University of Al Anbar

Collage of Pharmacy
st stage1 /Groub:C

COMPUTER NETWORKS
By

1-mohammed saleh abddulla 2-Marwan Jasim mohammed

3-Hajer Abd Alstar fataykhan 4-Marwa Sabah hasan

Under the supervision of Dr: Jamal ali hammad

17/3/2021
Date: 17/3/2021 1
Cataloging

1-computer network

2-History

4-Use

5-Hybrid tools

6-Network monitoring tools

7-Drawing tools

8-Network service

9-Security

10-Network security

11-Network surveillance

12-End to end encryption

13-SSL/TLS

14-Views of networks
Summary
a group of computers that use a set of common communication protocols over digital
interconnections for the purpose of sharing resources located on or provided by the
network nodes. The interconnections between nodes are formed from a broad spectrum of
telecommunication network technologies, based on physically wired, optical, and wireless
radiofrequency methods that may be arranged in a variety of network topologies.
Computer networking may be considered a branch of computer science,
computer engineering, and telecommunications, since it relies on the theoretical
and practical application of the related disciplines. Computer networking was
influenced by a wide array of technology developments and historical
milestones.
A computer network extends interpersonal communications by electronic means
with various technologies, such as email, instant messaging, online chat, voice
and video telephone calls, and video conferencing. A network allows sharing of
network and computing resources.
Hybrid tools These tools have capabilities in common with drawing tools and
network monitoring tools. They are more specialized than general drawing tools
and provide network engineers
Some network monitoring tools generate visual maps by automatically scanning
the network using network discovery protocols. The maps are ideally suited for
viewing network monitoring status and issues visually.
17/03/2021
computer network

is a group of computers that use a set of common communication protocols over digital
interconnections for the purpose of sharing resources located on or provided by the network
nodes. The interconnections between nodes are formed from a broad spectrum of
telecommunication network technologies, based on physically wired, optical, and wireless radio-
frequency methods that may be arranged in a variety of network topologies.

The nodes of a computer network may include personal computers, servers, networking hardware
, or other specialised or general-purpose hosts. They are identified by hostnames and network
addresses. Hostnames serve as memorable labels for the nodes, rarely changed after initial
assignment. Network addresses serve for locating and identifying the nodes by communication
protocols such as the Internet Protocol.

Computer networks may be classified by many criteria, including the transmission medium used
to carry signals, bandwidth, communications protocols to organize network traffic, the network
size, the topology, traffic control mechanism, and organizational intent.

Computer networks support many applications and services, such as access to the World Wide
Web, digital video, digital audio, shared use of application and storage servers, printers, and fax
machines, and use of email and instant messaging applications.

History

Computer networking may be considered a branch of computer science, computer engineering,

and telecommunications, since it relies on the theoretical and practical application of the related
disciplines. Computer networking was influenced by a wide array of technology developments
and historical milestones.

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In the late 1950s, a network of computers was built for the U.S. military radar system Semi-
Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) using the Bell 101 modem. It was the first commercial
modem for computers, released by AT&T Corporation in 1958. The modem allowed digital data
to be transmitted over regular unconditioned telephone lines at a speed of 110 bits per second
(bit/s).

In 1959, Christopher Strachey filed a patent application for time-sharing and John McCarthy
initiated the first project to implement time-sharing of user programs at MIT. Stratchey passed
the concept on to J. C. R. Licklider at the inaugural UNESCO Information Processing Conference
in Paris that year. McCarthy was instrumental in the creation of three of the earliest time-sharing
systems (Compatible Time-Sharing System in 1961, BBN Time-Sharing System in 1962, and
Dartmouth Time Sharing System in 1963).

In 1959, Anatolii Ivanovich Kitov proposed to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of
the Soviet Union a detailed plan for the re-organisation of the control of the Soviet armed forces
and of the Soviet economy on the basis of a network of computing centres, the OGAS.

In 1959, the MOS transistor was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs. It
later became one of the basic building blocks and "work horses" of virtually any element of
communications infrastructure.

In 1960, the commercial airline reservation system semi-automatic business research environment
(SABRE) went online with two connected mainframes.

In 1963, J. C. R. Licklider sent a memorandum to office colleagues discussing the concept of the
"Intergalactic Computer Network", a computer network intended to allow general
communications among computer users.

Throughout the 1960s, Paul Baran and Donald Davies independently developed the concept of
packet switching to transfer information between computers over a network. Davies pioneered the
implementation of the concept. The NPL network, a local area network at the National Physical
Laboratory (United Kingdom) used a line speed of 768 kbit/s and later high-speed T1 links
(1.544 Mbit/s line rate).

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In 1965, Western Electric introduced the first widely used telephone switch that implemented
computer control in the switching fabric.

In 1969, the first four nodes of the ARPANET were connected using 50 kbit/s circuits between
the University of California at Los Angeles, the Stanford Research Institute, the University of
California at Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah. In the 1970s, Leonard Kleinrock carried
out mathematical work to model the performance of packet-switched networks, which
underpinned the development of the ARPANET. His theoretical work on hierarchical routing in
the late 1970s with student Farouk Kamoun remains critical to the operation of the Internet today.

In 1972, commercial services were first deployed on public data networks in Europe, which
began using X.25 in the late 1970s and spread across the globe. The underlying infrastructure was
used for expanding TCP/IP networks in the 1980s.

In 1973, the French CYCLADES network was the first to make the hosts responsible for the
reliable delivery of data, rather than this being a centralized service of the network itself.

In 1973, Robert Metcalfe wrote a formal memo at Xerox PARC describing Ethernet, a
networking system that was based on the Aloha network, developed in the 1960s by Norman
Abramson and colleagues at the University of Hawaii. In July 1976, Robert Metcalfe and David
Boggs published their paper "Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer
Networks" and collaborated on several patents received in 1977 and 1978.

In 1974, Vint Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine published the Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) specification, RFC 675, coining the term Internet as a shorthand for internetworking.

In 1976, John Murphy of Datapoint Corporation created ARCNET, a token-passing network first
used to share storage devices.

In 1977, the first long-distance fiber network was deployed by GTE in Long Beach, California.

In 1977, Xerox Network Systems (XNS) was developed by Robert Metcalfe and Yogen Dalal at
Xerox.

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In 1979, Robert Metcalfe pursued making Ethernet an open standard.

In 1980, Ethernet was upgraded from the original 2.94 Mbit/s protocol to the 10 Mbit/s protocol,
which was developed by Ron Crane, Bob Garner, Roy Ogus, and Yogen Dalal.

In 1995, the transmission speed capacity for Ethernet increased from 10 Mbit/s to 100 Mbit/s. By
1998, Ethernet supported transmission speeds of 1 Gbit/s. Subsequently, higher speeds of up to
400 Gbit/s were added (as of 2018). The scaling of Ethernet has been a contributing factor to its
continued use.

Use

A computer network extends interpersonal communications by electronic means with various

technologies, such as email, instant messaging, online chat, voice and video telephone calls, and
video conferencing. A network allows sharing of network and computing resources. Users may
access and use resources provided by devices on the network, such as printing a document on a
shared network printer or use of a shared storage device. A network allows sharing of files, data,
and other types of information giving authorized users the ability to access information stored on
other computers on the network. Distributed computing uses computing resources across a
network to accomplish tasks.

Hybrid tools

These tools have capabilities in common with drawing tools and network monitoring tools. They
are more specialized than general drawing tools and provide network engineers and IT systems
administrators a higher level of automation and the ability to develop more detailed network
topologies and diagrams. Typical capabilities include but not limited to:

Displaying port / interface information on connections between devices on the maps

Visualizing VLANs / subnets

Visualizing virtual servers and storage

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Visualizing flow of network traffic across devices and networks

Displaying WAN and LAN maps by location

Importing network configuration files to generate topologies automatically

Network monitoring tools

Some network monitoring tools generate visual maps by automatically scanning the network
using network discovery protocols. The maps are ideally suited for viewing network monitoring
status and issues visually. Typical capabilities include but not limited to:

Automatically scanning the network using SNMP, WMI, etc.

Scanning Windows and Unix servers

Scanning virtual hosts

Scanning routing protocols

Scanning connection speeds

Performing scheduled scans

Tracking changes to the network

Drawing tools

These tools help users to create network topology diagrams by adding icons to a canvas and using
lines and connectors to draw linkages between nodes. This category of tools is similar to general

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drawing and paint tools. Typical capabilities include but not limited to:

Libraries of icons for devices

Ability to add shapes and annotations to maps

Ability to create free-form diagrams

Network service

Network services are applications hosted by servers on a computer network, to provide some
functionality for members or users of the network, or to help the network itself to operate.

The World Wide Web, E-mail, printing and network file sharing are examples of well-known
network services. Network services such as DNS (Domain Name System) give names for IP and
MAC addresses (people remember names like “nm.lan” better than numbers like
“210.121.67.18”), and DHCP to ensure that the equipment on the network has a valid IP address.

Services are usually based on a service protocol that defines the format and sequencing of
messages between clients and servers of that network service

Security

Computer networks are also used by security hackers to deploy computer viruses or computer
worms on devices connected to the network, or to prevent these devices from accessing the
network via a denial-of-service attack.

Network security

Network Security consists of provisions and policies adopted by the network administrator to
prevent and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of the computer
network and its network-accessible resources. Network security is the authorization of access to
data in a network, which is controlled by the network administrator. Users are assigned an ID and
password that allows them access to information and programs within their authority. Network

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security is used on a variety of computer networks, both public and private, to secure daily
transactions and communications among businesses, government agencies, and individuals.

Network surveillance

Network surveillance is the monitoring of data being transferred over computer networks such as
the Internet. The monitoring is often done surreptitiously and may be done by or at the behest of
governments, by corporations, criminal organizations, or individuals. It may or may not be legal
and may or may not require authorization from a court or other independent agency.

Computer and network surveillance programs are widespread today, and almost all Internet traffic
is or could potentially be monitored for clues to illegal activity.

Surveillance is very useful to governments and law enforcement to maintain social control,
recognize and monitor threats, and prevent/investigate criminal activity. With the advent of
programs such as the Total Information Awareness program, technologies such as high-speed
surveillance computers and biometrics software, and laws such as the Communications
Assistance For Law Enforcement Act, governments now possess an unprecedented ability to
monitor the activities of citizens.

However, many civil rights and privacy groups—such as Reporters Without Borders, the
Electronic Frontier Foundation, and the American Civil Liberties Union—have expressed
concern that increasing surveillance of citizens may lead to a mass surveillance society, with
limited political and personal freedoms. Fears such as this have led to numerous lawsuits such
as Hepting v. AT&T. The hacktivist group Anonymous has hacked into government websites in
protest of what it considers "draconian surveillance".

End to end encryption

End-to-end encryption (E2EE) is a digital communications paradigm of uninterrupted protection

of data traveling between two communicating parties. It involves the originating party encrypting
data so only the intended recipient can decrypt it, with no dependency on third parties. End-to-

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end encryption prevents intermediaries, such as Internet providers or application service
providers, from discovering or tampering with communications. End-to-end encryption generally
protects both confidentiality and integrity.

Examples of end-to-end encryption include HTTPS for web traffic, PGP for email, OTR for
instant messaging, ZRTP for telephony, and TETRA for radio.

Typical server-based communications systems do not include end-to-end encryption. These

systems can only guarantee the protection of communications between clients and servers, not
between the communicating parties themselves. Examples of non-E2EE systems are Google Talk
, Yahoo Messenger, Facebook, and Dropbox. Some such systems, for example, LavaBit and
SecretInk, have even described themselves as offering "end-to-end" encryption when they do not.
Some systems that normally offer end-to-end encryption have turned out to contain a back door
that subverts negotiation of the encryption key between the communicating parties, for example
Skype or Hushmail.

The end-to-end encryption paradigm does not directly address risks at the endpoints of the
communication themselves, such as the technical exploitation of clients, poor quality random
number generators, or key escrow. E2EE also does not address traffic analysis, which relates to
things such as the identities of the endpoints and the times and quantities of messages that are
sent.

SSL/TLS

The introduction and rapid growth of e-commerce on the World Wide Web in the mid-1990s
made it obvious that some form of authentication and encryption was needed. Netscape took the
first shot at a new standard. At the time, the dominant web browser was Netscape Navigator.
Netscape created a standard called secure socket layer (SSL). SSL requires a server with a
certificate. When a client requests access to an SSL-secured server, the server sends a copy of the
certificate to the client. The SSL client checks this certificate (all web browsers come with an
exhaustive list of CA root certificates preloaded), and if the certificate checks out, the server is
authenticated and the client negotiates a symmetric-key cipher for use in the session. The session
is now in a very secure encrypted tunnel between the SSL server and the SSL client.

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 Views of networks

Users and network administrators typically have different views of their networks. Users can
share printers and some servers from a workgroup, which usually means they are in the same
geographic location and are on the same LAN, whereas a Network Administrator is responsible to
keep that network up and running. A community of interest has less of a connection of being in a
local area and should be thought of as a set of arbitrarily located users who share a set of servers,
and possibly also communicate via peer-to-peer technologies.

Network administrators can see networks from both physical and logical perspectives. The
physical perspective involves geographic locations, physical cabling, and the network elements
(e.g., routers, bridges and application layer gateways) that interconnect via the transmission
media. Logical networks, called, in the TCP/IP architecture, subnets, map onto one or more
transmission media. For example, a common practice in a campus of buildings is to make a set of
LAN cables in each building appear to be a common subnet, using virtual LAN (VLAN)
technology.

Both users and administrators are aware, to varying extents, of the trust and scope characteristics
of a network. Again using TCP/IP architectural terminology, an intranet is a community of
interest under private administration usually by an enterprise, and is only accessible by authorized
users (e.g. employees).[58] Intranets do not have to be connected to the Internet, but generally
have a limited connection. An extranet is an extension of an intranet that allows secure
communications to users outside of the intranet (e.g. business partners, customers).[58]

Unofficially, the Internet is the set of users, enterprises, and content providers that are
interconnected by Internet Service Providers (ISP). From an engineering viewpoint, the Internet
is the set of subnets, and aggregates of subnets, that share the registered IP address space and
exchange information about the reachability of those IP addresses using the Border Gateway
Protocol. Typically, the human-readable names of servers are translated to IP addresses,
transparently to users, via the directory function of the Domain Name System (DNS).

Over the Internet, there can be business-to-business (B2B), business-to-consumer (B2C) and
consumer-to-consumer (C2C) communications. When money or sensitive information is

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exchanged, the communications are apt to be protected by some form of communications security
mechanism. Intranets and extranets can be securely superimposed onto the Internet, without any
access by general Internet users and administrators, using secure Virtual Private Network (VPN)
technology.

References

F. J. Corbató, et al., The Compatible Time-Sharing System A Programmer's Guide (MIT

Press, 1963) ISBN 978-0-262-03008-3. "Shortly after the first paper on time-shared
computers by C. Strachey at the June 1959 UNESCO Information Processing conference,
H. M. Teager and J. McCarthy at MIT delivered an unpublished paper "Time-shared
Program Testing" at the August 1959 ACM Meeting."

history.computer.org. Retrieved 2020-01-23. "Computer Pioneers - Christopher Strachey"

"End System Multicast". project web site. Carnegie Mellon University. Archived from the
original on 2005-02-21. Retrieved 2013-05-25.

Cambell-Kelly, Martin (1987). "Data Communications at the National Physical

Laboratory (1965-1975)". Annals of the History of Computing. 9 (3/4): 221–247. doi:
10.1109/MAHC.1987.10023. S2CID 8172150. Transmission of packets of data over the
high-speed lines

Guardian Staff (2013-06-25). "Internet pioneers airbrushed from history". The Guardian.
ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2020-07-31. This was the first digital local network in the
world to use packet switching and high-speed links.

Gillies, James; Cailliau, Robert (2000). How the Web was Born: The Story of the World
Wide Web. Oxford University Press. p. 25. ISBN 0192862073.

Council, National Research; Sciences, Division on Engineering and Physical; Board,

Computer Science and Telecommunications; Applications, Commission on Physical
Sciences, Mathematics, and; Committee, NII 2000 Steering (1998-02-05). The
Unpredictable Certainty: White Papers. National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-

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