No matter what type of computer equipment you are using, installing a network will

make your life as an educator run more smoothly. Current networking software provides
many advantages for the educational environment.

Program Security

• Store copies of programs in locked, read-only spaces on the server

• Protect program files from unauthorized copying
• Prevent tampering with programs

More Secure Personal Work Files

• Save personal work in private spaces on hard disk

• Password protected from inadvertent or malicious copying and/or deletion
• No loss of information from damaged or lost floppy disks

Reduced Need for Floppy Disks

• Floppy disks are needed only for archiving old files

• Boot disks may be needed to start up workstations (Remote booting removes the
need for boot disks.)

Shared Files

• Share data and program files to all network users

• Publicly accessible area to store assignments, tests, clipart, and other files
• No copying of entire class sets of data disks

Shared Printers

• Share the cost of printers among all users

• Gain access to different types of printers
• Current networking software has built-in print spooling capabilities

Shared Resources

• Share peripheral devices

• Access powerful information resources (CD-ROM drives)
• Network modems to access outside resources
o Library card catalogues
o Databases from all over the world
o Wire services (newspapers, radio stations, television stations)
 Easy Maintenance

• Well-planned network meets needs for several years

Single major task of maintenance of boot disks for workstations

Advantages of Computer Networking

1. Easy Communication and Speed

It is very easy to communicate through a network. People can communicate efficiently

using a network with a group of people. They can enjoy the benefit of emails, instant
messaging, telephony, video conferencing, chat rooms, etc.

2. Ability to Share Files, Data and Information

This is one of the major advantages of networking computers. People can find and share
information and data because of networking. This is beneficial for large organizations to
maintain their data in an organized manner and facilitate access for desired people.

3. Sharing Hardware

Another important advantage of networking is the ability to share hardware. For an

example, a printer can be shared among the users in a network so that there’s no need to
have individual printers for each and every computer in the company. This will
significantly reduce the cost of purchasing hardware.

4. Sharing Software

Users can share software within the network easily. Networkable versions of software are
available at considerable savings compared to individually licensed version of the same
software. Therefore large companies can reduce the cost of buying software by
networking their computers.

5. Security

Sensitive files and programs on a network can be password protected. Then those files
can only be accessed by the authorized users. This is another important advantage of
networking when there are concerns about security issues. Also each and every user has
their own set of privileges to prevent them accessing restricted files and programs.
6. Speed

Sharing and transferring files within networks is very rapid, depending on the type of
network. This will save time while maintaining the integrity of files.

Disadvantages of Networking
1. Breakdowns and Possible Loss of Resources

One major disadvantage of networking is the breakdown of the whole network due to an
issue of the server. Such breakdowns are frequent in networks causing losses of
thousands of dollars each year. Therefore once established it is vital to maintain it
properly to prevent such disastrous breakdowns. The worst scenario is such breakdowns
may lead to loss of important data of the server.

2. Expensive to Build

Building a network is a serious business in many occasions, especially for large scale
organizations. Cables and other hardware are very pricey to buy and replace.

3. Security Threats

Security threats are always problems with large networks. There are hackers who are
trying to steal valuable data of large companies for their own benefit. So it is necessary to
take utmost care to facilitate the required security measures.

4. Bandwidth Issues

In a network there are users who consume a lot more bandwidth than others. Because of
this some other people may experience difficulties.

Although there are disadvantages to networking, it is a vital need in today’s environment.

People need to access the Internet, communicate and share information and they can’t
live without that. Therefore engineers need to find alternatives and improved
technologies to overcome issues associated with networking. Therefore we can say that
computer networking is always beneficial to have even if there are some drawbacks.
Peer-to-Peer

Peer-to-peer network operating systems allow users to share resources and files located
on their computers and to access shared resources found on other computers. However,
they do not have a file server or a centralized management source (See fig. 1). In a peer-
to-peer network, all computers are considered equal; they all have the same abilities to
use the resources available on the network. Peer-to-peer networks are designed primarily
for small to medium local area networks. AppleShare and Windows for Workgroups are
examples of programs that can function as peer-to-peer network operating systems.

Fig. 1. Peer-to-peer network

Advantages of a peer-to-peer network:

• Less initial expense - No need for a dedicated server.

• Setup - An operating system (such as Windows XP) already in place may only
need to be reconfigured for peer-to-peer operations.

Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network:

• Decentralized - No central repository for files and applications.

• Security - Does not provide the security available on a client/server network.
Client/Server

Client/server network operating systems allow the network to centralize functions and
applications in one or more dedicated file servers (See fig. 2). The file servers become the
heart of the system, providing access to resources and providing security. Individual
workstations (clients) have access to the resources available on the file servers. The
network operating system provides the mechanism to integrate all the components of the
network and allow multiple users to simultaneously share the same resources irrespective
of physical location. Novell Netware and Windows 2000 Server are examples of
client/server network operating systems.

Fig. 2. Client/server network

Advantages of a client/server network:

• Centralized - Resources and data security are controlled through the server.
• Scalability - Any or all elements can be replaced individually as needs increase.
• Flexibility - New technology can be easily integrated into system.
• Interoperability - All components (client/network/server) work together.
• Accessibility - Server can be accessed remotely and across multiple platforms.

Disadvantages of a client/server network:

• Expense - Requires initial investment in dedicated server.

• Maintenance - Large networks will require a staff to ensure efficient operation.
• Dependence - When server goes down, operations will cease across the network.

http://www.egyankosh.ac.in/
Client Server Architecture

Advantages

• In most cases, a client–server architecture enables the roles and responsibilities of

a computing system to be distributed among several independent computers that
are known to each other only through a network. This creates an additional
advantage to this architecture: greater ease of maintenance. For example, it is
possible to replace, repair, upgrade, or even relocate a server while its clients
remain both unaware and unaffected by that change.
• All data is stored on the servers, which generally have far greater security controls
than most clients.[citation needed] Servers can better control access and resources, to
guarantee that only those clients with the appropriate permissions may access and
change data.
• Since data storage is centralized, updates to that data are far easier to administer
in comparison to a P2P paradigm. In the latter, data updates may need to be
distributed and applied to each peer in the network, which is time-consuming as
there can be thousands or even millions of peers.
• Many mature client–server technologies are already available which were
designed to ensure security, friendliness of the user interface, and ease of use.
[citation needed]

• It functions with multiple different clients of different capabilities.

[edit] Disadvantages
• As the number of simultaneous client requests to a given server increases, the
server can become overloaded. Contrast that to a P2P network, where its
aggregated bandwidth actually increases as nodes are added, since the P2P
network's overall bandwidth can be roughly computed as the sum of the
bandwidths of every node in that network.
• The client–server paradigm lacks the robustness of a good P2P network.[citation needed]
Under client–server, should a critical server fail, clients’ requests cannot be
fulfilled. In P2P networks, resources are usually distributed among many nodes.
Even if one or more nodes depart and abandon a downloading file, for example,
the remaining nodes should still have the data needed to complete the download.
LAN TOPOLOGY fdlh Hkh usVodZ esa Present nodes dks different type
ls Connect fd;k tk ldrk gSaA Network esa different nodes dks ijLij Connect djus
ds Methods dks Topology dgrs gSaA
Network dks mlds vkdkj nwjh o cukoV ds vk/kkj ij fuEu Hkkxksa esa
ckaVk tk ldrk gSaA

BUS TOPOLOGY
- bl izdkj fd Topology esa ,d yEch dsoy ftlls fd nksuks end ij Terminator
tqM+k gksrk gSa ml dscy ls lHkh dEi;wVj dusDV gksrs gSaA
- Bus Topology Simplest gSa o Wide Area Network esa Widely Use fd tkrh
gSaA
- ;g ,d panive Topology gSa ftlesa at a time dsoy ,d dEi;wVj gh eSlst
lsUV dj ldrk gSaA
- No of nodes fd la[;k Bus Network fd LihM dks Effect djrh gSaA
- izR;sd uksM dk ,d Unique Electronic Address gksrk gSaA izR;sd uksM
nwljh uksM dks cl ds ek/;e ls Information Transmit djrh gSaA
- Information Packet ds :i esa Bus esa Hksth tkrh gSaA ;g Packet Bus dh
nksuksa fn’kkvksa esa xeu djrk gSaA packet mlh uksM ij accept fd;k
tkrk gSaA ftldk fd Address Packet ij gksrk gSaA
- ;fn iSdsV fdlh Hkh ,d uksM }kjk Accept ugha fd;k tkrk rks packet Bus
esa ?kweus ds LFkku ij Terminator ds ikl pyk tkrk gSaA og ml packet
dks Destroy dj nsrk gSaA
- ;g Topology eq[;r% Client/Server System esa ikbZ tkrh gSaA
Advantage
- bus Topology Simple, reliable and bls bULVky djuk o mi;ksx ysuk vklku
gSaA
- Network esa yxs fdlh ,d uksM ds [kjkc gksus ij 'ks"k Network djrk
jgrk gSaA
- Network esa fdlh Hkh uksM dks Easily Add o Remove fd;k tk ldrk gSaA
Disadvantage:- bl Topology esa Control Center esa ugha gksrk gSa vr% [kjkch
vkus ij mls <wa<uk dfBu gSa
- Bus dh length vf/kd gksus ij Repeater dk mi;ksx djuk iM+rk gSaA
- ,d ckj esa ,d gh Packet bus esa Transmit fd;k tk ldrk gSaA
- dscy esa [kjkch gksus ij iwjk usVodZ cUn gks tkrk gSaA

NODE7 NODE6 NODE5

NODE1 NODE2 NODE3 NODE4 Cabel

BUS NETWORK

RING Topology – Token ring topology

 - bl Topology esa lHkh dEi;wVj ,d Ring Structure ds :i esa ijLij Connect
jgrs gSaA
- izR;sd dEi;wVj vius ikl okyh nks dEi;wvj ls physically Connect jgrk
gSaA
- bl Network esa dksbZ Hkh Central Computer ugha gksrk gSaA vr%
uksMl ds chp esa direct Communication gksrk gSaA
- izR;sd Node dks Ring esa lhxuy Hkstus ds fy, nwljh uksM ls
Communication djuk iM+rk gSaA
- bl Topology esa MkVk ,d gh fn’kk esa Transmit gksrk gSaA
- izR;sd dEi;wVj Pocket ds IP Address dks ns[krk gsa ;fn og irk mlh
uksM dk gksrk gSa rks MkVk ogh :d tkrk gSa vU;Fkk vkxs dh
uksM ij Transmit dj fn;k tkrk gSaA
- eSlst rc rd Ring esa Active jgrk gSa tc rd fd og vius Receiving Node ij
ugha igqaprk gSaA
- Data Transmission Packet ds :i esa gksrk gSaA
- bl izdkj fd Topology Peer to Peer Network esa ikbZ tkrh gSaA ftlesa fd
izR;sd Node Manages both Information Processing and the distribution of data
files.
Advantage:- bl usVodZ esa dksbZ Hkh eksLV dEi;wVj ;k Controlling Computer
ugha gksrk gSaA
- Network esa dksbZ Hkh Node Add djuk vklku gSaA
Disadvantage:- Ring eas fdlh Hkh ,d node ds fail gksus ij iwjk usVodZ distrube
gksrk gSaA
- bl izdkj ds usVodZ dks Install and Maintain djuk dBhu gSaA bls Install
djus ds fy, Complex Type ds Software fd vko’;drk gksrh gSaA
- Data Communication ij fMisUM djrh gSaA no of Computer fd la[;k vf/kd
gSa rks Speed Slow gkxhA
- fdlh Hkh ubZ uksM dks Add ;k Remove djus ls Network disrupt gksrk
gSaA

STAR TOPOLOGY:- tc iwjk Communication ,d Central Line ds Threw gksrk gSa

rks bls Star Topology ftlesa fd lkjs dEi;wVj ,d Center Computer ls Connect jgrs
gSaA
- Center Computer dks Server ;k Host rFkk Other Computer dks uksMl ;k
Client dgk tkrk gSaA
- bl usVodZ esa fdUgh nks dEi;wVj ds e/; direct Communication ugha
gks ldrk gSaA ;fn fdlh ,d uksM ls nwljs uksM rd Information Hkstuh
gSa rks igys Server Computer dij Information Hksth tkrh gSa ogka ls
Information nwljs uksM rd Hksth tkrh gSaA
- Start Network ds Implementation ds fy, Several Type dh dscy mi;ksx dj
ldrs gSaA
- Star Network dk mi;ksx Banking and Reservation System esa fd;k tkrk
gSaA Because all data stored in a main Computer.
Advantage:- Computer Easily add and remove fd;k tk ldrk gSaA ubZ uksM Add
djus ij Network dh Communication Speed ij dksbZ Effect ugha gksrk gSaA
 - Network dh dksbZ Hkh uksM [kjkc gksus ij Whole Network ij Effect
ugha iM+rkA
- Network ds nks Nodes ds e/; Communication Server }kjk gksrk gSa vr%
MkVk ds Collection gksus dh lEHkkouk ugha gksrh gSaA
Disadvantage:- Whole Network Center Computer ij depand djrk gSa vkSj Central
Computer fd Fast gksus ij iwjk Network Distrupe gks tkrk gSaA

Node4
Client Nodie
4

WS-D WS-A

IBM PC AT

Node2
4
Node3
4
[STAR NETWORK] WS-B
WS-C

MESH Network:- bl izdkj ds usVodZ esa izR;sd Computer Indivisiualy nwljs

dEi;wVj ls Connect jgrk gSaA
- bl izdkj ds usVodZ dks Point to Point Network Hkh dgrs gSaA
- MkVk ds vknku&iznku dk fu"kZ; izR;sd dEi;wVj }kjk Indivisiual fd;k
tkrk gSaA
Advantage:- bl usVodZ esa Routing fd Requirment ugha gksrh gSa D;ksafd
nks uksM ds chp Direct Communication gksrk gSaA
- Data Transmission Fast gksrk gSaA
Disadvantage:- difficult to Install
- nwljs usVodZ fd rqyuk esa vf/kd [kphZyk gSaA

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

- Electronic Mail, ;g ,d Main Internet Service gSaA
- TCP/IP ifjokj dk ;g Protocol Internet esa E-mail Software }kjk mi;ksx fd;k
tkrk gSaA
- SMTP Mail Transfer ds fy, ,d Standard Protocol gSa tks fd hosts to host
Transmission dk dk;Z djrk gSaA ftls fd RFC 821 esa defined fd;k x;k
gSaA

SMTP
USER WEB WEB USER2
SERVER SERVER

- Only text based Information dks Hkstus ;k Limited Metter Hkstus ds fy,
SMTP dk mi;ksx gksrk gSaA
- lkjs Protocol Software Form esa gksrs gSaA usVodZ ds nksuks gksLV
dEi;wVj ds ikl SMTP Protocol gksrk gSaA
- SMTP ds vius dek.Ml gSa Sender and Receiver end bu dek.M dks mi;ksx
djrk gSaA
- SMTP Massage Hkstus ds fy, Only 7 bit ASCII Code dk iz;ksx djrk gSa
tks fd gj izdkj dh Information dks Sent djus ds fy, Sufficient ugha gSaA
- SMTP delivered Message ds LVkVZ esa ,d Log Information Add dj nsrk
gSa tks fd eSlst dgka tk,xk mlds Path dks Indicate djrk gSaA
- SMTP Protocol dk Use Messag Transfer djus ds fy, gksrk gSa From SMTP
Sender to SMTP Receiver Over a TCP Connection.
 - SMTP oSls rks eSlst Hkstus ds fy, Reliable gSa ysfdu ;g eSlst ds
yksLV gksus ij mldh jhdojh dh dksbZ xkjUVh ugha gksrh gSaA End
to End dksbZ Acknowledge ugha fn;k tkrk gSa vFkkZr~ Message
Successfully delivered gks x;k gSa mldk Acknowledge Origiratcor dks
ugha feyrk gSaA
SMTP esa vkWijs’ku dks Perform djus ds fy, Series of Commands Consist gksrs
gSa vkSj Response. SMTP Sender and Receiver ds chp Exchange gksrk jgrk gSaA
lcls igys SMTP Sender TCP Connection Established djrk gSa mlds ckn Sender
Send djrk gSa dek.M dks jhlhoj dusD’ku ij izR;sd Command Single line of text
gksrk gSaA
SMTP Command
Name Command From Description
Helo Helo <SP> <down> <CRLF> Send Indetification
MAIL MAIL<SP> FROM <receiver Path> <CRLF Identify Orginator of mail
RCPT RCPT <SP> to <Forward Path> <CRLF> Identify Recipient of Mail
BATA DATA <SRLF> Transfer Message Text
QUIT QUIT <CRLF> Close TCP Connection

SMTP Replies
(1) Positive Completion Reply
(2) Positive Intermediate Reply
(3) Transient Negative Completion Reply
(4) Permanent Negative Completion Reply
SMTP Operation rhu Phases esa gksrk gSaA
(1) Connectio Setup
(2) Exchange of one or more Command Response Pair
(3) Connection Termination
SMTP Protocol ds lkFk dqN leL;k vk ldrh gSa tSls
(1) SMTP Implimentation ds Add Version 64 Kb ls T;knk eSlst gsUMy ugha
dj ldrkA
(2) ;fn Client and Server ds different time out gSa rks Unexpected Termination
dh lEHkkouk gSaA

MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions)

(1) ;g ,d Internet Standard gSa tks fd Binary Fills dks Encodes djus ds dke
esa mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSa rkfd ml QkbZy dks As an E-mail Ettechment
Internet ij Hkstk tk lds
(2) bls Protocol dk mi;ksx bZ&esy lwpukvksa ds lkFk fp=] vkokt vkfn
Hkstus gsrw fd;k tkrk gSa ;g Protocol http ds lkFk Easily Work djrk
gSaA nwljs 'kCnksa esa dg ldrs gSa fd ;g Protocol Nontext Data ¼fp=]
vkokt½ dks Browser esa Transfer djus ds fy, mi;ksx gksrk gSaA
MIME Extension gSa RFC 822 (SMTP) Framework dk Limitation of SMTP/822
Scheme.
 (1) SMTP, Executable Files or binary Objects dks Transmit ugha dj ldrk gSaA
(2) SMTP mu Text Data dks Transmit ugha dj ldrk ftuesa dh national
Language Character Include gksrs gSa D;ksafd ;s 8 bit code ftldh Value
128 gksrs gSa D;ksafd ;s b bit Code ftldh Value 128 ;k mlls Hkh v/khd
gksrh gSa ls Represent gksrs gSa ysfdu SMTP 7 bit ASCII Code dk gh
iz;ksx djrk gSaA
(3) SMTP ,d fuf’pr lkbZt ls vf/kd eSlst gksus ij mls jhtsDV dj nsrk gSaA
(4) SMTP Gateways to X-400 Electronic Mail Network Cannot handle Nontextual
Data Included in X-400 Message.
bu lc leL;k dks nwj djus ds fy, MIME Available djk;k x;kA
MIME Specification Includes the Following Elements
(1) ik¡p u, Message Header Fields defired fd, x, ftlesa fd RFC 822 Header dks
Hkh Include fd;k x;k ;s Fields Body Ojthemessage dh Information Provide
djrk gSaA
(2) Number of content Format defined fd, x, tks fd Multimedia Electronic Mai
dks liksVZ djrs gSaA
(3) Fdlh Hkh Content Format dks mail System esa Protected Form esa
Conversion djds Sent djus ds fy, Enable gSaA
The Five Header Fields defined in MIME are as Follows.
(1) MIME Version:- Parameter Value 1-0, ;g Field Indicate djrk gSa fd Messgae
RFCs ls duQeZ gSaA
(2) Content Type:- body esa Data Contain dh Sufficient Detail dks Describe
djukA
(3) Content Transfer Encoding:- Transformation ds Vkbi dks Indicate djrk gSa
tks fd Body ds vUnj Represent Message }kjk mi;ksx gksrk gSa tks fd
Mail Transpord }kjk Acceptable gksrk gSaA
(4) Content ID:- Used to Uniquely Identify MIME Entities in Multiple Contents
(5) Content Description:- body ds Plain Text description ml le; Useful gksrk gSa
tc Object displayable ugha gksrk gSaA
Content Id and Content Description are Optional Part.

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)

SNMP, Network Management Protocol gSaA Network Management System Tols dk
dysD’ku gSaA Network Monitoriny and Control ds fy, Network ds Manage djus
ds fy, nks ckrksa dh vko’;drk gSaA
- Single Operator Interface:- ,d gh User esa iwjs Network Management Task
dks mlh txg ls gsUMy djus dh dsislhVh gksuh pkfg,A
- Minimam Amount of Additional Equipment:- Minimum hardware and Software
Equipment dk mi;ksx djds management djukA
- SNMP dk Develop Network Management Tool ds :i esa fd;k x;k tks fd
ICP/IP Suite dks mi;ksx esa ysdj cuk, tkus okys usVodZ dks Manage
djus ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSaA
 - SNMP dk Actualy Used Network Management ds fy, Collection of
Specifications Refer djus esa gksrk gSa tks fd vius Protocol Lo;a gh
Include djrk gSaA
- SNMP ds pkj Main Key Element gksrs gSaA
(1) Management Station or Manager:- Manager ;k Host Computer tgka ls lkjh
leL;k Handling gksxh o mUgsa nwj fd;k tk,xkA ;g ,d Interface Provide
djrk gSa user ds fy, tks fd ,d gh txg ls lkjs dke dks gsUMy dj ys
Management System ds ikl pkj eq[; phtsa gksuh pkfg, ;k fo’ks"krk,a
gksuh pkfg,A
(1) dqN ,slh Set of Mnagement Application gksuh pkfg, tks Data Fault
Recovery dj ldsA
(2) Interface gksuk pkfg, ftlds }kjk Manager Network dks ekWuhVj rFkk
Control dj ldsA
(3) Network Manager dh D;k Requirment gSa vFkkZr~ Actual Monitoring and
Network ds Remate Elements dks Control djus vkSj mldh Translet djds
vkxs Transmit djus dh Capability gksuh pkfg,A
(4) Network Management Information dk iwj MkVkcsl gksuk pkfg,A
(2) Agent:- Management Agent Software gSa tks dh usVodZ ds lHkh Main
Equipment Such as hosts, bridge, router, and hubs etc. ij Instal gksxk tks fd
Management Station dks Managed djrk gSaA
(3) MIB (Management Information Base):- Network esa lHkh Resource as an Object
ds :i esa Represent gksrs gSaA lHkh Object ds Collection dks MIB dgrs gSaA
(4) Network Management Protocol:- Management Station vkSj Agent Network
Management Protocol }kjk Linked gksrs gSaA

Agent

Network Management
Protocol

HOST Manager

HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

- HTTP Format ds According flexibal Protocol gSaA
- Lcls egRoiw.kZ Web Protocol gSa ;g Internet ek/;e ls HTML Files ds
vknku&iznku ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSaA HTTP ls dksbZ User
fdlh ,d Document ls nwljs Document ij ;k ,d Document ds vUnj fofHkUu
LFkkuksa ij tk ldrk gSaA
 - www World Wide Web different data Web Page dks ¼,lsl½ Call djus ds fy,
fd;k tkrk gSaA
- ;g Protocol Data dks Text, Hyper text, Audio, Vedio ds Form esa Hkh
Transmit djrk gSaA
- bl izdkj Hyper Text Transfer Protocol dh dk;Z {kerk gedks Hyper Text
Invirement esa ;g Facility Provide djrh gSa fd ge Document ls nwljs
Document ij vklkuh ls tk ldsA
- HTTP dk rjhdk vklku gSa blesa ,d Client viuh Request Server dks
Hkstrk gSaA blds ckn ljoj viuh izfrfØ;k okil Client dks Hkstrk gSaA
;g Request and Response lUns’k letter ds From esa MIME Formet ds lkFk jgrk
gSaA
HTTP Transaction:- HTTP dk ysunsu client and Server ds e/; gksrk gSa blesa
xzkgd bl ysunsu dks ljoj ds ikl eSlst Hkstdj 'kq: djrk gSa rFkk ljoj viuh
Reply iznku dj mlds izfr viuh izfrfØ;k n’kkZrk gSaA
Client Server
This is Request

This is Response

(HTTP Transaction)

HTTP Message nks izdkj ds gksrs gSaA

(1) Request Message:- Request Message esa ,d Request Line, Header rFkk
dHkh&2 Body Hkh 'kkehy jgrh gSaA
(2) Response Message:- Response Message esa ,d Status Line, Headers vkSj
dHkh&2 Body Hkh jgrh gSaA

Request line Status line

Header Headers

A Blank line A Blank line

Body (Present Body (Present

Only in Some Only in Some
Message) Message)

Request Message Response Message

What is a Protocol?
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a
network. In order for two computers to talk to each other, they must be speaking the same
language. Many different types of network protocols and standards are required to ensure
that your computer (no matter which operating system, network card, or application you
are using) can communicate with another computer located on the next desk or half-way
around the world. The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model defines
seven layers of networking protocols. The complexity of these layers is beyond the scope
of this tutorial; however, they can be simplified into four layers to help identify some of
the protocols with which you should be familiar (see fig 1).

OSI Layer Name Common Protocols

7 Application
6 Presentation HTTP | FTP | SMTP | DNS
5 Session
4 Transport TCP SPX
3 Network IP IPX
2 Data Link
Ethernet
1 Physical

Fig 1. OSI model related to common network protocols

Figure 1 illustrates how some of the major protocols would correlate to the OSI model in
order to communicate via the Internet. In this model, there are four layers, including:

• Ethernet (Physical/Data Link Layers)

• IP/IPX (Network Layer)
• TCP/SPX (Transport Layer)
• HTTP, FTP, Telnet, SMTP, and DNS (Session/Presentation/Application Layers)

Assuming you want to send an e-mail message to someone in Italy, we will examine the
layers "from the bottom up" -- beginning with Ethernet (physical/data link kayers).

Ethernet (Physical/Data Link Layers)

The physical layer of the network focuses on hardware issues, such as cables, repeaters,
and network interface cards. By far the most common protocol used at the physical layer
is Ethernet. For example, an Ethernet network (such as 10BaseT or 100BaseTX) specifies
the type of cables that can be used, the optimal topology (star vs. bus, etc.), the maximum
length of cables, etc. (See the Cabling section for more information on Ethernet standards
related to the physical layer).

The data link layer of the network addresses the way that data packets are sent from one
node to another. Ethernet uses an access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access/Collision Detection). This is a system where each computer listens to the
cable before sending anything through the network. If the network is clear, the computer
will transmit. If some other node is already transmitting on the cable, the computer will
wait and try again when the line is clear. Sometimes, two computers attempt to transmit
at the same instant. When this happens a collision occurs. Each computer then backs off
and waits a random amount of time before attempting to retransmit. With this access
method, it is normal to have collisions. However, the delay caused by collisions and
retransmitting is very small and does not normally effect the speed of transmission on the
network.

Ethernet

The original Ethernet standard was developed in 1983 and had a maximum speed of 10
Mbps (phenomonal at the time). The Ethernet protocol allows for bus, star, or tree
topologies, depending on the type of cables used and other factors .

The current standard at the 10 Mbps level is 10BaseT. The "10" stands for the speed of
transmission (10 megabits per second); the "Base" stands for "baseband" meaning it has
full control of the wire on a single frequency; and the "T" stands for "twisted pair" cable.
Older standards, such as 10Base2 and 10Base5, used coaxial cable, but these standards
are seldom used in new installations. Fiber cable can also be used at this level in
10BaseFL.

Fast Ethernet

The Fast Ethernet protocol supports transmission up to 100 Mbps. Fast Ethernet requires
the use of different, more expensive network concentrators/hubs and network interface
cards. In addition, category 5 twisted pair or fiber optic cable is necessary. Fast Ethernet
standards include:

• 100BaseT - 100 Mbps over 2-pair category 5 or better UTP cable.

• 100BaseFX - 100 Mbps over fiber cable.
• 100BaseSX -100 Mbps over multimode fiber cable.
• 100BaseBX - 100 Mbps over single mode fiber cable.

Gigabit Ethernet

Gigabit Ethernet standard is a protocol that has a transmission speed of 1 Gbps (1000
Mbps). It can be used with both fiber optic cabling and copper. The 1000BaseT, the
copper cable used for Gigabit Ethernet (see the Cabling section for more information).

• 1000BaseT - 1000 Mbps over 2-pair category 5 or better UTP cable.

• 1000BaseTX - 1000 Mbps over 2-pair category 6 or better UTP cable.
• 1000BaseFX - 1000 Mbps over fiber cable.
• 1000BaseSX -1000 Mbps over multimode fiber cable.
• 1000BaseBX - 1000 Mbps over single mode fiber cable.
The Ethernet standards continue to evolve. with 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10,000 Mbps) and
100 Gigabit Ethernet (100,000 Mbps),

Ethernet Protocol Summary

Protocol Cable Speed

Ethernet Twisted Pair, Coaxial, Fiber 10 Mbps

Fast Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 100 Mbps

Gigabit Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 1000 Mbps

LocalTalk

LocalTalk is a network protocol that was developed by Apple Computer, Inc. for
Macintosh computers many years ago. LocalTalk adapters and special twisted pair cable
can be used to connect a series of older computers through the serial port (current
Macintosh computers have Ethernet cards and/or wireless adapters installed). A primary
disadvantage of LocalTalk is speed. Its speed of transmission is only 230 Kbps.

Token Ring

The Token Ring protocol was developed by IBM in the mid-1980s. The access method
used involves token-passing. In Token Ring, the computers are connected so that the
signal travels around the network from one computer to another in a logical ring. A single
electronic token moves around the ring from one computer to the next. If a computer does
not have information to transmit, it simply passes the token on to the next workstation. If
a computer wishes to transmit and receives an empty token, it attaches data to the token.
The token then proceeds around the ring until it comes to the computer for which the data
is meant. The Token Ring protocol requires a star-wired ring using twisted pair or fiber
optic cable. It can operate at transmission speeds of 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps. Due to the
increasing popularity of Ethernet, the use of Token Ring in school environments has
decreased dramatically.

IP and IPX (Network Layer)

The network layer is in charge of routing network messages (data) from one computer to
another. The common protocols at this layer are IP (which is paired with TCP at the
transport layer for Internet network) and IPX (which is paired with SPX at the transport
layer for some older Macintosh, Linus, UNIX, Novell and Windows networks). Because
of the growth in Internet-based networks, IP/TCP are becoming the leading protocols for
most networks.
Every network device (such as network interface cards and printers) have a physical
address called a MAC (Media Access Control) address. When you purchase a network
card, the MAC address is fixed and cannot be changed. Networks using the IP and IPX
protocols assign logical addresses (which are made up of the MAC address and the
network address) to the devices on the network, This can all become quite complex --
suffice it to say that the network layer takes care of assigning the correct addresses (via IP
or IPX) and then uses routers to send the data packets to other networks.

TCP and SPX (Transport Layer)

The transport layer is concerned with efficient and reliable trsansportation of the data
packets from one network to another. In most cases, a document, e-mail message or other
piece of information is not sent as one unit. Instead, it is broken into small data packets,
each with header information that identifies its correct sequence and document.

When the data packets are sent over a network, they may or may not take the same route
-- it doesn't matter. At the receiving end, the data packets are re-assembled into the proper
order. After all packets are received, a message goes back to the originating network. If a
packet does not arrive, a message to "re-send" is sent back to the originating network.

TCP, paired with IP, is by far the most popular protocol at the transport level. If the IPX
protocol is used at the network layer (on networks such as Novell or Microsoft), then it is
paired with SPX at the transport layer.

HTTP, FTP, SMTP and DNS

(Session/Presentation/Application Layers)
Several protocols overlap the session, presentation, and application layers of networks.
There protocols listed below are a few of the more well-known:

• DNS - Domain Name System - translates network address (such as IP addresses)

into terms understood by humans (such as URLs)
• DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol - can automatically assign Internet
addresses to computers and users
• FTP - File Transfer Protocol - a protocol that is used to transfer and manipulate
files on the Internet
• HTTP - HyperText Transfer Protocol - An Internet-based protocol for sending
and receiving webpages
• IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol - A protocol for e-mail messages on
the Internet
• IRC - Internet Relay Chat - a protocol used for Internet chat and other
communications
• POP3 - Post Office protocol Version 3 - a protocol used by e-mail clients to
retrieve messages from remote servers
 • SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol - A protocol for e-mail messages on the
Internet

What is a Network Protocol

A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between

computers on a network. These rules include guidelines that regulate
the following characteristics of a network: access method, allowed
physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed of data transfer.

Types of Network Protocols

The most common network protocols are:

• Ethernet
• Local Talk
• Token Ring
• FDDI
• ATM

The follow is some common-used network symbols to draw different

kinds of network protocols.

Ethernet

The Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used. Ethernet uses an
access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection). This is a system where each computer
listens to the cable before sending anything through the network. If
the network is clear, the computer will transmit. If some other node is
already transmitting on the cable, the computer will wait and try again
when the line is clear. Sometimes, two computers attempt to transmit
at the same instant. When this happens a collision occurs. Each
computer then backs off and waits a random amount of time before
attempting to retransmit. With this access method, it is normal to have
collisions. However, the delay caused by collisions and retransmitting
is very small and does not normally effect the speed of transmission
on the network.

The Ethernet protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies.
Data can be transmitted over wireless access points, twisted pair,
coaxial, or fiber optic cable at a speed of 10 Mbps up to 1000 Mbps.

Fast Ethernet

To allow for an increased speed of transmission, the Ethernet protocol

has developed a new standard that supports 100 Mbps. This is
commonly called Fast Ethernet. Fast Ethernet requires the use of
different, more expensive network concentrators/hubs and network
interface cards. In addition, category 5 twisted pair or fiber optic cable
is necessary. Fast Ethernet is becoming common in schools that have
been recently wired.

Local Talk

Local Talk is a network protocol that was developed by Apple

Computer, Inc. for Macintosh computers. The method used by Local
Talk is called CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance). It is similar to CSMA/CD except that a computer signals its
intent to transmit before it actually does so. Local Talk adapters and
special twisted pair cable can be used to connect a series of computers
through the serial port. The Macintosh operating system allows the
establishment of a peer-to-peer network without the need for
additional software. With the addition of the server version of
AppleShare software, a client/server network can be established.

The Local Talk protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies
using twisted pair cable. A primary disadvantage of Local Talk is
speed. Its speed of transmission is only 230 Kbps.

Token Ring
The Token Ring protocol was developed by IBM in the mid-1980s. The
access method used involves token-passing. In Token Ring, the
computers are connected so that the signal travels around the network
from one computer to another in a logical ring. A single electronic
token moves around the ring from one computer to the next. If a
computer does not have information to transmit, it simply passes the
token on to the next workstation. If a computer wishes to transmit and
receives an empty token, it attaches data to the token. The token then
proceeds around the ring until it comes to the computer for which the
data is meant. At this point, the data is captured by the receiving
computer. The Token Ring protocol requires a star-wired ring using
twisted pair or fiber optic cable. It can operate at transmission speeds
of 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps. Due to the increasing popularity of Ethernet,
the use of Token Ring in school environments has decreased.

FDDI

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a network protocol that is

used primarily to interconnect two or more local area networks, often
over large distances. The access method used by FDDI involves token-
passing. FDDI uses a dual ring physical topology. Transmission
normally occurs on one of the rings; however, if a break occurs, the
system keeps information moving by automatically using portions of
the second ring to create a new complete ring. A major advantage of
FDDI is speed. It operates over fiber optic cable at 100 Mbps.

ATM

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a network protocol that

transmits data at a speed of 155 Mbps and higher. ATM works by
transmitting all data in small packets of a fixed size; whereas, other
protocols transfer variable length packets. ATM supports a variety of
media such as video, CD-quality audio, and imaging. ATM employs a
star topology, which can work with fiber optic as well as twisted pair
cable.

ATM is most often used to interconnect two or more local area

networks. It is also frequently used by Internet Service Providers to
utilize high-speed access to the Internet for their clients. As ATM
technology becomes more cost-effective, it will provide another
solution for constructing faster local area networks.
Gigabit Ethernet

The most recent development in the Ethernet standard is a protocol

that has a transmission speed of 1 Gbps. Gigabit Ethernet is primarily
used for backbones on a network at this time. In the future, it will
probably be used for workstation and server connections also. It can
be used with both fiber optic cabling and copper. The 1000BaseTX, the
copper cable used for Gigabit Ethernet, is expected to become the
formal standard in 1999.

Compare the Network Protocols

Protocol Cable Speed Topology

Twisted Pair, Coaxial, Linear Bus, Star,
Ethernet 10 Mbps
Fiber Tree
Fast Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 100 Mbps Star
LocalTalk Twisted Pair .23 Mbps Linear Bus or Star
4 Mbps - 16
Token Ring Twisted Pair Star-Wired Ring
Mbps
FDDI Fiber 100 Mbps Dual ring
Linear Bus, Star,
ATM Twisted Pair, Fiber 155-2488 Mbps
Tree

Selecting the right computer network

by George W. Wilson Jr.

Selecting the right software to run a local area network (LAN) has never been an easy
task - and it hasn't gotten any easier as computer technology has advanced. This article
provides the basic information to help CPAs in business and industry and in public
practice choose between the two leading network programs - Novell's NetWare and
Microsoft's NT Server.
WHO NEEDS A NETWORK?
If your organization consists of more than one person with a computer, and each needs to
communicate with the others, then give serious consideration to a LAN.
The alternative is to use what's called the sneaker net - where users (presumably wearing
sneakers) dash from computer to computer exchanging data on floppy disks. The sneaker
net may be low tech, but it works. However, there will come a time when it's clear that
dashing from workstation to workstation and swapping disks is not very efficient. And
when an organization finally recognizes that, its time to doff the sneakers and install a
network.
While there are several network programs available, no matter how big or small your
organization is, the real choices have narrowed to just two giant vendors: Novell and
Microsoft. Novell's NetWare has been the standard LAN product for years and it controls
the lion's share of the market. But a few years ago Microsoft entered the field with its NT
(which stands for New Technology). NT got off to a very slow start, but last year the
product suddenly caught on and it is quickly eroding Novell's preeminent position.
Novell is fighting back: It is about to introduce its new upgrade - code named Green
River - designed to square off with NT. Since Green River is not yet available, I
examined Novell's latest version - NetWare 4.1. The Microsoft product I looked at for
this review is Windows NT Server 4.0, its latest upgrade.
NETWORK BASICS
Before recommending how to choose between the competing products, here are some
basics about each program.
Minimum requirements. NetWare is designed to operate only on the Intel (the leading
producer of computer chips) computer platform. While Novell says its software needs a
minimum of a 386-version computer with 8 megabytes (Mb) of random-access memory
(RAM), realistically it makes no sense trying to operate even a small LAN with such
sparse hardware. NetWare should not be run on anything less than a 486, but as a
practical matter, it really needs a Pentium system with at least 32 Mb to 64 Mb of RAM
to run fast and effectively. With RAM prices being as low as they are today (less than
$150 for 16-Mb modules), don't skimp on memory; ample RAM makes a major
difference in the speed and flexibility of a network.
Unlike NetWare, NT is designed to operate on multiple computer platforms - Intel, MIPS
Technologies, Power PC and Digital Equipment. Microsoft says NT needs at least a 486
processor with 16 Mb of RAM. But again, it runs better on an upgraded computer with
double or even triple the RAM requirement. Although it would appear that NetWare's
minimum requirements are less than those of NT, as a practical matter the hardware for
both should be very similar.
In large organizations, where a LAN is served by more than one computer working as a
server, network operating software must be able to support multiple processors for
simultaneous operation. While both programs can handle multiprocessing, NT is unique
in that it automatically detects multiple processors during the installation and efficiently
configures itself accordingly. NT can support up to four processors with standard, out-of-
the-box software and can handle up to 32 processors with special Microsoft software
added.
NetWare also can support multiple processors, but it requires the addition of special
software support from one of several hardware vendors, such as Compaq, and that
software must be installed separately. It's likely that Green River will address this
shortcoming.
Further, because of the way NT is designed, when multiple processors are working in
tandem, the software intelligently distributes the workload among the several processors.
NetWare, on the other hand, is unable to automatically balance the load, which on
occasion adversely affects its performance