Artifact One: The Legacy of Claude Bernard

Grace Hug

Senior Division

Historical Paper

Paper Length: 1,530

The Legacy of Claude Bernard: A Monster of a Man

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Throughout history, and all over the world, animals have been abused and killed due to

scientific testing. The legacy of Claude Bernard was one of many such deplorable acts of

corruption. Even in spite of the severity of this situation, history never worked towards a

compromise until the 21st century arrived and is still not fully taken care of. Claude Bernard was

an influential figure in the grim world of animal testing. He did not perform the type of testing

that occurs in the makeup industry of today. The experiments he carried out were far more cruel.

“Bernard inherited his mentor’s reverence for the experimental method and unapologetic reliance

on vivisection. In his basement laboratory, Bernard baked animals in ovens, snipped their nerves,

and cut holes in their organs. Though he experimented on many species, dogs were his favorite

research subjects; he severed their vocal cords to keep them quiet as he worked” (Emily Anthes).

Dogs were Bernard’s favorite research subjects because of their circulatory systems; but baking

them alive was completely unnecessary. The animals he ran tests on were never administered

under any form of anesthesia. He operated on them while they were entirely conscious. This is

conflicting because he is using these brutal procedures for animal testing, which is abuse. Animal

testing is abusive because the animals do not have a choice; it is simply torture.

Bernard was born in 1813 and his homelife was rough. Bernard’s mother had a

background as a peasant and his father was a winegrower, he, however did not follow the path of

his parents, considering they did not have jobs relating to any sort of science. While Bernard was

young, his father failed in the wine-growing business and decided to try his hand as a

schoolteacher in order to make a living. Despite the efforts of Bernard’s father, they were always

considered to be a poor family. Once his father passed away, Bernard and his family were left

swimming in debt. This made education a scarce thing to come by for Bernard. He took

advantage of every opportunity he could possibly get his hands on and began learning Latin from
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the local priest. After several schooling attempts, he was finally able to attend The Faulicity of

Medicine in Paris where he worked with Françoise Magendie. Bernard’s inspiration for animal

testing first blossomed and everything was set into motion at The Faulicity of Medicine.

Why did Bernard do it? Why did he test on animals? What made him conducive to begin

carrying out research on animals? Bernard contended that his experiments were absolutely

necessary and that they were the “foundation of physiology.” He once stated, “Observation is a

passive science, experimentation is an active science.” He believed that everything had to be an

“active science” for it to be physiological: “For the physiologist, it’s not the animal that lives and

dies, these are organic materials made of tissues” (Claude Bernard). Paul Bert, one of Bernard’s

students, was a huge supporter of him and his work. “Bert (...) argued that because vivisection

was useful and necessary, scientists who engaged in the practice had “courage to submit to this

torturer’s profession” and that animal activists should consider “the moral sufferings of the

vivisector” (Emily Anthes). Bernard had plenty of support and was backed by his pupils in many

different aspects, but not everyone was pleased with his scientific decisions.

Claude Bernard married Marie Françoise Martin in 1845. They did not marry because

they were in love, but were wed for the purposes of wealth and a strong image. In fact, Marie

Françoise Martin was strongly against animal testing and an active member of the Society for the

Protection of animals in Paris. She was well aware of the gruesome experiments performed by

Bernard, but considering their marriage was purely for wealth and social purposes, she refused to

act. However, she still attended protests despite her refusal to confront her husband in a direct

manner. “She even spirited away some of her husband’s experimental subjects” (Emily Anthes).

Meanwhile, Bernard’s daughters became animal advocates and dedicated their time to, “rescuing
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strays, founding an animal shelter, and helping to establish a cemetery for animals” (Emily

Anthes).

Claude Bernard opened his experiments up to the public and would even allow people to

watch. It was like the Roman Colosseum; solely for the purpose of entertainment in the public

eye. Claude Bernard would test, on average, three dogs daily and the results were always fifty-

fifty. This means that half the time, there were no returns from his experimentation and the life

of a helpless animal was extinguished. The lives of animals are precious and innocent, but “To

Bernard, animals were “living machines,” which had to be taken apart to be understood” (Emily

Anthes).

The conflict that goes along with testing on humans rather

than animals is that in most cases, a human would want to

be paid if they were part of an experiment, and performing

deadly experiments is illegal and uncommon, nor would anyone want to be a part of it. Although

it is far from ideal, experimentation on humans would be a better option solely because we are
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able to give consent, whereas animals are not. Envision yourself looking through the eyes of an

animal, how would you feel?

Despite all the horrendous acts Claude Bernard carried out, he actually made a lot of

discoveries and changed history in the field of medicine. Grim as it is, there was no better way to

uncover the findings that Bernard was able to without the help of such awful practices. Humans

could give consent, but not to something like what these animals were forced to endure. The only

way to bring the findings Bernard brought to the surface was through his forms of animal testing.

Although, needless to say, he could have done things better. It does cost money to use

anaesthesia, but the animals would feel no pain. Baking something alive in an oven is inhumane

and a messy process in general.

Several of the discoveries made by Claude Bernard include the role of the pancreas in

digestion, that of the liver in glucose production, and the part played by the nervous system in

regulating blood flow and body temperature. “He also developed the concept that the body works

to maintain a constant internal environment—a phenomenon that eventually came to be called

“homeostasis”—and helped to codify the principles of the experimental method” (Emily

Anthes). It is evident that these scientific breakthroughs are crucial to what we now know today,

but were there better ways to go about it?

Today, there are a number of ways we can avoid animal testing. We can use realistic

computer models, the extraction of cells and DNA from humans, etc. However, in the 1800’s,

Claude Bernard was doing it the best way he could. Was it the most humane? The answer is an

emphatic, “No.” Was it the easiest, most straightforward way to come by the progress and

discoveries he ended up making? Yes. In spite of the brutality he displayed in his

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experimentation on animals, Claude Bernard wasn’t always in the wrong, but he was an

influence on companies and individuals whom test on animals today.

Most of the testing done today is makeup related. Big-name brands and companies such

as Mac, L’oreal, Estee Lauder, Revlon and Covergirl test on animals. Even the Victoria’s Secret

perfume department tests on animals. Certain organizations in the makeup production industry

claim to be cruelty free, but if they are sold in China it is mandatory to test on animals or the

product is restricted from appearing and being sold on shelves. This is another huge problem,

because China is one of the most prominent places for manufacturing. If there are millions of

consumers trying to get their hands on cosmetics, millions of animals are being harshly tested on

due to the selling of cosmetics, and cosmetics lines are perpetually begging for more sales.

Claude Bernard’s experiments were not pointless, but are influences to cosmetic related testing.

There are humans who are more than willing to test makeup, nail polish, perfumes, whatever it

is, as long as it’s not deadly. Of course, these products can cause allergic reactions, but it would

be better to have an allergic reaction on a human instead of an animal. Allergic reactions can be

more harmful to animals rather than humans; especially when a product is specifically for

external use.

Claude Bernard played a major role as a heavy influence on animal testing today. His

experiments included baking animals in ovens, snipping their nerves, cutting holes in their

organs and he severed animal’s vocal cords to keep them quiet while he worked. This is both

remarkably cruel and influential because he was one of the first (major) animal-testing-

influencers. Even if some of his experiments could be successful, most not, very few people were

outraged and most were supportive. Although Bernard made many discoveries and significant

progress, he tortured animals. In conclusion, he influenced others to do the same and in spite of
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the progress that has been made, animals are still being tested on in this day and age, sometimes

pointlessly so.

Annotated Bibliography

Primary Sources:
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inspiringquotes.us. “Top 9 quotes of Claude Bernard famous quotes, rare quotes and
sayings | inspringquotes.Us.” World Famous Quotes,
www.inspiringquotes.us/author/4025-claude-bernard.
This site has a variety of quotes said by Claude Bernard. We are planning to use two
of the quotes in our assignment. The quotes prove his reasoning as to why he need to
test on animals. Bernard’s words will help us explain why he believed his actions
were good.

NC State: WWW4 Server, www4.ncsu.edu/~kimler/hi481/bernard.htm.

This source has two photographs of Bernard. The photos will add some visuals for
our assignment. One of the photos is a portrait of Bernard. The other shows one of
his experimentations.

“Science Museum. Brought to Life: Exploring the History of Medicine.” Animals,

broughttolife.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/themes/science/animals.
This source has paintings of Bernards experiments. It shows our audience a
general idea of what Bernard was doing in most of his experiments.

Seconday Sources:
Animal Experimentation: The Legacy of Claude Bernard,
mechanism.ucsd.edu/teaching/philbio/Animal%20Experimentation%20The%20Legacy
%20of%20Claude%20Bernard.htm.
Gives an in depth examination of Bernard’s work and process. It goes into
detail and will help us explain what Bernard did in his experiments and will go into
depth of why Bernard did certain things.

“Animal experimentation: The legacy of Claude Bernard.” Taylor & Francis,

www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02698599408573495.
This source gives us background on Bernard and his life.

ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION: THE TRAGIC LEGACY OF SCIENCE ,

userwww.sfsu.edu/kazbeki/animexper.html.
A research paper done on Bernard. It goes into depth of the logic behind
animal testing. Provides reasonings as to why Bernard tested/torchered animals.

Anthes, Emily. “The Heated 19th-Century Debate Over Animal Experimentation.” Slate
Magazine, 18 Jan. 2017,
www.slate.com/articles/technology/future_tense/2017/01/experimental_animals_frankens
tein_and_the_19th_century_s_debates_about_scientific.html.
This article goes over sections of Bernard’s life. Including his early years,
ambitions, schooling, and his experimenting. Basically, this site shows us what led to
Bernard’s experiments and what he did his thought process. This will help us show
the audience what Bernard was doing in his experiments and his results.
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“Animal Testing.” Animal Cruelty - Animal Testing,

www.veganpeace.com/animal_cruelty/animal_testing.htm.
Acts/laws against animal cruelty, companies who have tested on animals and
alternatives to it. Also contains photos of the result of animals after being tested on.

“History of Animal Experiments.” History of Animal Experiments: Claude Bernard

Animal Experiments, www.iaapea.com/historyanimal_page.php?id=2.
Gives us a short history of Bernards experiments, and the things he did to the
animals he tested on.

Holmes, Fredric L. The Legacy of Mirko Grmek's Historical Studies of Claude Bernard.
This source is an essay review on the studies of Bernard.

Virtanen, Reino. “Claude Bernard.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,

16 Nov. 2017, www.britannica.com/biography/Claude-Bernard.
Gives us information on his backstory. Early life, education, marriage, research, etc.

“1970-1995: Research Modernization | About NEAVS.” 1970-1995: Research

Modernization | About NEAVS History, www.neavs.org/about/history/1970-1995.
This article shows us the history of animal test. Debates on how some people
believe it’s okay and how others believe the contrary. Will help us give explanations
as to why people have these opinions.