management,
University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria

Abstract
This review focused on leveraging on agricultural entomology in precision farming for the sustainable
development of developing countries. Precision farming (PF) is a new approach to farm management, a
strategy in which detailed and location-specific information is employed to precisely manage farm
production inputs. The strategy ensures that farm production inputs such as pesticides, herbicides, seed,
fertilizer and water are best utilized to achieve sustainability when applied where necessary and as
needed. PF leads to cost reduction, efficient use of production inputs, increasing size and scope of
farming operations without additional labour cost, improvement in site selection, improvement in
production process control (thereby increasing quality and value of produce), improvement in record
keeping and product tracking (for food safety and environmental benefits) and reduction of potential
pollution. The suggested technologies in precision farming include global positioning system,
equipment guidance system, mapping software, precision crop input application technologies and yield
monitoring systems. These components should be organized into essential building blocks in order to
create a functional system. The role of entomology in precision farming for sustainable agriculture in a
developing economy was discussed. Precision farming a veritable tool to fight against insect pest and
new frontiers in insect pest management and the application of precision farming in integrated pest
management were also discussed. The utilization of low cost technologies already available in
developing countries for precision farming was advised- to improve effectiveness of farming
operations, thereby boosting agricultural production to enhance sustainability.

Keywords: Entomology, precision farming, low cost technologies, agricultural production,

sustainability.

INTRODUCTION employed to precisely manage farm

Precision farming is a new approach to farm production inputs (Searcy, 1997). Precision
management, a strategy in which detailed farming is synonymous with precision
and location specific information are agriculture, prescription farming and site

*Correspondence email:
uzakka@uniport.edu.ng
62 NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF ENTOMOLOGY, VOL. 35: 2019

specific management. In their introduction to iii. increasing size and scope of farming
“as needed” farming, McLoud et al. (2007) operations with no additional labour
described precision farming as a cost.
management system based on information iv. improvement in site selection.
and technology. It is site specific and utilizes v. improvement in production process
data sources such as soils, crops, nutrients, control, thereby increasing quality and
pests, moisture or yield for the optimization value of produce.
(sustainability, profitability and environ- vi. improvement in record keeping and
mental protection) of farm production. In product tracking (for food safety and
essence, it is the utilization of every space on environmental benefits).
the farmland to the best of its capability and vii. reduction of potential pollution (due to
also treating it according to its needs. This ineffective or efficient input applica-
could only be achieved if the soil and crop tion).
characteristics unique to every part of the
field are known. These benefits may be clear from the
The rationale behind this strategy is that technical point of view; however, a farmer in
farm production inputs (such as pesticides, the field might be primarily driven by
herbicides, seed, fertilizer, water) would be economic return of this strategy but with this
best utilized (achieving sustainability) when economic return comes the added
they are applied where necessary and as environmental benefit. Targeted (location-
needed. This management strategy at its core specific) and reduced application of
focuses on doing the right thing, at the right nutrients, pesticides and even water can bring
place and at the right time. Thus, this about significant soil and water quality
strategy should be of interest to every farmer benefits. Furthermore, such targeted and
at all levels as well as policy makers as it controlled application could significantly
provides a clear means of improving reduce the number of times equipment
economic and environmental sustainability travels across the field, thus, reducing
of agricultural production. Currently across erosion and soil compaction (Bongiovanni
many developing nations, every part of a and Lowenberg-DeBoer, 2004). With the
field is treated as a single unit of production latest advances in ICT (information,
despite inherent variability across the field; communication and technology) and GIS
as such, decision for each field is based on (remote sensing and geographic information
the average condition of the entire field systems), there are now many tools that can
leading to wastage and even pollution. In help to manage in-field variability and adopt
precision farming, the field is segmented into a precision farming management strategy.
smaller management units with specific
characteristics which allows for site specific METHODOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY
management (that is, application of IN PRECISION FARMING
production input as needed and where The global positioning system (GPS)
needed for maximization of output). This is the key to precision farming, and
Potential impacts of precision farming allows for the calculation of the position of
are many. These include: the receiver on earth from radio signals
broadcast by satellites orbiting the planet. A
i. cost reduction. GPS receiver location computation often has
ii. efficient use of production inputs. errors or inaccuracies (atmospheric
 Zakka et al: Leveraging on Agricultural Entomology in Precision 63

interference and deliberately signal data could be collected from locations across
degradation for security reasons- selective the field, dataset collected could include
availability) which are not acceptable in yield and soil attributes (physical, chemical
precision farming. Thus, there is a need to and biological). Thus, data could be raw
adjust the signal received by this receiver to (actual measurement) collected directly from
improve its positional accuracy, using a field/ field scouting. It could also include
fixed-based station with a precisely known data from laboratory analyses of samples
position. This would then be used to correct collected as well as interpolated data using
the satellite-based position data. This geo-statistical tools within the mapping
adjusted position data are referred to as software. Each of these attributes is stored as
differentially corrected GPS or DGPS. This layers within the mapping software.
can be used to know the position of
equipment operating in the field, field sample Precision crop input application
collection points and collections which technologies
include yield data and fertilizer/herbicide/ Variable rate technologies (VRT) are
pesticide application data. machines capable of changing their
application rates in response to their location,
Equipment guidance system thus allowing for precise application of
The GPS can be used to design a guidance inputs at specific locations. These machines
system such as auto-steer. Auto-steer are available for a variety of inputs such as
controls the steering of agricultural fertilizers, seeds, herbicides, pesticides,
equipment, using a combination of real time irrigation water. VRT is supported by a GPS
kinematic (RTK) correction of GPS signals, receiver, a computer controller and a
software and hardware which allow the input regulated drive mechanism on the applicator-
of control maps and mechanical equipment a work for location specific application of
to steer tractors. Another type of guidance inputs based on maps (data and model)
system in precision farming is the light bar previously created with the mapping
guidance system. This is mounted in the cab software. The cost of this system depends on
of the tractor/agricultural equipment and its capability (single input applicator to
provides direction for the operator to follow multiple input applicator). The system works
via a display of horizontal light. This is less on the basis that the controller adjusts the
accurate (and less expensive) than auto-steer; flow rate of the inputs. The GPS receiver
it is adequate for spreading or spraying (allows the computer to recognize where the
operation. tractor is on the field), serves as the go-
between for the applicator and the map input
Mapping software showing the desired application rates. In
This is the platform on which the positional essence, a map must be prepared at the
and attribute data collated is stored, outsets, based on the knowledge of the field
processed and analyzed. The software is (application plan) and with this map the
available at different levels of capabilities; application of input is automatically
from low-end packages for map creation, controlled as the vehicle traverses the field.
display with limited analysis capabilities to
high-end (GIS) software with extensive
toolset for data management, processing,
analyses and visualization. A host of attribute
64 NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF ENTOMOLOGY, VOL. 35: 2019

Yield monitoring systems changes are observed. The locations of these

Using mass flow sensor or a scale, yield sampling points are recorded with GPS and
monitoring system continuously measures entered into the mapping software to create
the weight of the harvested crop. This layers of the field parameters. Since data are
captures yield variability across the field, as collected for a number of points across the
the system measures and records the amount field, there is a need to use geo-statistical
of crop weight harvested at any point across techniques (tools within the mapping
the field. The harvest must therefore, be software) to interpolate the parameters to
equipped with GPS receiver and a yield cover the entire field.
monitor. The yield data are forwarded to the
onboard computer which measures yield The building blocks
tagged with its location of harvest and stored. In putting all these components together to
The data stored are later retrieved and create a functional system, the components
transferred to the mapping software to need to be organized into essential building
produce a visualization of the yield data. blocks for the elucidation of the role
This system is available for grain, forage and agricultural entomology plays in precision
cotton crops (McLoud et al., 2007). Yield farming. These are:
information could serve in the identification
of high and low yield areas, informing i. background data: using adequate
decision of input adjustment for sampling, remote sensing and existing
maximisation of field productivity. Thus, a data, spatial information about the field
highly variable field would benefit more is developed. These form the
from precision farming. background data which need to be geo-
referenced (ascribed to a location on the
Field data collection/ mapping with GPS field) using GPS.
Data to inform the decision on the input ii. record-keeping system: This is very
application should be collected fully to get a important for the success of precision
very clear picture of the soil properties across farming deployment and implementa-
the field. Grid sampling adopts a fixed tion. Data collected across extensive
pattern for soil sample collection from the areas of farmland can become over-
field using a grid square. It can be very whelming when not properly organized
expensive and time consuming but should and stored. As such, GIS software and
form the basis for development of more other commercial software specifically
sophisticated sampling technique (McLoud designed for precision farming allow
et al., 2007). Determination of the size of the farmers to organize, store and process
grid could be based on the known variability data collected. Well-organized records
of the field and the value of the crop to be become the background data on which
cultivated. As such, higher value crop may decisions are based.
require smaller grid size. Directed sampling,
targeted or zone sampling could also be iii. analysis and decision-making process:
applied based on the prior knowledge of the This involves the development of the
field (that is, observed spatial pattern of soil input application plan, based on the
type, management history, remotely sensed record-keeping system and the back-
data, soil colour), as such sampling is carried ground data. Data collected needs to be
out at locations where soil (or topological) analyzed to create meaning and under-
 Zakka et al: Leveraging on Agricultural Entomology in Precision 65

standing that could inform decision The lord took man and put him in the Garden
making. Results from analyses of the of Eden to work it and take care of it”.
data aid in solving the problem of how Okiwelu and Noutcha (2008) reported that
much input should be applied where to agriculture covers about one-third of the
maximize return on investments (time, surface of the earth and the largest user of
money and efforts). Farmers may want biodiversity and its components. Man
to consult experts in this respect, as they livelihoods are dependent on several factors
have the capacity to deal with the but majorly are shelter, food and clothing.
complexity and provide adequate results The world population is increasing at
in time (ensure timely execution of alarming rate of 2.2% at this rate therefore;
farming operations). the current world’s population of 6-7 billion
will hit 11.5 billion by 2100 with over 87%
iv. specialized implementation equipment: living in developing countries in Africa, Asia
These are the essential machineries that and Latin America (Obeng-Ofori and
ensure precision farming operation can Boateng, 2008; Lale, 2011). Penning de
be carried out. These include the GPS Vries (2001) is of the view that by 2020 such
receiver, GPS guidance systems, VRT population growth might lead to higher food
and yield monitors. Other equipment demand. Lale (2011) estimated that 75% of
such as soil parameter meters (pH, the world’s poor live in rural areas in
moisture, temperature, conductivity) developing nations in Africa and Asia and
may also be required for data proposed that management and preservation
collections. of natural environment, ecological systems,
v. evaluation and revision: After the and biodiversity are essential for sustainable
execution of the plans over a cropping development. To achieve this, Obeng-Ofori
season, there is need to evaluate the and Boateng (2008) suggested the following
results obtained in the field (yield- steps:
output). This would help in assessing i. doubling food production globally in the
the efficiency of the plans and next 20 years.
operations, thus inform revision or ii. trade and reduction of urban poverty
otherwise of plans for the next cropping should make food accessible to the
season, essentially supporting refine- entire urban population.
ment of plans. iii. farmers especially on degraded lands
should acquire new means of generating
ENTOMOLOGY AND PRECISION income.
FARMING (PF)
Across many developing countries,
The role of entomology in PF for
where issues of food security and poverty are
sustainable agriculture in a developing
major issues, managing insect pests could be
economy one of the keys to sustainable food security
Agriculture is the oldest profession in the (Ivbijaro, 2012b). There is a clear under-
history of mankind NIV (2011 Edition) in standing that food security cannot be
Genesis 1:29; 2:15 “Then God said I give achieved merely by expanding cultivated
you every seed-bearing plant on the face of areas (to meet extra demand), but rather
the whole earth and every tree that has fruit increase in productivity at all levels
with seed in it. They will be yours for food. (reducing wastage due to insect pest on farm,
66 NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF ENTOMOLOGY, VOL. 35: 2019

store, transit and during processing) should iii. utilizing all the most efficient use of
be advocated. Reduced food production has nonrenewable resources, and integrate
led to reduced caloric intake and increased where appropriate natural biological
malnutrition estimated at 300 million people cycles and controls.
globally (Zakka, 2012). Ayertey (2002) iv. sustain the economic viability of farmer
estimated that if a conservative loss figure of operations.
10% due to storage insects was applied to v. enhance the quality of life for farmers
major cereal crops produced worldwide, the and society as a whole.
total food loss to mankind was enough to
sustain the whole of Africa’s population of Another essential step towards
nearly 470 million people for 16 months. sustainable environmental development is
Recently, FAO estimated that 23% of all the economically efficient management of
food produced in the world was lost to insect natural resources in a proactive approach
pests which are rightfully called stealthy rather than reactive as the case is. Globally,
thieves or kleptomaniacs (Lale, 2010; FAO, the proactive approach is fast becoming a
2013). When converted into calories such trend which permits continued improvement
losses amounted to 20% loss of food in the present quality of life at a lower
produced. Lipinski et al. (2013) reported that intensity of resources (John and Adeoye,
one out of four food calories intended for 2012).
mans consumption is lost due to insect pest
infestation either quantitatively or Traditional approach to insect pest
qualitatively. This figure of course is management
alarming and an indicator that food security For centuries farmers had been planting and
is under threat. harvesting their produce according to their
The practice of agriculture especially ancient traditional knowledge such as early
with the use of modern technology such as harvest technology to escape insect invasion
inorganic fertilizer, pesticides, tractors and from farm to store, but such technologies are
other machinery came with enormous cost fast becoming unreliable due to several
such as destruction of ecosystem, loss in factors such as climate change and advances
biodiversity, soil erosion and ecological in technology. Rural farmers who make up
pollution (Okiwelu and Noutcha, 2008). This the bulk of farming communities will need to
has led to search for alternative agriculture compliment their local knowledge with
and/or precision farming with emphasis on modern technology that advocates precision
agriculture practice that increase sustain- farming, through pest forecasting and
ability. FAO (2005) defined sustainable prediction, for better management strategy to
agriculture as an integrated system of plant promote crop performance and eco-friendly
and animal production practices having a site control measures.
specific application that would cover the The use of pesticides in agriculture and
long term: horticulture is almost as old as farming, but
increased steeply after the advent of DDT
i. satisfying human needs for food and (dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane). This
fiber. singular act has continued to raise major
ii. enhancing environmental quality and public concerns about the use of pesticides
natural resource base upon which the that leads to bioaccumulation and biomagni-
agricultural economy depends. fications within the food chain and the
 Zakka et al: Leveraging on Agricultural Entomology in Precision 67

hazards posed by industrial waste and would create a mosaic of communities that
pollution on the stability, distribution and differ in species composition and inter-
outbreak of pest populations. These changes specific interactions and more likely to retard
can also have an adverse effect on the natural pest population outbreaks. It is believed that
enemy efficiency. Waage (1989) stated that this approach would greatly reduce develop-
application of an insecticide may create ment of resistance in pest population,
patches containing a few surviving hosts creating spatial refuges of susceptible pests
which may not be detected by the natural unexposed to the toxins and conserve natural
enemies. This might force them to leave the enemies that slow down the rate of selection
field in search of alternative hosts although of resistance pest population and the release
Murdoch et al. (1985) reported that stable toxic chemicals usually generated from the
equilibrium of predator-prey populations is injudicious use of insecticide into the
not necessary for satisfactory biological environment and food chain.
control. The traditional method of mixed Large scale pesticide industry really
cropping (heterogeneous cropping) that dates back to the end of World War II, with
played an important role in pest management the commercial introduction of pheno-
by ensuring that spatial arrangement of crops xyacetic acid, a selective herbicide and the
influences the ecology of pest species is synthetic, persistent, broad-spectrum,
becoming obsolete. It is gradually being organochlorines. Agro chemicals can be a
replaced by the system of monoculture due to source of huge boom to a farmer especially
the establishment of large scale farming with when used correctly but can also be a major
particular interest in a single crop. This has root cause of value destruction; therefore,
led to the over reliance and indiscriminate there must be a balance in the judicious use
use of insecticide to combat insect pests in of agrochemicals possibly only those that are
order to maximize output. The use of easily degradable, and narrow spectrum and
uniform application of pesticide across the low mammalian toxicity. If usage has to be
field and on an area-wide basis drastically limited to a very large extent there must be a
simplifies arthropod communities and stringent regulation in this sector from
impoverishes them of natural enemies production to its final usage in subsistence
thereby reducing their cluster distribution and commercial farming in arable crops,
(Johnson and Tabashnik, 1999) and permanent crops, hydroponics, horticulture,
minimizing the exposure of insect predators arboriculture, home gardening and forestry.
and parasitoids to insecticide through site
specific or hot spot application (Hardin et al., Precision farming a veritable tool to fight
1995) as advocated in precision farming against insect pest
which will favor biological control and In precision farming, the use of
subsequently reduce pest population and its agrochemicals in the right combination, at
attendant damage. Precision agriculture the right time, in the right way should be
therefore seeks to reverse the trend and allow emphasized. This could be achieved through
the fine tuning of the quantity of inputs, its specific site (hot spot) application and
time of application and the exact spot of complimented by integrated pest manage-
application in the field. Brenner et al. (1998) ment (IPM). Retreating from complete usage
advocated that pesticide application should of insecticide would certainly reduce the
only be at hot spot where insect pests have amount of food produced or stored. Earlier
reached their threshold and by so doing it researchers have showed that pests consumed
68 NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF ENTOMOLOGY, VOL. 35: 2019

between 35-55% of crops produced and in instance. Therefore, in precision farming,

some cases up to 100% when left field scouting especially for decision making,
unprotected. It is therefore worthy of note pest forecasting and correct identification of
that the use of pesticides is still the key to a the pests should be an integral part of the
sustainable agriculture, although its abuse is technique. It has been established that the
condemned by the current organic farmers main driving force for precision farming is
and environmentalist. Elimination of its economic return to the farmer and
insecticides might lead to colossal global environmental friendliness. To achieve this,
hunger and starvation (Akunyili and Ivbijaro, McLoud et al. (2007) proposed the following
2012; Zakka, 2012). The world population is steps:
growing at an alarming rate and increase in
food supply is becoming an urgent priority i. Identify the resources concerned for
(Obeng-Ofori and Boateng, 2008). Obeng- which precision agriculture is to
Ofori and Boateng (2008) believes that employed and determine the technique
globally, food supply is currently sufficient that has most positive effect while
to meet the food needs of the world’s addressing the problem that is also
population, but surprisingly in the face of farmer-friendly.
such abundance there are still food insecurity ii. Generate a background data that is
challenges. However, humans cannot afford needed o address the problem. In
to lose any kilo of food to biological agents gathering the data, farmer’s flexibility
of deterioration. Adedire (2016) reported that and technical ability of data collection
a few insect species comprising about 1% of should be considered and whether
all described species are man’s greatest specialized equipment is needed and
competitors in terms of food and other any value the data may in the overall
possessions and that insect pest depredation add to the exercise.
is probably the most known agent iii. Farmer’s technical ability to collecting
responsible for global food shortage and their and keeping geospatial data. This can be
activities have been recorded in tree crops, done either by hiring a professional or
arable crops and horticultural crops from developing the skill in recordkeeping.
nursery to storage and from field to post- iv. Develop a plan on how precision
harvest periods. agriculture will be used to address the
There is therefore an urgent need for a resources or problem at hand. To
paradigm shift to a sustainable pest achieve this, a consultant may be hired
management plan which is directed at to develop a farm-specific plan to
achieving a precise technique to determine address the problem using precision
when and where the probability of farming;
encountering the pest is high and also where v. Determine the type and availability of
it is not located so as to minimize collateral the specialized equipment required for
effects of toxics from unnecessary chemical execution such as light bar guidance
application and creating ways for spatially- system or auto-steer tractor.
based ‘precision targeting’. In precision vi. Assess and evaluate the plan after each
farming, the use of chemicals is site-specific cropping season. The result should be
and in the correct dosage as at when due. fed back to steps 3 and 4 to allow the
This approach ensures water quality and fine to fine tune the precision farming
higher numbers of natural enemies, for system in solving the problem.
 Zakka et al: Leveraging on Agricultural Entomology in Precision 69

Precision farming advocates specific information are generated then a template or

management where environmental impact is guide showing hot spot locations and pest
minimized by ensuring quality health of dynamics at each locality or farm will enable
water and soil and by extension agricultural a farmer that is armed with such knowledge
sustainability as a result of reduced or to know when and where to apply chemicals
targeted application of agrochemicals or in conjunction with other suitable control
(Bongiovanni and Lowenberg-DeBoer, measures in an integrated approach.
2004). NRCS (2010) reported that such Adedire (2016) opined that IPM idea
decision is termed low risk or reduced risk was first conceived by Hoskins et al. in 1939
and that the use of advanced technologies in as integration of both chemical and
support of precision agriculture should biological control methods which are
include GPS for mapping insect pest compatible and complimentary. He further
infestation based on scouting reports and emphasized that IPM advocates harmonious
other data generated in situ. Mapping use of multiple pest management options to
infestation over time helps in predicting control a single pest or number of pests. He
insect pest populations. Some scouting emphasized that irrespective of the
activities such as grid sampling for pests will nomenclature of the pest management,
complement advanced technologies for scientists and environmentalists tend to agree
insecticide application. GPS, in combination on reduced use of synthetic insecticides and
with additional technologies to reduce the increased emphasis on the use of bio-
amount of insecticide applied (reduced spray pesticides so as to minimize adverse effects
overlap technology and green seeker on non-target or beneficial organism, human
technology) are required in precision and the environment. IPM therefore has been
farming. The ability of farmers to understand advocated by several workers because of its
the current pest pressure will enable them presumed efficacy, cost effectiveness and
make accurate prediction of future migration reduced adverse effects on man and the
pattern, dispersal and other resurgence. This environment. Mosh (2004) identified few
can be achieved through a simple technology compatible principles of IPM with precision
such as daily monitoring of insect traps, agriculture:
observation of detailed weather pattern, and
other insect forecast tools that could be i. That corrective measures should be
obtained from local agricultural extension based on economic and ecological
entomologist in our various research criteria, that is, the use of action
institutions. This process must begin with threshold.
agricultural entomologist monitoring and ii. Maximization of sustainable by the use
understanding biology of the pest in question of resistant varieties, biological and
such as migration pattern, larvae hatching cultural control measure.
time and period, hibernation or aestivation iii. Minimization of farm inputs such as
period and factors responsible for it. Others pesticide application in classical
include insect populations and migration precision agriculture.
patterns for different crops across the regions While IPM seeks to integrate the most
for short-term and long-term monitoring. compatible and complimentary methods of
When such data with other data on weather tackling the menace of insect pest in order to
trends, physical and chemical characteristics maximize output and protect the environment
of soil and other specific geographical and humans from excess toxins from agro-
70 NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF ENTOMOLOGY, VOL. 35: 2019

chemicals, precision agriculture acts to concerns about environmental, social and

minimize economic and environmental resources management and sustainability
damage through the options of farm inputs (Omoloye, 2008).
such as fertilizer and insecticides. Yet IPM Economic threshold is the number of
lacks the special components so central to insects (density or intensity) that should
precision agriculture. Fleischer et al. (1999) trigger management action. In pest manage-
are of the view that while IPM decisions are ment, the full knowledge of this action
based on routine monitoring of pest, threshold is an inevitable tool. The concept
precision agriculture collects reliable data on sets a limit for timely artificial intervention at
pest density across the field that would allow a particular pest density so as to prevent the
the creation of management maps using pest population form rising to economically
mostly software thereby showing areas of damaging level (Pedigo, 2003).
interest such as pest density for spot Determining the economic injury level
treatment but VR applicators is probably the and threshold will ensure the use of chemical
challenging step towards the use of precision on the real pest problem rather than on the
agriculture. perceived pest. In doing so, information-
Effective pest management is based on gathering by forecasting will give accurate
certain decisions and factors which include information on pest status, or provide certain
economic injury level (EIL) and economic information on specific pest problem, its
threshold (ET) concepts. Ashamo (2016) infestation peak, alternative host, or when
emphasized the importance of rightful pest is alien and invasive as a management
economic decisions in pest management, technique so as to enable farmers know when
since one major objective of pest control is to to scout or begin intervention and also do a
prevent crop damage and reduce loss in order site specific or spot application of insecticide
to maximize profit. Therefore, it is important thereby maximizing chemical input, reducing
to know the insect population level before cost of purchase and application rate yet
engaging in any control measure. This will ensuring quick and efficient intervention.
inform the economic decision which defines Pest management concept is a compre-
the amount or injury which will justify the hensive pest technology that combines all the
cost of artificial measure or if the pest is available and compatible control measures in
perceived to be a problem (Pedigo, 2003; order to reduce the status of pests to tolerable
Omoloye, 2008). Negating this principle will levels while maintaining the quality of the
amount to spending money and other environment and ensures farmers maximum
resources which could have been avoided. yield and profit (Ashamo, 2016). This will
Ashamo (2016) defined EIL as the lowest also ensure judicious use of chemicals,
number of insects/lowest population density prevention of over remediation and
that would course economic damage, or the advocating an integration of multiple control
amount of pest injury which will justify the approach to achieve long-term pest
cost of control. Since precision farming management tactics.
attempts to deal with the specifics at EIL, the
cost required to control the pest is equal to New frontiers in insect pest management
the amount of damage the pest inflicts. Pest management tactics in agriculture (both
Below it there are no economic losses and field crops and storage system, medical and
above it, economic losses have occurred. EIL veterinary entomology) evolved over the
concept has been expanded to include years which could be attributed to several
 Zakka et al: Leveraging on Agricultural Entomology in Precision 71

factors among which are anthropogenic approaches. Phillips and Thrones (2010)
activities, modernization in farming and style and Okiwelu and Noutcha (2015) stated
of living, global warming and related such alternatives include: manipulating
activities, availability of sophisticated the physical environment, sanitation and
science and technology such as faster means exclusion, humidity and temperature
of transportation and other delivery services. control, irradiation, controlled and
This has led to insect pests developing modified atmosphere, desiccation,
resistance to chemicals and emergence of impact and removal.
invasive alien species. Okiwelu and Noutcha
v. Biologically-based controls include the
(2015) listed some of the new frontiers in
use of pheromones, semio-chemicals,
pest management: the use of molecular
natural enemies, microbial insecticides,
techniques, insect conservation, bio-rational
insect growth regulators and resistant
approach to the management of stored
crops.
product insects, quarantine entomology,
forensic entomology, insect genomics and vi. Insect genomics and transgenesis. This
transgenesis, push-pull and semio-chemical- is a dynamic field that combines
based strategies in IPM, sytematics, traditional paths of inquiry with new
macroecology and cultural entomology. approaches using advanced techno-
Briefs on these approaches from Okiwelu logical development. Recent focus is on
and Noutcha (2015) are provided as follows: gene sequencing by ordering and
organizing the gene into libraries
i. Molecular biological technique such as (Heckle, 2003). It then becomes a major
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) used key to gene discovery, identification of
in the identification of sibling species of novel targets for new insecticides with
insects complexes (Noutcha and regards to application of functional
Anumudu, 2010), genomics (Okiwelu and Noutcha,
ii. The multiplex PCR or Enzyme-Linked 2015). They also highlighted the
Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) that possibility of manipulating the
could be used in sero-epidemiological genomics concept for autocidal control
studies in detecting parasite antigens or or in the replacement of a pestiferous
in determining infection rates in vector strain with a benign genotype.
and their feeding preferences (Noutcha, vii. Push-pull and Semio-chemical-based
2007; Noutcha et al., 2009). strategies in IPM. These techniques
iii. Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) is a involve manipulating the behavior of
recent species identification tool and insect pests and their natural enemies
also recent is through integration of stimuli that make
the protected resources unattractive or
iv. Bio-rational approach to managing unsuitable to the pest (push) while
stored product insects. The loss luring them towards an attractive source
attributed to stored products can be as (pull) from where the pest is removed.
high as 20% especially in developing This technique is non-toxic and can
nations (Okiwelu and Noutcha, 2015). easily be integrated with suitable but
The attendant problem with the compatible methods for population
conventional insecticide usage in the
store led to search for alternative
72 NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF ENTOMOLOGY, VOL. 35: 2019

reduction especially in biological system where robotic module is

control (Okiwelu and Noutcha, 2015). employed to deposit the ideal amount of
viii. Macroecology. Okiwelu and Noutcha food and also monitor when the insects
(2015) stated that this approach concept need more food to achieve cost
focuses on ecology at geographical effectiveness. In many developing
scale. Collaboration on ecological countries, edible insects are harvested
studies of pest and natural enemies over from the wild and currently there is no
their distributional ranges across states documentation on entomofaunal
is the goal. farming.

ix. Microbial control. This is the use of Feasibility on the use of precision
pathogens or disease causing organisms agriculture in integrated pest management
to reduce the population of insects Brenner et al. (1998) are of the view that
below the level that they can cause entomologists have a major role to play in
damage (Dhaliwal and Koul, 2011). ensuring food security through fighting the
Such agents include bacteria and fungi menace of insect pest infestations and their
and application is similar to those of associated pathogens from destroying the
synthetic insecticides but requires an cultivated food in the field and store.
appropriate strategy in order to Unfortunately, the pesticides being used in
maximize effective control of insect combating the menace of most of these
pests and insect vectors. These include arthropods often place us in a precarious
introduction and establishment to position, especially from the environmen-
achieve permanent suppression of target talist perspective. At the advent of
pests, seasonal and environmental agriculture pre-dating modernization or
colonization to control pests for more technology-driven farming, insects
than one generation (Adedire, 2016). competing with crops or animals were
x. Entomophagy. Insects play a significant merely hand-picked, which was an aspect of
role in human nutrition in many parts of precision farming. As knowledge of science
the world including Africa (Adedire, and technology increased, the use of
2016). Insects as protein source are now chemicals, especially on a large scale became
becoming a major alternative to animal common, but with the organic agriculture
protein that is linked with many campaign, application of insecticides only
environmental and sustainability when necessary and at a precise spot (site-
challenges especially in Africa. These specific) has been advocated as
challenges range from limited grazing complementary to precision agriculture.
areas, insufficient feeds and poor However, the practice is still limited to small
veterinary service. Van Huis et al. farming communities, the move or its
(2013) reported over 1900 species in adoption among large scale pest control
370 genera of edible insects across operations is still daunting, impractical to
several orders that are consumed in intensively monitor pest populations across
different forms across cultures (Gullan large commercial farms.
and Cranston, 2005). TransEnergize Mosh (2004) acknowledged that the
(2017) reported an automate process of application of precision agriculture to pest
breeding and raising crickets for food- a management has been a slow process, which
they attributed to technological constraints
 Zakka et al: Leveraging on Agricultural Entomology in Precision 73

stemming from the dynamic and cryptic Blackmore et al. (2000) reported that
nature of disease agents and insect pests. with remote sensing, insect pests can be
Despite this presumably strong opposition to monitored consistently over years and a
its adaptation, precision agriculture seems to multi-year management map can then be
be the best management option in clustered generated and such data are transferred to
distribution of such crop pest in farm lands GIS and used to apply pre-emptive measures.
when compared to the adverse effects of Liebhold et al. (1998) reported a map of
pesticides on the human health and Gypsy moth showing the existence of
environment. Since the use of remote sensing consistent distribution pattern of defoliated
in creating pest management maps is one of trees and with such information any area
the surest ways of predicting pest invasion with a history of consistent defoliation over
sites for site specific or hot spot treatments, years, control measures are applied to such
through monitoring either the plant health susceptible areas. On the other hand, since
status or visible insect by-products such as precision agriculture is not targeted at forest
exuvia, frass and their feeding spots. SPORE trees only, an alternative is to generate
(2017) further identified hot spot agronomic management maps for other variables that
data essential in precision farming to include correlate with pest density such as field
plant biomass, chlorophyll rate, leaf area topography, soil type and nitrogen and crop
index, emergence rate, water stress, missing yield which have the propensity to induce or
plants, height or flowering and differences in reduce insect pest infestations depending on
vegetation index. When such hot spots are the level. Coll et al. (2000) observed that
located, the use of biological control agents Phthorimaea operculata infestation is three
in combination with selective insecticides times more intensive in clay soil than sandy
with low mammalian toxicity could then be soils. The infestation rate is directly related
applied as IPM at the detected sites. A major to the soil type. They also reported that with
setback in the use of visible sign of GIS, yield across the field for instance when
infestation could mean that infestation or insect presence does not correlate with other
damage has occurred already and will no factors other than yield, in such case where
longer be a proactive measure but reactive. there is a persistent re-invasion of pest to
This therefore suggest that remote sensing annul crop showing migration pattern of field
based-approach in precision agriculture infestation at the margins than at the centre
might be well suited in a relatively stable over years may suggest the use of hot spot
system such as forest and orchards that are pre-emptive management to the vulnerable
relatively tolerant to pest infestation or delay part of the field.
in its management can be tolerated rather
than in arable crop farming that is short lived PRECISION FARMING FOR
and highly vulnerable to insect pest SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN
infestation. Other technical challenges to the DEVELOPING ECONOMY
deployment of this technology include the SPORE (2007) in appreciating the role of
misinterpretation of mere shadow or black precision agriculture in modern farming such
area or infrared aerial photographs for as better returns on investment and improved
presence of infestation foci as was used to livelihoods for farmers around the world
monitor brown soft scale populations in expressed fear over its quick spread and
citrus (Hart and Myers, 1968). adoption in developing countries, where they
74 NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF ENTOMOLOGY, VOL. 35: 2019

consider smart farming technologies, mobile application developed for

including data collection from satellites and farmers in rural communities could
drones as still a major setback. However, collect information on pest (by taking
given the technologies and methods pictures and geo-tagging them and
highlighted earlier, one might have the uploading to a central database), keep
impression that precision farming is records of data of activities via picture
impracticable in low and middle income taking as well and so many other
countries due to their peculiar problems and activities. The collection of such could
challenges. However, precision farming is form the basis for visits and advisory
even of more important across many of these services by extension officers.
countries due to increasing challenges of low
ii. Growth in the development of cheap,
productivity, high cost of input and attendant
portable, wireless, low power (and solar
problem of pollution (soil and water), land
supported) sensors could also help
degradation (erosion and loss of fertility and
farmers collect data on their farm which
biodiversity) and high insect pest infestation.
could be sent via mobile phone
This brings up the question, how can
(including location of the measurement)
precision farming help in the low economy
to an extension services which can
of developing nations? In this respect, we
quickly automate the production of
will present a number of scenarios which
input application plan for the farmers,
could utilize low cost technologies already
based on the data and other ancillary
available and can be adapted for use in
data derived from various sources
precision farming in concerned nations,
(remotely sensed, unmanned aerial
thereby boosting production and improving
vehicle- UAV). Geo-tagged pictures
efficiency and effectiveness of farming
from farms on weed, pest and so on,
operations.
could also be sent via mobile phone to
i. With increasing penetration of mobile appropriate organization which could
phones in developing countries such as quickly do a turnaround on the data
Nigeria, there is an opportunity to map provided to advice on application rates
farmland of many farming communities, and plans. The bottom-line, is that the
thus reducing the need for expensive technology is not a real challenge as
technologies. Such maps could form the there are always opportunity to adapt
basis for the creation of other technology to suite different situation.
background data and records of the iii. Mapping of farmland and partition into
farmland, which could be overlaid on grids can now be done by farmers using
extension services advisory maps only a mobile phone. Farmers can walk
created from remotely sensed data. or ride around the boundary of their
These high resolution advisory maps farm thus digitizing the extent of their
could include application plans for farmland. The boundary now forms the
various inputs based on farmer’s basis for dividing the farmland into
location, crops, prevalent pest and grids which would be used for sampling
disease. Using the approach of crowd of soil and yield. With these grids in
sourcing or volunteer GIS (VGIS), data place, farmers can be advised on how to
across vast area of farm land could be sample their farmland to ensure that the
collated, using mobile phones. A simple heterogeneity of the farmland is
 Zakka et al: Leveraging on Agricultural Entomology in Precision 75

captured. From this, farmers now have in Nigeria. In In Ivbijaro, M.F.A. and
visual aids to guide them on where to Akintola, F. (Editors) Sustainable
sample and how to store the data. From Environment in Nigeria 2nd Edition.
this data, geo-statistical analyses can be BookBuilders, Ibadan, Nigeria, 445pp.
done to create a yield map or fertility Ashamo, M.O. (2016). Insect Pest Management:
Concepts and Options. In: Adedire, C.O.
map for the farmer, thus creating a
and Fagbenro, O.A. (Editors) Advances in
decision making framework for input Biological Sciences. Artsmostfare Pub.
application and optimization. Tech- Ibadan, Nigeria, 315pp.
nology is no barrier in application of Ayertey, J.N. (2002). Insect, Man and Food
precision farming in developing Security. An Inagural Lecture delivered at
countries and the benefits are bound to the University of Ghana Legon on May 10,
be numerous. However in order to 2010. Ghana University Press, Accra.
harness this, there is a need to tap into Bongiovanni, R. and Lowenberg-DeBoer, J.
the creative imagination and innova- (2004). Precision agriculture and
tions of farmers, extension officers sustainability. Precision Agriculture, 5(4),
particularly extension entomologists and 359-387.
Brenner, R.J., Focks, D.A., Arbogas, R.T.,
researchers (especially, agricultural
Weaver, D.K. and Shuman, D. (1998).
entomologists). Essentially, we have to Practical use of spacial analysis in
begin to see precision farming not as precisiontargeting for integrated pests
something only the farmers in management. American Entomologist, 44:
industrialized countries can do but 79-101.
something all farmers should do Coll, M., Gavish, S. and Doris, I. (2000).
irrespective of the status of their Population biology of the potato tuber
economy. Africa currently leads the moth, Phthorimaea operculia (Lepidoptera
world in mobile money (Adegoke, Gelechidae) in two potato cropping systems
2017), based on significant barriers in Isreal. Bulletin of Entomological
faced by the populace. The same can be Research, 90: 309-315.
Dhaliwal, G.S. and Koul, O. (2011).
repeated in terms of precision farming,
Biopesticides and Pests Management. New
using our challenges to reinvent, Delhi, India Kalyani Pub.
innovate and adapt precision farming to FAO (2005). Sustainabl Agriculture. Food and
our own peculiar situation. With Agricultural Organization of the United
advocated precision, adaptation and Nations, Rome, Italy, 22pp.
innovation and exploration of new FAO (2013). Food loss and waste. Definition
frontiers in agricultural entomology, and scope. Food and Agricultural
agriculture in developing nations stands Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
to be sustainable. Fleischer, S.J., Blom, P.E. and Weisz, R.
(1999). Sampling in precision IPM: When
the objective is a map. Phytopathology, 89:
REFERENCES 1112-1118.
Adedire, C.O. (2016). Insects: Agents of food Gullan, P.J. and Cranston, P.S. (2005). The
security or food security? In: Adedire, C.O. insects: An ouline of Entomology (3rd
and Fagbenro, O.A. (Editors) Advances in Edition) UK. Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
Biological Sciences. Artsmostfare Pub. Hardin, M.R., Benrey, B., Coll, M., Lamp,
Ibadan, Nigeria, 315pp. W.O., Roderick, G.K. and Barbosa, P.
Akunyili, D. and Ivbijaro, M.F.A. (2012). (1995). Arthropod pest resurgence: an
Pesticide Regulations and Implementation
76 NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF ENTOMOLOGY, VOL. 35: 2019

overview of potential mechanisms. Crop Ibadan Sustainable Development Summit

Protection, 14: 3-18. (ISDS). University of Inadan, Nigeria.
Hart, W.G. and Myers, V.I. (1968). Infrared Lale, N.E.S. (2010). Stealthy Thieves in homes
aerial color photography for detection of and foodstuff. Inagural lecture series No 68
populations of brown soft scale in citrus of University of Port Harcourt, University
groves. Journal of Economic Entomology, of Port Harcourt Press.
61: 617-624. Liebhold, A., Luzaader, E., Reardon, A.,
Heckle, D.G. (2003). Genomics in pure and Ravlin, F.W., Sharov, A. and Zhou, G.
applied entomology. Annual Review of (1998). Forecating Gypsy moth
Entomology, 48: 235-260. (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) defoliation
Hoskins, W.M., Borden, A.D. and with a geographical Information System.
Michellbacher, A.E. (1939). Reccommen- Journal of Economic Entomology, 91: 464-
dations for a more discriminating use of 472.
insectcides Proc. 6th Pac. Science Congress Lipniski, B., Hanson, C., Lomax, J. Kitinoja,
5, 119-123 In Adedire, C.O. and Fagbenro, L., Waite, R. and Searchinger, T. (2013).
O.A. (Editors) Advances in Biological Reducing food loss and waste. Working
Sciences. Artsmostfare Pub. Ibadan, paper: Instalment 2 of creating a sustainable
Nigeria, 315pp. food future. Washington, DC Resources
Ivbijaro, M.F.A. (2012a). Susutainable Institute, 1-6pp.
devlopment in Nigeria. In Ivbijaro, M.F.A. McLoud, P. R., Gronwald, R., & Kuykendall,
and Akintola, F. (Editors) Sustainable H. (2007). Precision agriculture: NRCS
Environment in Nigeria 2nd Edition. support for emerging technologies
BookBuilders, Ibadan, Nigeria, 445pp. Agronomy Technical Note: United States
Ivbijaro, M.F.A. (2012b). Food insects in Department of Agriculture: Natural
Nigeria. In Ivbijaro, M.F.A. (Editor) Resources Conservation Service.
Poverty Alleviation for Biodiversity Moshe, C. (2004). Precision agriuclture
Management. BookBuilders, Ibadan, approaches in support of ecological
Nigeria, 43pp. engineering for pest management. In.
John, B.O.A. and Adeoye, B.W. (2012). The Geoff, M.G., Steve, D.W. and Miguel, A.A.
economics of sustainable environmental (Editors) Ecological engineering for pest
developmentin Nigeria In: In Ivbijaro, management: Advances in habitat
M.F.A. and Akintola, F. (Editors) manipulation for arthropods. CSIRO
Sustainable Environment in Nigeria 2nd Publishers Australia, 238pp.
Edition. BookBuilders, Ibadan, Nigeria, Noutcha, M.A.E. and Anumudu, C.I. (2011).
445pp. Anpheles gambiae complex: Molecular
Johnson, M.W. and Tabashnik, B.E. (1999). forms and occurances of the KDR gene in
Enhanced biological control through rural southwestern Nigeria. Nigerian
pesticide selectivity. In Bellows, T.S. and Journal of Entomology, 28: 7-16.
Fisher, T.W. (Editors) Handbook of Noutcha, M.A.E., Ngoundou-Landji, J. and
Biological Control: Principles and Anumudu, C.I. (2009). Gene variants of
Applications of Biological Control. Plasmodium falciparum in infective
Academic press, San Diego. Anopheles gambiae s.l. at rural community
Lale, N.E.S. (2011). Natural Resource in southwest Nigeria. Scientia Africana,
Management and Environment. In: 8(2): 9-16.
Popoola, F., Olaliyan, O., Wahab, B., Ana, Noutcha, M.A.E. (2007). Identification, genetic
G. and Olayide, O. (Editors) Global and molecular characterizations of
Changes and Sustainable Development: Anopheles gambiae s.l. in selected
Challenges and Opportunities fo South- communities of Nigeria and comeroon.
South cooperation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Ph.D Thesis (Molecular Entomology).
 Zakka et al: Leveraging on Agricultural Entomology in Precision 77

Department of Zoology, University of

Ibadan, Nigeria.
Nowatzki, J., Hofman, V., Disrud, L., &
Nelson, K. (2011, September 28, 2011).
GPS Applications in Crop Production. Philips, T.W. and Throne, J.E. (2010).
Retrieved July 23, 2017, from Biorational approaches to managing stored
http://articles.extension. product insects. Annual Review of
org/pages/9672/gps-applications-in-crop- Entomology, 55: 375-397.
production Searcy, S. W. (1997). Precision Farming: A
Oben-Ofori, D. and Boateng, B.A. (2008). New Approach to Crop Management. Texas
Global population growth, crop losses and Agricultural Extension Service. The Texas
post-harvest technology In: Cornelius, E.W. A and M University System, College
and Oben-Ofori, D. (editors) Post-harvest Station, Texas.
science and tehcnology. Smartline Pub. SPORE (2017). The growth of inclusive digital
Accra, Legon, 504pp. agri-finance. June-August, No 185. CTA
Oisebe, P. R. (2012, October 9, 2012). Publication.
Geospatial Technologies in Precision TransEnergy (2017). Automated cricket farms
Agriculture. Retrieved July 23, 2017, from could be the next big source of protein.
https://www.gislounge.com/geospatial- http://transenergy.com/2017/08/29.
technologies-in-precision-agriculture Van Huis, A., van Itterbeeck, J., Klunder, H.,
Okiwelu, S.N. and Noutcha, M.A.E. (2008). Mertens, E., Halloran, A., Muir, G. and
The role of Entomology in the development Vantomme, P. (2013). Edible insects:
of Sustainable Agriculture. Nigerian Future and prospects for food and feed
Journal of Entomology, 25: 1-14. security. FAO forestry paper 171, Food and
Okiwelu, S.N. and Noutcha, M.A.E (2015). Agricultural Organization of the United
Challenges and new frontiers in Nations, Rome, 187pp.
entomological training and research in Zakka, U. (2012). Integrated mangement of
Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Entomology. Sitophilus zeamais (Mots) for efficient
(31): 63-72. storage of maize in the Niger Delta Area of
Omoloye, A.A. (2008). Fundamentals of Insect Nigeria. Ph.D Thesis submitted to the
Pest Management. Corperate Publishers Department of Animal and Environemntal
Lagos, 211pp. Biology, Faculty of Science, University of
Pedigo, L.P. (2003). Entomology and Pest Port Harcourt, 149pp.
management (4th Edition), India, Pearson
Education.

NJE Vol. 35: 61-77, 2019

Nigerian Journal of Entomology 1965
Published by the Entomological Soc. of Nig.
www.esnjournal.com.ng
DOI.10.36108/NJE/9102/53.01.60