The Archives of Automotive Engineering – Archiwum Motoryzacji Vol. 75, No.

1, 2017 23

Article citation info:

Goszczak J, Radzymiński B, Werner A, Pawelski Z. PWM-controlled hydraulic solenoid valves for motor
vehicles. The Archives of Automotive Engineering – Archiwum Motoryzacji. 2017; 75(1): 23-37,
http://dx.doi.org/10.14669/AM.VOL.75.ART2

PWM-CONTROLLED HYDRAULIC
SOLENOID VALVES FOR MOTOR VEHICLES

ELEKTROZAWORY HYDRAULICZNE
STEROWANE SYGNAŁEM PWM STOSOWANE
W POJAZDACH SAMOCHODOWYCH
JAROSŁAW GOSZCZAK1, BARTOSZ RADZYMIŃSKI2,
ANDRZEJ WERNER3, ZBIGNIEW PAWELSKI4
Lodz University of Technology

Summary
Paper presents the characteristics of two hydraulic electro-valves applied in automotive industry,
produced by different manufacturers. Such electro-valves are controlled by PWM signal (Pulse With
Modulation) and are used to control oil pressure in automatic gearboxes. Paper includes some basic
information about PWM signal with its application. In the subsequent chapter, there will be given
information about tested valves, acquired by an individual elaboration, including design and the
fundamentals of operation.
In the followings sections, test bench is described and test results are presented. The temperature
turned out as a very important factor which should be taken into account. In case of PWM controlling,
for different temperatures some uncertainties of output pressure are possible. To avoid this undesirable
phenomenon new control signal is proposed.
Different characteristics of electro-valves are included: output pressure as the function of steering
signal, the value of force exerted by the slider, responsiveness to a step function of request, regulation
possibilities and internal leakages. What is more, occurrence of hysteresis phenomenon is checked.

Lodz University of Technology, Department of Vehicles and Fundamentals of Machine Design, ul. Żeromskiego 116,
1

90-924 Łódź, Poland; e-mail: jaroslaw.goszczak@p.lodz.pl

2
Lodz University of Technology, Department of Vehicles and Fundamentals of Machine Design, ul. Żeromskiego 116,
90-924 Łódź, Poland; e-mail: bartosz.radzyminski@p.lodz.pl
3
Lodz University of Technology, Department of Vehicles and Fundamentals of Machine Design, ul. Żeromskiego 116,
90-924 Łódź, Poland; e-mail: andrzej.werner@guest.p.lodz.pl
4
Lodz University of Technology, Department of Vehicles and Fundamentals of Machine Design, ul. Żeromskiego 116,
90-924 Łódź, Poland; e-mail: zbigniew.pawelski@p.lodz.pl
24 The Archives of Automotive Engineering – Archiwum Motoryzacji Vol. 75, No. 1, 2017

Based on test results a number of conclusions are formulated with some practical pieces of information
for the engineers of mechanical systems which contain elements controlled by PWM signal.
Keywords: PWM signal, electro-valve steering, temperature influence

Streszczenie
Artykuł niniejszy zawiera charakterystykę elektrozaworów hydraulicznych stosowanych w pojazdach
samochodowych, pochodzących od dwóch producentów, których zmienną sterującą jest sygnał PWM
(ang. Pulse With Modulation). Służą one do regulacji ciśnienia w obwodzie elektrohydraulicznym auto-
matycznej skrzyni biegów pojazdów samochodowych. W artykule omówiono po krótce istotę sygnału
PWM oraz jego zastosowanie. Scharakteryzowano badane elektrozawory, wraz z podaniem własnej
analizy konstrukcyjnej oraz zasady ich działania. Porównano dwa różne rozwiązania zwracając uwagę
na istotne, funkcjonalne różnice między nimi oraz zauważone niedoskonałości tychże rozwiązań.
W dalszej części artykułu omówiono stanowisko pomiarowe oraz wyniki badań, w których zwrócono
uwagę na istotny wpływ temperatury na niejednoznaczność osiąganych ciśnień w przypadku stero-
wania przy pomocy sygnału PWM- zaproponowano inną zmienną sterującą, a następnie przedstawiono
wyniki badań dla różnych wartości temperatury oleju.
Zawarto charakterystyki: wytwarzanego ciśnienia w funkcji sygnału sterującego, sprawdzając wystę-
powanie zjawiska histerezy, siły wywieranej przez trzpień elektrozaworu, czasu reakcji na skok jed-
nostkowy o amplitudzie pełnego przesterowania, możliwości regulacyjnych oraz przecieków własnych
elektrozaworu.
Sformułowano szereg wniosków, nasuwających się po przeprowadzeniu badań, będących praktycz-
nymi i istotnymi wskazówkami dla konstruktorów układów mechanicznych w których zastosowanie
znajdują elektrozawory sterowane sygnałem PWM lub inne elementy, których zmienną sterującą jest
sygnał PWM.
Słowa kluczowe: sygnał PWM, elektrozawór sterowany sygnałem PWM, wpływ temperatury na pracę
elektrozaworu

1. Introduction
Commonly used solenoid valves are split into two general types: bi-stable (fully open/fully
closed) or continually opened/closed (capable to take any arbitrary position between the
two extremes). To realize that latter type of control, the valve must be supplied with elec-
tric current of continually variable intensity. The Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technique
has become a common solution.

Referring to Fig.1, amplitude U1 and frequency (1/T) of the PWM control signal is con-
stant, while its duty factor Ton/T is varied; see [2] for more basic facts about the PWM
technique. The technique is commonly applied in automotive industry [3] and to control
electric engines [1, 9, 10]. There are many variants in use [4] since search for better meth-
ods aimed to minimize energy losses and/or to better utilize microcontroller memory [5,
6] is still going on.
 The Archives of Automotive Engineering – Archiwum Motoryzacji Vol. 75, No. 1, 2017 25

Signal frequencies are large enough to yield a practically infinitely variable control; the fre-
quencies may reach even several MHz [8]. Figure 1 shows a single period in the PWM signal.

Fig.1. PWM control signal with period T, the period Ton when the signal is high (load is supplied),
and the period T off when the signal is low [12]

Duty cycle is by definition the (percentage) fraction of time the signal remains high:
T
Kw = TON · 100% (1)

Images of the two analysed solenoid valves of the smoothly adjusted types are shown in Figs.
2 and 3. Each solenoid encircles its stem. Magnetic field produced by PWM-signal currents
flowing through the solenoid forces the stem out, pushing the valve hydraulic slider. Depending
on its position, the slider connects various chambers of the valve hydraulic manifold.

Valve shown in Fig. 2 will be hereafter referred to as Solution (Device) I, while valve shown
in Fig. 3 – as Solution (Device) II. The former is a general application device rated to operate
at PWM frequency = 300 Hz. The latter valve was manufactured by a different manufacturer
as a N/H device; that designation will be explained in a further part of this paper.

Both types are supplied from 12 VDC as devices commonly applied in motor vehicles.

Fig. 2. Valve referred to as Device I [14]

26 The Archives of Automotive Engineering – Archiwum Motoryzacji Vol. 75, No. 1, 2017

Fig. 3. Valve referred to as Device II. Top view (left), bottom view (right)

2. Principle of operation of solenoid valves

Solenoid valve function is to adjust pressure of oil at its output in line with instantaneous
value of the PWM control signal applied to its solenoid. PWM signal current intensity trans-
lates directly into electromagnetic force that pushes the solenoid stem out.

The stem moves the slider of the hydraulic manifold, as shown in Fig. 4. The figure shows
a very simple design sketched by authors of this paper to make solenoid valve principle of
operation as clear as possible. The figure helps also to identify differences introduced in
a more complicated design of the device referred to in this paper as Device II (Fig. 5) and
in a much more sophisticated construction of the device referred to as Device I (Fig. 6).

In design depicted in Fig. 4, the moving valve slider can connect output pressure pc cham-
ber either with oil supplied at a high supply pressure ps (to increase pc) or with pressure
bleed X to the atmosphere (to drop pc). That way the valve may smoothly adjust pc all the
way from the atmospheric pressure to the supply pressure. The stem moving force comes
from any unbalance between magnetic forces exerted by the solenoid and feedback forc-
es proportional to the pc value and the difference of the slider active areas at both sides
of the pc chamber.

Fig. 4. Diagram showing the structure of solenoid valve, which is sufficient to perform the required functions
 The Archives of Automotive Engineering – Archiwum Motoryzacji Vol. 75, No. 1, 2017 27

Slider in Fig. 4 is shown in the neutral position: output pressure pc neither increases nor
drops. Forces exerted by the electromagnet (transmitted by the stem on the slider), and
the resultant force, which is the result of the pressure pc on these two surfaces of the
piston, are balanced.

If there is an increase in the force from the electromagnet, the channel to pressure ps
opens. Lesser force exerted on the solenoid opens the channel to oil bleed, until the forces
return to balance, which causes the channel to cut off. On the other hand, Figure 5 shows
a diagram of the solenoid valve specified as the Device II.

Fig.5. A diagram of the solenoid valve referred to as Device II

Spring load acting on the valve slider in this construction to the left is balanced with two
forces pushing to the right: magnetic force and feedback exerted by output pressure
pc acting on two opposite circular surfaces of the slider, Ø8.6 mm and Ø8.1 mm. Slider
in Fig. 5 is shown in the neutral position.

Since movements of the Device II slider are very small, spring load is practically constant.
The increase in the force exerted by the electromagnet, which is a function of the desired
PWM signal (specifically, the current passing through the solenoid) and in temperature,
pushes the slider right and opens the vent and thus reduces the pressure pc. A new equi-
librium point is established at the increased desired value of PWM signal and reduced
pressure. It means that output pressure is normally high (without applying PWM signal
and therefore, the current to the solenoid), which is shown by N/H (Normal High) designa-
tion on the case. This solenoid valve is rated for supply pressure up to 20 bar, therefore
the output pressures pc may be take any value from atmospheric pressure up to 20 bar (at
PWM signal equal to 0%) minus losses in internal channels of the valve itself. That particu-
lar valve type is offered also in the N/L (Normal Low) version [13].
28 The Archives of Automotive Engineering – Archiwum Motoryzacji Vol. 75, No. 1, 2017

Construction of the device referred to as Device I shown in Fig. 6 is much more sophisticated,
although the slider is like above driven by a combination of the stem-transmitted magnetic
force and output pressure pc feedback net force. Areas on which the pc pressure develops
respective forces are given by maximum slider diameter (Ø7 mm) in chamber F, and slider
diameter reduced to Ø4.68 mm in chamber A (0.172 cm2). Solenoid stem is not mechanically
connected with the valve slider; synchronized movement of both these parts is guaranteed
by a spring inside the solenoid that keeps the stem sticking to the slider. The output pc pres-
sure is worked out in chamber C, while chambers A, E and F provide feedback force.

In neutral position oil does not flow between the ps supply chamber D and chamber E
(pc), nor between bleed B and chamber C (pc). That way the pc pressure does not change.
However, any movement of the slider to the right (larger that the dead zone) will open
a passage between chambers D and E and will increase the pc pressure. The same is true
of the opposite movement direction: any movement of the slider to the left will open a pas-
sage between chamber C and bleed B and will decrease the pc pressure. The slider moves
in reaction to a changed PWM control signal.

The stem extension capabilities are mechanically limited and in the tested copy of the
valve it was observed that the slider/stem combination did not move strictly together. As a
result, slider position was not clear-cut defined at all times. A residue pc pressure of about
0.5 bar was observed for that reason, in absence of any PWM control signal.

Fig. 6. Relative position of slider and the cylinder of the valve referred to as the Device I

Other shortcomings of the discussed solution were also identified during the tests: the
valve is prone to oscillations. Most probably the manufacturer was aware of that tendency
and that’s why energy accumulator visible in Fig. 2 (comprising a cylinder, a piston, and
a spring) was introduced. The output pressure pc acting on the bottom surface of the pis-
ton compresses the spring. The accumulator task is to slow down pc pressure changes,
that way to stabilize operation of the valve.
 The Archives of Automotive Engineering – Archiwum Motoryzacji Vol. 75, No. 1, 2017 29

Diameter of the piston inside energy accumulator and rigidity of its spring was measured.
Knowing the degree to which the spring was compressed in its extreme positions (me-
chanical constraints) we were able to characterise the accumulator, see Fig. 7. Accumulator
does not influence any valve dynamic properties if pressure is outside the accumulator
operating range of 0.36 – 4.95 bar.

Fig. 7. Characteristic of the energy accumulator integrated into Device I

The accumulator did not fully prevent the valve against generation of oscillations in some
conditions. Time dependency of signals from pressure transducers installed at the valve
supply port ps (red line) and at the valve output port pc (yellow line) is shown in Fig. 8. The
PWM signal was constant.

Fig. 8. Oscilloscope screen revealing Device I tendency to generate oscillations

30 The Archives of Automotive Engineering – Archiwum Motoryzacji Vol. 75, No. 1, 2017

3. Test bench
Fig. 9 shows a schematic diagram of the test bench. Displacement pump of a constant
unit volume supplied the tested solenoid valves, via a feeder block, with oil at delivery rate
Qs, temperature t, and pressure ps. The valve produced output pressure pc depending on
the PWM control signal.

Internal leakages from the tested valve – i.e. amount of oil that was coming outside the
valve in its neutral position when no oil delivery was intended – were measured. The leak-
ages are caused mainly by play between the valve slider and cylindrical surfaces. They
depend mainly on oil temperature and output oil pressure.

Adjustment valve at the pc pressure port simulates consumption of oil by loads supplied
by the valve. Output oil delivery rate may be measured by supply line delivery rate Qs meter
if internal leakages are taken into account. Main oil tank was equipped with an integrated
oil heating system.

Intensity of the current in PWM signal supplied from the generator to the tested valve was
measured. Signals produced by delivery rate meter, pressure transducer and temperature
transducer were logged.

Fig. 9. Test bench schematic diagram

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4. Measurement results
4.1. Output pressure pc vs. PWM control signal
Output pressure pc produced by Device I for two temperatures is charted vs. PWM control
signal in Fig. 10. Device supply pressure ps was 15 bar. The points measured when the
signal was increased did not precisely agree with points measured when the signal was
decreased, however, the differences were quite small. Generally, it can be said that no
hysteresis was observed. Similar results were obtained for Device II.

However, the differences observed at various temperatures were significant. Magnetic

force exerted by the solenoid is proportional to mean intensity of the current flowing
through it, rather than directly to the PWM signal value. The current depends on solenoid
coil resistance, which varies with coil temperature. 4.7 Ω coil resistance was measured at
18⁰C, while 6.3 Ω at 90⁰C. It is worth mentioning that the coil temperature is not identical
to the oil temperature, since the current flowing through the coil may heat it up even up
to 90⁰C.

Results of similar measurements made on Device II are shown in Fig. 11. Here also the tem-
perature makes a clear difference. 5.2 Ω coil resistance was measured at 20⁰C, while 7.2 Ω
at 110⁰C, i.e. at the temperature to which the coil heats up at PWM signal equal to 100%,
when no cooling oil was flowing through the valve.

The above results show that the mean current flowing through the solenoid coil is by all
means a better control signal than the PWM voltage signal. Control based on mean coil
current would be temperature-independent. Output pressure pc produced by Device I is
charted vs. mean current (arithmetic mean of current values throughout the averaging
period) in Fig. 12.

Fig. 10. Output pressure pc produced by Device I vs. PWM control signal for various temperatures
32 The Archives of Automotive Engineering – Archiwum Motoryzacji Vol. 75, No. 1, 2017

Fig. 11. Output pressure pc produced by Device II vs. PWM control signal measured for various temperatures

4.2. Output pressure pc vs. mean coil current

As can be seen in Fig. 12, if plotted vs. mean coil current on the abscissa, data for vari-
ous temperatures overlap. Selection of the mean coil current rather than the PWM control
signal as the independent variable takes care of not only temperature deviations, but also
of any possible changes resulting from possible variations in valve solenoid power supply
voltage.

This can also be confirmed by data shown in Fig. 13: solenoid magnetic force does not
depend on temperature, but in the first place on the coil mean current.

Fig. 12. Data from Fig. 10 plotted vs. mean coil current for various temperatures
 The Archives of Automotive Engineering – Archiwum Motoryzacji Vol. 75, No. 1, 2017 33

4.3. Magnetic forces

Tests were conducted to find magnetic force exerted by Device I solenoid. They were car-
ried out at two temperatures, about 25⁰C and 65⁰C. Results are plotted in Fig. 13. An inter-
esting observation is the fact that temperature has no effect on the force generated by the
coil, when the mean current is operated, instead of PWM signal – there is no perceivable
change of inductivity of the coil.

It is worth to point out that the dependency is far from linear, particularly for low current
values (duty). It should be remembered that solenoids not only have resistance, but also
reactance. This parameter is responsible for a large fraction of transients in relation to low
duty factor signals at low mean currents (PWM signal) and the deviations from linearity.
However, solenoid valve driven actuator or coupling is often equipped with some return
spring; to move the actuator/coupling from rest, the pc pressure must exceed a threshold
substantially higher than zero. In such circumstances the shape of the dependency for
near-zero values is irrelevant.

Exactly for that reason – a spring built into the valve – no similar dependency from linearity
was observed for low values of the PWM control signal for Device II, see Fig. 11.

Fig. 13. Device I solenoid magnetic force measured for various temperatures and plotted vs. mean coil current

4.4. Solenoid valve reaction time

The study included valve dynamic properties tests. Response to a step-like function ap-
plied to Device I is shown in Fig.14; a zoomed fragment of the response is shown at the
bottom. PWM signal [%] and pressure pc [bar] are shown on the left vertical axis, coil mean
current [A] is shown on the right vertical (auxiliary) axis. Time in seconds is shown on the
horizontal axis.
34 The Archives of Automotive Engineering – Archiwum Motoryzacji Vol. 75, No. 1, 2017

The used PWM generator allowed step-like change of the control signal as soon as by the
next PWM signal period, i.e. after 0.003(3) s, when the PWM signal frequency was 300 Hz.
The first break in the PWM(t) curve corresponds to start of the step. In its later portion, the
PWM curve resembled an exponential curve because the applied analogue transducer, by
necessity integrated the step-like signal. As can be seen in the diagram, the solenoid valve
response (pc pressure) occurred faster than changes in the PWM control signal, which is
not a real effect. Similar lag may be observed in the coil mean current, a signal also inte-
grated with a time constant of about 1s.

Dynamic change in PWM signal

Fig. 14. Diagrams presenting dramatic changes of control signal in solenoid valve, referred to as Device I
 The Archives of Automotive Engineering – Archiwum Motoryzacji Vol. 75, No. 1, 2017 35

4.5. Leaks in the valve

Fig. 15 shows results of measurements of leakage in Device I supplied with pressure ps=15
bar and producing output pressure pc=0. Each plotted point represents an average of a few
measurement results. As was expected, leakages strongly grow with increasing oil tem-
perature because of declining oil viscosity.

Fig. 15. Device I leakage rate vs. temperature

4.6. Linearity range of the solenoid valve

Valve output pressure pc vs. oil delivery rate measured for Device I supplied by pressure
ps=15 bar is plotted in Fig. 16. Output pressure pc was set for 8 bar, then oil delivery rate
was gradually increased and pc was measured. Another measurement run was made for
initial pc=12 bar. All points measured in the 8 bar run are located along a straight line. Slope
of that line is given by solenoid valve spring coefficient: to open more the oil supply chan-
nel, the spring must be more loaded at the expense of the output pressure. The last point
measured in the 12 bar run deviates from the straight line, which reflects a limited valve
linearity range at that output pressure: when oil supply channel is entirely open, valve is
not able to supply more oil. From that moment on, oil delivery rate depends on resistance
of flow throughout the valve.
36 The Archives of Automotive Engineering – Archiwum Motoryzacji Vol. 75, No. 1, 2017

Fig. 16. Device I output pressure pc vs. oil delivery rate for two initial output pressures,
pc=8 bar and pc=12 bar. Supply pressure ps = 15 bar

4.7. Other observations and comments

The performed tests/analyses of solenoid valves produced by two different manufactur-
ers have given rise to some doubts in respect to the construction of the valve referred to
as Device I. It seems that the spring in that valve should be transferred from the solenoid
stem at the left of the slider to the right of the slider. Such spring would guarantee a per-
manent stem/slider contact. If no such spring is present, a situation in which the stem is
withdrawn, while the slider is not, becomes possible. Stem/slider contact may be broken,
since the only reason for it to move left is the feedback pressure force in chamber F (see
Fig. 6). When PWM signal (and the output pressure pc) was decreased very slowly, at some
point the residue pressure was not sufficient to move the slider further. A spring placed to
the right of the slider would push it all the way to the left, that way guaranteeing a perma-
nent contact of the slider with the solenoid stem.

5. Conclusions
The performed tests/analyses of solenoid valves produced by two different manufacturers
allowed to propose a modification of construction of the valve referred to as Device I. The
modification consists in introducing a spring that would guarantee a permanent contact
of the slider with the solenoid stem, and thus guarantee an unambiguous position of the
slider in each case.

Universal physical laws allow to formulate the following recommendations concerning op-
eration of all solenoid valves of the type referred to as Device I:
 The Archives of Automotive Engineering – Archiwum Motoryzacji Vol. 75, No. 1, 2017 37

• Precision of the control at different temperatures would benefit if mean coil current
was the control signal rather than the PWM signal. Even if oil temperature is kept con-
stant, coil heats up under the influence of the current flowing through it, and coil re-
sistance changes.
• An insignificantly short reset time (from the point of view of automotive industry typical
applications) may be ignored for valves of the tested type.
• Solenoid valve internal leakages significantly depend on oil temperature, and their level
can by no means be disregarded.

The full text of the article is available in Polish online on the website
http://archiwummotoryzacji.pl.

Tekst artykułu w polskiej wersji językowej dostępny jest na stronie

http://archiwummotoryzacji.pl.

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