Speleothem Paleoclimatology For The Caribbean, Central America, and North America

quaternary
Review
Speleothem Paleoclimatology for the Caribbean,
Central America, and North America
Jessica L. Oster 1, * , Sophie F. Warken 2,3 , Natasha Sekhon 4 , Monica M. Arienzo 5 and
Matthew Lachniet 6
1 Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240, USA
2 Department of Geosciences, University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany;
swarken@iup.uni-heidelberg.de
3 Institute of Environmental Physics, University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
4 Department of Geological Sciences, Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas,
Austin, TX 78712, USA; nsekhon@utexas.edu
5 Desert Research Institute, Reno, NV 89512, USA; Monica.arienzo@dri.edu
6 Department of Geoscience, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV 89154, USA; matthew.lachniet@unlv.edu
* Correspondence: jessica.l.oster@vanderbilt.edu

Received: 27 December 2018; Accepted: 21 January 2019; Published: 28 January 2019
Abstract: Speleothem oxygen isotope records from the Caribbean, Central, and North America reveal
climatic controls that include orbital variation, deglacial forcing related to ocean circulation and
ice sheet retreat, and the influence of local and remote sea surface temperature variations. Here,
we review these records and the global climate teleconnections they suggest following the recent
publication of the Speleothem Isotopes Synthesis and Analysis (SISAL) database. We find that
low-latitude records generally reflect changes in precipitation, whereas higher latitude records are
sensitive to temperature and moisture source variability. Tropical records suggest precipitation
variability is forced by orbital precession and North Atlantic Ocean circulation driven changes in
atmospheric convection on long timescales, and tropical sea surface temperature variations on short
timescales. On millennial timescales, precipitation seasonality in southwestern North America is
related to North Atlantic climate variability. Great Basin speleothem records are closely linked with
changes in Northern Hemisphere summer insolation. Although speleothems have revealed these
critical global climate teleconnections, the paucity of continuous records precludes our ability to
investigate climate drivers from the whole of Central and North America for the Pleistocene through
modern. This underscores the need to improve spatial and temporal coverage of speleothem records
across this climatically variable region.
Keywords: SISAL database; speleothem; cave; oxygen isotopes; North America; Central
America; Caribbean
1. Introduction
Speleothems, or secondary cave carbonates, have become essential tools for the reconstruction
of past terrestrial climate variability [1]. Speleothem oxygen isotope records (hereafter δ18 Ospel ) in
particular have provided important information about changes in precipitation, temperature, and
atmospheric circulation over low and middle latitude regions throughout the world. The Speleothem
Isotopes Synthesis and Analysis (SISAL) project and database aims to compile published speleothem
data globally to facilitate paleoclimate reconstructions and the evaluation of climate models [1].
The first version of the database (SISAL_v1) contains 376 speleothem records [2]. These records were
compiled from public archives and published data or provided through correspondence with the
Quaternary 2019, 2, 5; doi:10.3390/quat2010005 www.mdpi.com/journal/quaternary

Quaternary 2019, 2, 5 2 of 33
original authors. The challenges found while compiling such data are discussed in [1]. The database
archives speleothem oxygen and carbon isotope data, detailed chronologic and analytical information,
and important metadata for each cave site and speleothem such as bedrock geology, overburden
thickness, and whether cave monitoring was conducted, among other pieces of information that are
essential for working with and interpreting speleothem isotope records.
Of the 376 records included in SISAL_v1, 42 are from cave sites in Central and North America
and the Caribbean [2]. These records cover a vast region, spanning the tropics to mid-latitudes
and bordering two oceans, with climate controls that are highly variable both in the modern and
through time. Speleothem records from this region have revealed critical climate teleconnections
between the polar regions, the tropics, and the mid-latitudes at decadal to orbital timescales [3–6].
These records have provided evidence for the effects of climate variability on ancient civilizations [7–9],
and contributed toward open questions and key debates regarding Earth’s climate system [3,10].
Here, we discuss the spatial and temporal coverage of North and Central American and Caribbean
speleothem records included in SISAL_v1 and the predominant controls on δ18 Ospel variability in each
region. We review the most salient discoveries arising from regional records included in SISAL_v1 and
conduct a statistical analysis to underscore observed spatial relationships. Our summary highlights
the value, the challenges, and the opportunities afforded by the SISAL compilation of Central and
North American and Caribbean speleothem records.
2. Study Region and Climate

The speleothem records included in SISAL_v1 span the low-latitude tropics from Panama through
the northern United States (Figure 1), and cover paleoclimatic changes on decadal to orbital scales.
Soluble bedrock, including carbonates and evaporites, is present throughout the study region (Figure 1),
with extensive and laterally continuous carbonate deposits stretching across large portions of eastern
North and Central America, and smaller, tectonically divided deposits of carbonates and evaporites
located to the west. For the purpose of this paper, we define Central America as the region stretching
from the southern border of Panama to the southern border of Mexico, and North America from
Mexico northward. As most of Mexico, including the Yucatan Peninsula, is primarily in the zone
of tropical influence, monsoon- and ITCZ- related convection, and easterly wind sources, we group
records from there together with the other tropical records from Central America and the Caribbean.
We also include the islands in the Caribbean Sea in our discussion of Central American speleothem
records, so this region effectively encompasses the area from approximately 7 to 32 ◦ N and −60 to
−118 ◦ E. We group the records from North America that are strongly influenced by westerly wind
sources into the North America section, spanning the Southwestern United States northward to the
Arctic Ocean. Given the variable climate and controls on the δ18 O of precipitation (δ18 Op ) across this
broad region, we have divided our discussion to focus on three sub-regions: western North America
(>32 ◦ N, < –94 ◦ E, from Texas westward), eastern North America (> 30 ◦ N, > –94 ◦ E, effectively the
eastern United States, excluding Florida), and the tropical and subtropical regions of Central American
and the Caribbean, including Florida (essentially < 30 ◦ N).
Figure
Figure 1.1.Map
Mapshowing
showing distribution
distributionofofcarbonate andand
carbonate evaporite rocksrocks
evaporite in North and Central
in North AmericaAmerica
and Central
provided by the World Karst Aquifer Mapping project (WOKAM [11]).
provided by the World Karst Aquifer Mapping project (WOKAM [11]). Purple circles Purple circles indicateindicate
speleothem record sites included in SISAL_v1 [1], while green circles indicate
speleothem record sites included in SISAL_v1 [1], while green circles indicate speleothemspeleothem records
records sites
sites that have been identified, but are not included in SISAL_v1. Specific information about all sites
that have been identified, but are not included in SISAL_v1. Specific information about all sites is
is included in Table 1.
included in Table 1.
2.1.2.1. Climate and Controls on δ 18Op in Western North America

18
Climate and Controls on δ Op in Western North America
2.1.1. Climate of Western North America
2.1.1. Climate of Western North America
The climate of western North America is dominated by westerly moisture sources originating
Thethe
from climate
Pacificof western
Ocean. North America
Precipitation is dominated
is strongly related to theby westerly
passage ofmoisture sourceswhich
winter cyclones, originating
can from
thebring
Pacific Ocean. Precipitation is strongly related to the passage of winter cyclones,
abundant precipitation to the region. The local climate is influenced by the complex topography which can bring
abundant precipitation
that generates to the region.
large gradients The local
in precipitation andclimate is influenced
temperature [12]. Withby the
the complex
exception of topography
the north that
generates large gradients
Pacific coast, in precipitation
much of western and temperature
North America [12]. With the
can be characterized exception
as arid of the north
or semi-arid, with Pacific
orographic
coast, much ofrainout occurring
western North first over thecan
America coastberanges, Cascade Range,
characterized as aridandor the Sierra Nevada
semi-arid, and
with orographic
the climate becoming progressively more arid moving inland [13]. The entire region
rainout occurring first over the coast ranges, Cascade Range, and the Sierra Nevada and the climate is also sensitive
to droughts
becoming influenced by
progressively ocean-atmosphere
more arid moving inland interactions in the
[13]. The tropical
entire Pacific
region and sensitive
is also tropical North
to droughts
Atlantic [14,15]. Much of western North America receives precipitation that is advected zonally over
influenced by ocean-atmosphere interactions in the tropical Pacific and tropical North Atlantic [14,15].
the continent from the north and central Pacific by winter cyclones that originate in the region south
Much of western North America receives precipitation that is advected zonally over the continent
of the Aleutian Low and are transported by the westerly winter storm track [16] (Figure 2A). Moisture
from
fromthethese
northwinter
and central Pacific
cyclones can by winter deeply
penetrate cyclones thatwestern
into originate in the
North region south
America, providingof the Aleutian
the
Low and aresource
dominant transported by theand
of precipitation westerly winterrecharge
groundwater storm track [16]west
from the (Figure
coast 2A). Moisture
into the from these
Great Basin
winter
[17], cyclones
and reachingcanas
penetrate deeply
far east as centralinto western
Texas North America,
[18]. However, the most providing the dominant
intense rainfall and flooding source of
precipitation
events alongandthegroundwater
west coast are recharge
often linkedfromto the west coastcyclones
extra-tropical into thethat
Great Basin
derive [17], and
moisture reaching as
directly
farfrom
easttheas central
centralorTexas
eastern tropical
[18]. Pacific.the
However, These
mostsystems can rainfall
intense develop and
narrow, concentrated
flooding eventscorridors
along the west
of near-surface water vapor known as atmospheric rivers (ARs) which are
coast are often linked to extra-tropical cyclones that derive moisture directly from the central responsible for the
or eastern
warmest and wettest storms reaching the west coast [19–21] (Figure 2A). A study
tropical Pacific. These systems can develop narrow, concentrated corridors of near-surface water vapor of extreme
known as atmospheric rivers (ARs) which are responsible for the warmest and wettest storms reaching
the west coast [19–21] (Figure 2A). A study of extreme precipitation events associated with ARs along
the California coast suggests they primarily occur during the negative phase of the Arctic Oscillation
when the jet stream has a more meridional configuration [22]. Similar work has linked AR frequency
and intensity to the occurrence and type of El Niño event [23]. These findings hint at the importance of
both high and low latitude teleconnections in driving AR occurrence.
The southwestern portion of North America into northern Central America is also influenced by
precipitation associated with the North American Monsoon (NAM). Heating of the Mojave and Sonoran
deserts in the summer creates a thermal low that draws moisture from the Gulf of California, Gulf
of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea into parts of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico [24].
Most NAM precipitation occurs as isolated thunderstorms or mesoscale convective systems, and thus
its influence on modern regional precipitation and its past variability are complex [25]. The dominant
moisture source for monsoon rains varies from west to east, with the Gulf of California and the Pacific
providing more moisture to the Mojave and Sonoran deserts and the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean
becoming more important toward the east. The Great Plains low level jet also carries moisture through
eastern Mexico, influencing precipitation in central and northern Mexico, Texas, and into the Great
Plains [25,26].
Large-scale ocean-atmosphere interactions strongly influence patterns of precipitation variability
in western North America on interannual to decadal timescales. Historical records of precipitation
variability suggest a dipole pattern between the Pacific Northwest and desert southwest displaying
opposing relationships with indices of the El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) [13,27]. The Pacific
Decadal Oscillation (PDO) is thought to modulate this relationship on decadal timescales, including
control on the shape and location of the transitional zone between the sign of correlation between
precipitation and ENSO indices [27]. The strength of the ENSO/precipitation relationship also appears
to be modulated by the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) [27], which also influences summer
precipitation over Texas and the southern Great Plains [28].
2.1.2. Controls on δ18 Op and δ18 Ospel

Long-term analyses of precipitation in western North America showed strong influences of
moisture source and temperature on precipitation δ18 O values (δ18 Op ) [29]. Seasonal variations in
δ18 Op have been observed along the west coast of North America, with summer rain displaying higher
isotope ratios and winter rain displaying lower isotope ratios [30–32]. The range of this seasonal signal
is small along the coast and becomes magnified inland [30].
Analyses of rain and snow isotopes along the coast from central to southern California indicate
that moisture source plays an important role in determining precipitation isotopic ratios with
subtropical and tropical Pacific sourced moisture leading to precipitation with higher isotope ratios
and mid-latitude and north Pacific sourced moisture leading to lower isotope ratios [17,33]. However,
McCabe-Glynn et al., (2016) found no clear isotopic signature associated with ARs, which are often
derived from southwesterly moisture plumes reaching the California coast, in an analysis of extreme
rainfall events between 2001 and 2011 [22]. Furthermore, isotope-enabled modeling of precipitation
isotope signals along the west coast of North America suggests that variations in droplet condensation
height due to seasonal changes in the polar jet are the primary driver of the observed seasonal signal in
precipitation isotope ratios [34,35]. Observations and models suggest complex controls on the isotopic
signal of precipitation in the winter-precipitation dominated region of western North America, and
further work is necessary to understand which controls are most important for driving the variations
that are transmitted to cave drip waters and ultimately preserved in speleothems.
Moving inland into southwestern North America, the balance of precipitation from isotopically
distinct winter westerly and summer monsoonal precipitation sources becomes a more important
control on δ18 Op [36]. In New Mexico and Arizona, precipitation δ18 O values are also strongly linked
to moisture source [36,37], and in that region summer monsoon rainfall is of high enough amount to
infiltrate into aquifers. For example, in Carlsbad Caverns, New Mexico, drip water δ18 O values of
around −7.9‰ VSMOW indicate a mixed summer and winter signal of infiltration [38]. However,
isotopic signatures in spring waters and cave drip waters from the Great Basin suggest that the brevity
isotopic signatures in spring waters and cave drip waters from the Great Basin suggest that the
brevity of summer precipitation events, coupled with intense evaporation, limits infiltration of
monsoon
Quaternaryrains
2019, 2,[39],
5 indicating that infiltration derived from winter storms is presently the primary
5 of 33
source of speleothem growth and suggesting a winter bias for speleothem records [5,40]. In central
Texas, assessment of δ18Op determined that precipitation amount (the amount effect) is an important
of summer precipitation events, coupled with intense evaporation, limits infiltration of monsoon
control on δindicating
rains [39],
18Op values during the summer but not the winter and documents that the lowest δ18Op
that infiltration derived from winter storms is presently the primary source
values
of speleothem growth and tropical
are associated with suggesting cyclones
a winter [41].
bias for speleothem records [5,40]. In central Texas,
This regional
assessment of δ Ovariability
18
p determined inthat
theprecipitation
climatic controls
amounton (theδ18amount
Op influences
effect) is the dominant
an important controls on
control
δ18on δ18and
Ospel as such
Op values different
during aspects
the summer butofnot
climate variability
the winter can be that
and documents recovered δ18 Op values
in different
the lowest locations.
Speleothem
are associated oxygen isotopecyclones
with tropical records[41].that are most proximal to the Pacific coast are interpreted to
This regional variability in the climatic controlsthat 18 O influences
on δinfluence
respond to changes in surface air temperature p δ18Opthe[42]dominant
with somecontrols on
influence by
18
δ Ospelin and as such different aspects ofmoreclimate variability canandbe recovered in different locations.
changes moisture source between North Pacific subtropical AR sources [43–45]. A
Speleothem
modern oxygenyears)
(last ~1200 isotope records
record of that
δ18Oare most proximal to the Pacific coast are interpreted to
spel from the southern Sierra Nevada mountains that is not
respond to changes in surface air temperature that influence δ18 Op [42] with some influence by
included in SISAL_v1 is interpreted to reflect changes in moisture source that are ultimately driven
changes in moisture source between more North Pacific and subtropical AR sources [43–45]. A modern
by northwestern Pacific sea18surface temperature changes that influence storm track trajectories [46].
(last ~1200 years) record of δ Ospel from the southern Sierra Nevada mountains that is not included in
The importance
SISAL_v1 of moisture
is interpreted source
to reflect versus
changes temperature
in moisture as aare
source that control on δdriven
ultimately
18Ospel near the Pacific coast
by northwestern
likely
Pacific sea surface temperature changes that influence storm track trajectories [46]. Theresolution
varies depending on the temporal resolution of the speleothem, with higher importancerecords
more capable source
of moisture of capturing
versus short term shifts
temperature in dominant
as a control 18
on δ O moisture source.
spel near the Pacific coast likely varies
Further inland, δ 18Ospel from caves in the Great Basin are interpreted to reflect a combination of
depending on the temporal resolution of the speleothem, with higher resolution records more capable
changes in temperature
of capturing and moisture
short term shifts in dominant source
moistureof winter
source. storm systems that are closely aligned with
Further inland, 18 O from caves in the Great Basin are interpreted to reflect
northern hemisphere summer δ spel insolation on orbital timescales [47,48]. Ina southwestern
combination of North
changesspeleothem
America, in temperature and moisture
records source and
from Arizona of winter
Newstorm
Mexico systems that are closely
are interpreted aligned
to reflect thewith
balance of
northern hemisphere summer insolation on orbital timescales [47,48].
contribution of winter (relatively depleted in 18O) versus summer (relatively enriched in 18O) In southwestern North America,
speleothem records from Arizona and New Mexico are interpreted to reflect the balance of contribution
precipitation, with variations mainly attributed to changing inputs of winter precipitation from the
of winter (relatively depleted in 18 O) versus summer (relatively enriched in 18 O) precipitation, with
Pacific [5,40]. In central Texas, δ Ospel variations were interpreted to be closely tied to the δ18O
18
variations mainly attributed to changing inputs of winter precipitation from the Pacific [5,40]. In central
signature
Texas, δ18 O
of thevariations
Gulf of Mexico, which is the primary moisture source region [18].
were interpreted to be closely tied to the δ18 O signature of the Gulf of Mexico,
spel
which is the primary moisture source region [18].
(A)
Figure 2. Cont.
(B)
Figure 2. Conceptual model of components of the climate system for modern (A) and last glacial
maximum (B) conditions in North and Central America. Climate models and paleoclimate records
indicate
Figurethat the LGM was
2. Conceptual characterized
model by a stronger
of components of the Aleutian low (AL),
climate system for weaker
modernNorth Pacific
(A) and lasthigh
glacial
(NPH) [49]; high
maximum pressure over
(B) conditions the Laurentide
in North and Central iceAmerica.
sheet (LISH) andmodels
Climate a tiltedand
westerly storm track
paleoclimate records
(red dashedthat
indicate line) [4];
the LGMmorewasfrequent atmospheric
characterized river storms
by a stronger alonglow
Aleutian the(AL),
west coast of North
weaker North Pacific
America high
(ARs) [49];[49];
(NPH) a weaker North American
high pressure monsoon (NAM)
over the Laurentide ice sheet[50]; weaker
(LISH) and aBermuda high (BH)
tilted westerly storm[51] and
track (red
Caribbean low level jet [52]; and small southward (<1 ◦ ) shifts in ITCZ position [53].
dashed line) [4]; more frequent atmospheric river storms along the west coast of North America (ARs)
[49]; a weaker North American monsoon (NAM) [50]; weaker Bermuda high (BH) [51] and Caribbean
2.2. Climate and Controls on δ18 Op in Eastern North America
low level jet [52]; and small southward (<1°) shifts in ITCZ position [53].
2.2.1. Climate of Eastern North18America

2.2. Climate and Controls on δ Op in Eastern North America
The climate of Eastern North America reflects the confluence of multiple atmospheric processes,
2.2.1. Climate
primarily drivenofby Eastern North America
the westerlies, Arctic, Gulf of Mexico, and Atlantic sources. The westerlies
transport Pacific or western North American air masses across the continent. The relative influence
The climate of Eastern North America reflects the confluence of multiple atmospheric processes,
of these atmospheric sources is in part dictated by the topography of Eastern North America, with
primarily driven by the westerlies, Arctic, Gulf of Mexico, and Atlantic sources. The westerlies
the Great Plains area located to the east of the Rockies. The Great Plains is characterized by small
transport Pacific or western North American air masses across the continent. The relative influence
mountains to the north, semi-arid climate in the western portion, and increasing humidity to the
of these atmospheric sources is in part dictated by the topography of Eastern North America, with
east [54]. Further east, the topographic high of the Appalachian Mountains and low of the coastal
the Great Plains area located to the east of the Rockies. The Great Plains is characterized by small
piedmont regions are characterized by humid summers and winter snowfall in higher altitudes and
mountains to the north, semi-arid climate in the western portion, and increasing humidity to the east
northern latitudes.
[54]. Further east, the topographic high of the Appalachian Mountains and low of the coastal
During the summer months, the hydroclimate of the eastern North America is dominated by
piedmont regions are characterized by humid summers and winter snowfall in higher altitudes and
moisture from the Gulf of Mexico and the subtropical Atlantic [55–57]. Transport of lower latitude
northern latitudes.
moisture to continental
During the summer North America
months, varies
the with the location
hydroclimate and strength
of the eastern North of low pressure
America systems,by
is dominated
with
moisture from the Gulf of Mexico and the subtropical Atlantic [55–57]. Transport of lowerWinter
steeper pressure gradients resulting in the increased transport of moisture inland [56]. latitude
precipitation occurs when warm air masses from subtropical Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico
moisture to continental North America varies with the location and strength of low pressure systems, sources
interact with cold
with steeper air masses
pressure from the
gradients Pacificin
resulting and
theArctic to produce
increased storms
transport that travel
of moisture eastward
inland [56]. with
Winter
theprecipitation
polar jet stream [55]. Winter frontal storms limit the propagation of warm air masses
occurs when warm air masses from subtropical Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico sources laden with
Gulf of Mexico
interact with andcoldAtlantic moisture,
air masses from thewhich areand
Pacific only occasionally
Arctic ablestorms
to produce to penetrate to the
that travel interior with
eastward of
thethe
continent [56].
polar jet stream [55]. Winter frontal storms limit the propagation of warm air masses laden with
Gulf ofmost
The Mexicointense rainfall and
and Atlantic flooding
moisture, events
which arealong the eastern North
only occasionally able toAmerica
penetrate aretooften linked of
the interior
to the
hurricanes
continentthat derive moisture directly from the tropical Atlantic. These storms gain in intensity
[56].
The most intense rainfall and flooding events along the eastern North America are often linked
to hurricanes that derive moisture directly from the tropical Atlantic. These storms gain in intensity
across the Western Atlantic and Caribbean and typically move northward along the east coast, or west
into the Gulf of Mexico and into the eastern interior of North America, bringing large quantities of
rainfall over short periods of time. Localized “lake effect” precipitation, caused by vertical fluxes of
heat and recycled moisture from the lake surface, also occurs adjacent to the Great Lakes [58,59].

Observations of seasonal variations in δ18 Op values reflect temperature and source variations
with lower values in fall and winter and higher values in the spring and summer [60–63]. In the winter,
greater spatial variability in δ18 Op values are observed across Eastern North America because of the
greater temperature contrasts in the source areas [62]. The Gulf of Mexico is an isotopically enriched
source when compared to the more depleted Pacific moisture source.
In addition to seasonal and source variations, geographic variations also influence δ18 Op values.
Eastern North America δ18 Op values are influenced by the Appalachian Mountains and the broad
coastal plain bordering the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. The Appalachian Mountains can impart
an orographic effect on the δ18 Op values. Local influences of Great Lakes lake effect precipitation
events can show depleted δ18 Op values downwind of the lakes [56,57] due to the depleted signature of
the Great Lakes. On sub-seasonal timescales, extratropical cyclones δ18 Op values have been shown
to be very depleted [64–66]. On longer timescales, δ18 Op values may also be influenced by the AMO,
however the mechanism is not well understood [63].
In eastern North America, δ18 Ospel is interpreted to reflect the seasonal balance of precipitation
between summer precipitation sourced from the Gulf of Mexico, and winter precipitation from various
sources that are more depleted in 18 O [55]. In West Virginia, this summer/winter moisture balance
is related to strength of the Bermuda High and its ability to advect summer moisture from the Gulf
of Mexico [67,68]. The combination of speleothem δ18 O with δ13 C can help to distinguish between
periods of shifts in moisture balance and periods of strong seasonal drought [55].
2.3. Climate and Controls on δ18 Op in Central America and the Caribbean
2.3.1. Climate of Central America and the Caribbean

The climate of Central America and the Caribbean is influenced by the competing effects of
Atlantic and Pacific teleconnection patterns. This region includes continental territories, island chains,
and mountain ranges of different orientations and elevations, and interactions between this diverse
topography and the large-scale circulation produce sub-regional variations in annual rain totals, length
of the rainy season and timing of rainfall maxima [69,70]. The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
is the fundamental controlling element of both the Atlantic and the eastern Pacific realms [71,72], and it
is the dominant source of rainfall in Central America, particularly south of Guatemala. The meridional
oscillation of the ITCZ responds to the seasonal insolation cycle, migrating north during the boreal
summer and south during the boreal winter [73,74] (Figure 2A). This seasonal migration produces
strong precipitation seasonality in most of Central America, with a pronounced dry season between
December and April. As a consequence, the climate of most of Central America can broadly be
classified as dry-winter tropical climate, with comparably small seasonal temperature variations.
The rainy season occurs as easterly trade winds produced by the North Atlantic subtropical high
(NASH) transport moisture from the Atlantic into the Caribbean Sea, where the flow intensifies,
forming the Caribbean low level jet (CLLJ) [75,76] (Figure 2A). During boreal summer in the western
Caribbean, the CLLJ splits into two branches, with one branch turning northward and transporting
moisture to the western Gulf of Mexico, and the southerly branch of the CLLJ continuing westward
carrying moisture across the Central American isthmus to the Pacific. During boreal winter, the
NASH dominates the Intra-American Sea, and moisture transport is shifted south of the Yucatan
Peninsula [77]. Precipitation on the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico coasts typically is less seasonal,
as easterly trade winds during the winter interact with the mountainous topography to produce
orographic rainfall [78]. On the Pacific slope of southern Mexico, precipitation is advected from the
ITCZ, where it is then available for convective systems to produce rainfall in the semi-arid regions of
southwestern Mexico.
Besides the ITCZ and the NASH, other significant synoptic influences include the intrusions of
polar fronts of midlatitude origin modifying the dry winter and early summer climates of the northern
Caribbean and north Central America as well as westward propagating tropical disturbances—a
summer season feature associated with enhanced rainfall over the Caribbean [70]. ENSO also influences
the climate of Central America, manifesting as a zonal seesaw in sea level pressure (SLP) between the
eastern equatorial Pacific and Atlantic Ocean [69]. Hence, in western and southwestern Mexico and
the Pacific coast of Central America, changes in precipitation are commonly linked to ENSO variability,
with weaker convective precipitation occurring during warm El Niño events, and more convection
associated with La Niña conditions [79]. Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean slopes commonly experience
an anti-phased ENSO response to the Pacific sectors [69].

The dominant control on the δ18 O and δ2 H of Central America precipitation is the progressive
depletion of heavy 18 O and 2 H isotopes in air masses as they undergo rainout. Gradients in δ18 Op
over Central America are characterized by highest values along the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico
coasts, lowest values near or west of the isthmian divide, and slightly increasing δ18 Op values towards
the Pacific slope [80–82]. The decrease in δ18 O values with distance inland reflects the Rayleigh
distillation of air masses, with a smaller contribution of Pacific-sourced moisture on the Pacific slope.
Superimposed upon the spatial differences are changes in the seasonal variation in δ18 Op , which is
inversely correlated with rainfall amount. The influence of the amount effect on δ18 Op in Central
America and the Caribbean has been observed by studies from e.g., Panama [83], Belize, Guatemala
and Mexico [80], Barbados [84], Puerto Rico [85,86], and the Yucatan peninsula [87,88]. However,
moisture source and air mass rainout history are also important controls on the isotope values of
Central American precipitation [89].
In southern Central America, remote teleconnections to ocean-atmosphere interactions also
influence δ18 Op . For example, δ18 Op values on the Pacific coast are related to ENSO forcing:
precipitation during warm El Niño events has higher δ18 O values than during cool La Niña events [83].
This response has been attributed to the increased intensity of convection of storms within the ITCZ
during La Niña events, and suggests that speleothems from this region may also be recording past
ENSO variability.
Both atmospheric general circulation models (AGCMs) and observational data indicate that the
18
δ Op signal over the tropical Americas has an annual mean value of around −3‰ VSMOW. In the
midlatitudes, seasonal variations in δ18 Op can be explained by temperature control on δ18 Op [90].
Towards lower latitudes, seasonal variations in δ18 Op are clearly controlled by precipitation amount,
with depleted values occur during the rainy season (JJA in the north). This latitudinal gradient in
the dominant controls on δ18 Op translates to the interpretations of δ18 Ospel , which are supported by
observations of cave drip water, e.g., [86] and multi-proxy speleothem studies, e.g., [8]. In the Bahamas,
evidence from stalagmites and fluid inclusions support temperature as the primary control on δ18 Ospel
on millennial timescales [91,92]. However, on the Yucatan Peninsula, cave monitoring suggests that
drip water and speleothem δ18 O closely reflect rainfall amounts [8,87,88,93]. Furthermore, it is possible
to discern the isotopic signature of individual tropical cyclones in a very high resolution δ18 Ospel
record from Belize that is not included in SISAL_v1 [94]. In Costa Rica, δ18 Ospel is also interpreted to
reflect changes in rainfall amount on millennial to orbital timescales that are associated with changes
in sea surface temperatures in the tropical North Atlantic and the intensity or position of the ITCZ [95].
3. North and Central American Speleothem Records in SISAL_v1
3.1. Spatial and Temporal Coverage and Regional Potential

There are 81 published speleothem stable isotope records from Northern and Central America
and the Caribbean. Of these, 42 individual records from 22 caves are included in SISAL_v1 [2]
(Figure 1, Table 1). The sites represented in SISAL_v1 include 14 from the contiguous United States,
3 from Mexico, 2 from Belize, and 1 each from Panama, the Puerto Rico, and the Bahamas. Coverage
across North America in SISAL_v1 is focused in the west (11 sites), with only three sites from the
eastern part of the continent. The speleothem records cover a large range in elevation, with multiple
submerged caves from the Caribbean region and four caves with elevations >2,000 m. Comparisons to
carbonate lithologies demonstrate several regions that are underrepresented in SISAL_v1, particularly
for central/eastern North America (Figure 1). Identified sites not included in SISAL_v1 would improve
coverage in the west up to British Columbia, Canada and greatly enhance representation in the
midwestern United States. In Central America, identified records would improve representation
outside of Mexico (e.g., Belize, Costa Rica) and in the Caribbean (e.g., Cuba, Barbados).
The Central and North American speleothems show variable levels of dating precision, typically
with highest precision dates in high uranium aragonites (e.g., Juxtlahuaca Cave, [9]) and high uranium
calcites (e.g., Fort Stanton, New Mexico [5]). In some cases, generation of precise age models is
hampered by dating inversions and large age uncertainties whereas in others the age precision is
suitable for decadal-scale climate analysis. As a result, the archived time series have varying levels
of uncertainty.
Temporal coverage of speleothem records in SISAL_v1 extends from 0 - 204 ka BP (all ages are
present relative to 1950) (Figure 3a) (Table 1). Coverage is densest over the last 50 ka. The representation
of speleothem records from different regions across Central and North America varies greatly. High
resolution records covering the last 2000 years are primarily from the tropics, and include speleothems
from Panama, Puerto Rico, Belize, and Mexico (Figure 3b). However, coverage of the last 2000 years is
also provided by records from Oregon and at lower temporal resolution in speleothems from Nevada in
western North America and West Virginia in eastern North America. The early to middle Holocene is
represented across North America with records from Oregon, Nevada, Texas, Alabama, West Virginia,
and Florida as well as southern Mexico. The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and deglaciation (10 to
22 ka) are best represented in records from western North America, but the interval is also covered in
records from the Bahamas and southern Mexico. Records older than the LGM are almost exclusively
found in western North America, with the exception of a Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS3) record from
the Bahamas and an MIS5 record from West Virginia. The Devils Hole vein calcites [96] provide the
longest calcite δ18 O record in North and Central America.
Figure
Figure 3. 3.Temporal
Temporalcoverage
coverage of of North
North and
and Central
Central American
American speleothem
speleothemrecords
recordsrepresented
represented in in
SISAL_v1 for all records (A) and covering only the last 22 ka (B). Shading denotes temporal
SISAL_v1 for all records (A) and covering only the last 22 ka (B). Shading denotes temporal resolution resolution
within
within records
records givenasasthe
given thetime
timedifference
difference between
between twotwo consecutive
consecutivestable
stableisotope samples
isotope samples in in
years.
years.
Hiatuses in individual records are shown by blank
Hiatuses in individual records are shown by blank spaces. spaces.
As described in Section 2, the primary controls on speleothem δ18 O vary substantially across
North and Central America, providing the opportunity to reconstruct many important components of
the climate system in different locations and to investigate teleconnections between these components.
However, this variability clearly necessitates a place-based understanding of modern climate and
in-cave controls at each study site, as well as consideration of how these processes may operate on
multiple timescales, from seasonal to orbital. Presently, the temporal coverage of speleothem records
is uneven across the region, allowing the investigation of different aspects of the climate system
at different time periods, but precluding a comprehensive view of climate from the tropics to the
mid-latitudes and from the glacial period through modern for the region as a whole. This is apparent
when comparing the range and variance of δ18 Ospel values during the LGM versus the Holocene
(Figure 4), which hints at a more negative and more variable δ18 Ospel during the glacial, with higher
latitude records displaying more variance than low latitude records. This observation is consistent
with a synthesis of global temperature proxies that suggest more variable temperatures during the
LGM compared to the Holocene at high latitudes compared to the tropics [97]. However, in our case
this comparison also demonstrates the lack of overlap in individual records that cover both periods.
3.2. Monitoring and Instrumental Data Availability

Local climate and precipitation data as well as information from cave monitoring studies provide
essential frameworks for interpreting isotopic and geochemical data from speleothems [98]. Multi-year
studies of δ18 O variability in precipitation can help to pinpoint the dominant controls on this parameter.
Similar analysis of cave drip water δ18 O on event to seasonal timescales within caves can shed light on
the extent to which precipitation signals are transmitted through or modified within the epikarst.
Cave monitoring for at least one season has been made at 9 of the 22 cave sites included in
SISAL_v1. Monitoring has also occurred at DeSoto Caverns in Alabama, USA [99]. Monitoring at
Black Chasm Caverns, California, USA [32] is used to interpret the speleothem records from nearby
Moaning and McLean’s Caves [45]. Several multi-year cave monitoring studies in North America have
made valuable contributions to our understanding of how cave environment influences speleothem
records. In particular, analysis of calcite grown in situ and drip water from caves in Florida, Texas,
and Barbados has been used to assess isotopic equilibrium during carbonate precipitation [100] and to
develop an empirical relationship for water-calcite oxygen isotope fractionation that is specific to cave
environments [101]. Furthermore, cave monitoring in central Texas has documented the important
control of cave ventilation on speleothem and drip water δ13 C and Mg/Ca and Sr/Ca that reflect CO2
degassing and prior calcite precipitation [102–104].
Only a few caves have completed tests for apparent oxygen isotopic equilibrium with cave drip
waters or contain records that have been replicated. Although it may be difficult to demonstrate
equilibrium with certainty, it is important to determine the extent to which speleothem oxygen isotope
records may be influenced by in-cave processes that may or may not reflect climate variability. In some
cases, it is clear that material has precipitated far out of oxygen isotopic equilibrium and thus records
are not clear indicators of environmental change [105,106].
Figure 4.Figure
Box 4. Boxwhisker
and and whisker plots
plots comparing(A)
comparing (A) LGM
LGM (18-22
(18-22ka)
ka)and (B) (B)
and Holocene (0-10 ka)
Holocene values
(0-10 ka) of
values of
δ18 Ospelδ. Records
18Ospel. Records are arranged by latitude, with lower latitude records at the bottom of each panel.
are arranged by latitude, with lower latitude records at the bottom of each panel.
Center lines are median values and box hinges represent the first and third quantiles. Whiskers extend
Center lines are median values and box hinges represent the first and third quantiles. Whiskers extend
to the highest and lowest values with points plotted beyond the whiskers considered as outliers.
to the highest and lowest values with points plotted beyond the whiskers considered as outliers.
4. Patterns in δ18Ospel in North and Central America through Time
4. Patterns in δ18 Ospel in North and Central America through Time
To document observed patterns in δ18Ospel variations during MIS 3 to 7 (~80 to 200 ka), the LGM
To through
document observed patterns 18 O
the last deglaciation (10 toin22δka), variations
the Holocene
spel during
(0 to 10 ka),MIS 3 tolast
and the 7 (~80 to 200 ka),
two millennia the LGM
(0 to
through2 theka), last
we usedeglaciation (10 to 22
visual comparisons andka), the Holocene
statistically (0 to 10 ka),
assess correlations and the
between last tworecords
speleothem millennia (0
to 2 ka),when
we use appropriate. We follow the approach
visual comparisons of Rehfeldassess
and statistically and Kurths (2014) and
correlations Oster andspeleothem
between Kelley (2016)records
which uses Gaussian-kernel based smoothing to generate regularly
when appropriate. We follow the approach of Rehfeld and Kurths (2014) and Oster and sampled estimates that follow the (2016)
Kelley
pattern of change observed in the original irregularly sampled speleothem time series [29,107]. We
which uses Gaussian-kernel based smoothing to generate regularly sampled estimates that follow
use the MATLAB toolbox NESToolbox [107] to compute Pearson correlation of these Gaussian
the pattern of change
smoothed records,observed in the original irregularly
termed Gaussian-kernel-based sampled
cross-correlation speleothem
(gXCF), time
to identify seriesor[29,107].
positive
We use negative
the MATLAB toolbox
correlations NESToolbox
between speleothem[107] to compute
records. We appliedPearson correlation
linear detrending of these
to the raw dataGaussian
smoothed records,
series prior totermed Gaussian-kernel-based
gXCF analysis by taking the residuals cross-correlation (gXCF),
from a linear function y = ato identify
+ bt fitted topositive
the or
original data series. This was done to remove correlations between records that
negative correlations between speleothem records. We applied linear detrending to the raw data series simply reflect long-
prior toterm
gXCF change in the climate system. Pairs of these detrended data-series were compared using the
analysis by taking the residuals from a linear function y = a + bt fitted to the original
similarity function in NESToolbox using the gXCF option with bandwidth selection following the
data series. This was done to remove correlations between records that simply reflect long-term
recommended h = 0.25 for the common sampling interval on the rescaled time-axis which is the
change default
in the climate system.
setting within Pairs of these
NESToolbox. detrended
We conduct data-serieswith
all comparisons werezero
compared
temporalusing the similarity
lag between
functionrecords.
in NESToolbox
Time series using
datathe
aregXCF optionand
centralized with bandwidthwithin
standardized selection following
NESToolbox thetorecommended
prior gXCF
calculation. Significance of gXCF values was evaluated by comparison
h = 0.25 for the common sampling interval on the rescaled time-axis which is the default setting with independent AR(1)
autocorrelated We
within NESToolbox. but conduct
mutuallyall uncorrelated
comparisons surrogate
with zerotimetemporal
series generated
lag betweenusing records.
NESToolbox.Time series
Correlation values that fall outside the 5% and 95% quantiles drawn from 2000 replicate surrogate
data are centralized and standardized within NESToolbox prior to gXCF calculation. Significance
of gXCF values was evaluated by comparison with independent AR(1) autocorrelated but mutually
uncorrelated surrogate time series generated using NESToolbox. Correlation values that fall outside
the 5% and 95% quantiles drawn from 2000 replicate surrogate testing are accepted as significant [107].
We then visualize the significant gXCF values between records of each time period (if there are any)
on a network diagram. We construct these diagrams using the qgraph package in R [108] with node
placement determined geographically.
testing are accepted as significant [107]. We then visualize the significant gXCF values between
records of each time period (if there are any) on a network diagram. We construct these diagrams
4.1. Late Pleistocene
using the qgraph package in R [108] with node placement determined geographically.
4.1.1. Pre-LGM
4.1. Late Pleistocene
Pre-LGM climate in North and Central America is mostly recorded in lower temporal resolution
4.1.1. Pre-LGM
records. Records covering Marine Isotope Stage 7 (MIS7) through MIS5 include the Devil’s Hole vein
Pre-LGM climate in North and Central America is mostly recorded in lower temporal resolution
calcites, records
records.from Lehman
Records coveringand Leviathan
Marine Isotope Caves in Nevada,
Stage 7 (MIS7) through and
MIS5Buckeye Creek
include the Cave
Devil’s Holeinvein
West Virginia
(Figure 5). calcites,
MIS3 isrecords
coveredfrombyLehman
recordsandfrom AbacoCaves
Leviathan Islandin in the Bahamas,
Nevada, and Buckeyethe Creek
Fort Stanton (FS2-2012) and
Cave in West
Cave of the Virginia
Bells (Figure 5). MIS3records
(COB02-01) is covered
in by records from Abaco
southwestern North Island in the Bahamas,
America, the Fort Stanton
and Leviathan Cave. Temporal
(FS2-2012) and Cave of the Bells (COB02-01) records in southwestern North America, and Leviathan
coverage of records across this time and region is too variable to warrant a statistical comparison.
Cave. Temporal coverage of records across this time and region is too variable to warrant a statistical
MIS 3comparison.
is characterized by globally resolved millennial-scale Dansgaard/Oeschger (D/O) events,
recorded in the MISGreenland ice cores
3 is characterized as periods
by globally resolvedof warming, followed
millennial-scale by a gradual
Dansgaard/Oeschger return to cooler
(D/O) events,
recorded in the Greenland ice cores as periods of warming, followed
temperatures [109]. The southwestern North American speleothems (FS2-2012, COB-01-02) by a gradual return to cooler
demonstrate
temperatures
18 [109]. The southwestern North American speleothems (FS2-2012, COB-01-02)
more positive δ Ospel values associated with interstadials, interpreted as enhanced aridity or less winter
demonstrate more positive δ18Ospel values associated with interstadials, interpreted as enhanced
precipitation associated
aridity withprecipitation
or less winter D/O events [5,40]. A
associated California
with D/O events speleothem recordspeleothem
[5,40]. A California not included in SISAL_v1
record
also displays increased
not included aridity during
in SISAL_v1 D/Oincreased
also displays stadials aridity
of MIS4 andD/O
during early MIS3of[110].
stadials Stalagmites
MIS4 and early MIS3 AB-DC-01
and AB-DC-12[110]. Stalagmites
from Abaco AB-DC-01
Island,and AB-DC-12
Bahamas from Abaco Island,
demonstrate moreBahamas
negative δ18 Ospel values
demonstrate more negative
associated with
δ Ospel values associated with interstadials interpreted as either warmer or wetter periods in the
18
interstadials interpreted as either warmer or wetter periods in the Bahamas [92].
Bahamas [92].
Figure 5. Speleothem records covering MIS5 to MIS7 that are included in SISAL_v1. These include
vadose zone (LMC and LC records [47,111] which comprise the Leviathan Chronology) and phreatic
deposits from western North America (DH records [96]), as well as records from the eastern United
States (BCC records [112]), and the record of July insolation at 65 ◦ N [113]. Ages (solid circles)
and associated uncertainties are shown with each record. Interglacial periods MIS5 and MIS7 are
shaded blue.
The longest accurately-dated speleothem δ18 O record from the western United States comes
from a combination from Leviathan, Pinnacle, and Lehman Caves, Nevada, called the Leviathan
Chronology. These data show that δ18 Ospel variations over the past 175,000 years closely follow the
pacing and amplitude of variations in Northern Hemisphere summer insolation. The Great Basin
δ18 Ospel records also display termination ages, marked by increased δ18 O, that are in phase with
increases boreal summer insolation [3,47,48,111]. In the Leviathan Chronology, shifts in δ18 Ospel lag
the precession cycle in boreal summer insolation by on average 3240 years [47]. The mechanism which
links northern hemisphere summer insolation and δ18 Ospel is thought to be changes in Arctic sea ice
extent. When insolation is low, sea ice extent is greater, driving changes in atmospheric circulation
that enhance winter rainfall in the Great Basin [3]. These Nevada vadose zone δ18 Ospel data were
significant because they showed ‘on-time’ climate variations in the Great Basin in contrast to the
Devils Hole phreatic calcite δ18 O record, which exhibited shifts to more positive values at glacial
terminations that appeared to precede terminations in other records by ~10,000 years, e.g., [114].
In particular, the timing of the original record suggested that the isotopic shift in the groundwater
that feeds Devils Hole preceded the rise in boreal insolation, suggesting that Termination II did not
arise from orbital forcing. This timing created a conundrum for how such mid-latitude changes could
lead change in high latitude insolation [96] or suggested that the Devils Hole record must contain
imprints of non-climatic processes [3,47]. Recent redating of the Devils Hole core has helped to resolve
this controversy [96] by suggesting that non-replicated dating of isotopic anomalies of calcite can be
attributed to 230 Th mobilization and dynamics in the groundwater column. This effect is thought to be
especially pronounced during terminations when the water table is high. Considering the effect of
a depth gradient in 230 Th in the groundwater column, the authors suggested that cores collected at
higher elevations within Devils Hole should have the most accurate chronology [96], placing the ages
of the terminations closer to—but lagging behind—those in the vadose zone records [3].
4.1.2. Last Glacial Maximum and Deglaciation

The SISAL_v1 database contains 13 speleothems from North and Central America that cover the
interval between 22 and 10 ka. We focus on 10 of these (Figure 6) because the two Devils Hole cores that
cover this interval are of lower temporal resolution (Section 4.1.1), and we only use the most recently
published (FS2 2012) of the two versions of the Fort Stanton Cave record in the database. Coverage
of the LGM and deglacial period in SISAL_v1 is particularly strong in western North America, with
records from seven caves covering at least 2000 years of this interval (ML1, MC3, LC-1, PC-1, FS2-2012,
COB-01-02, and CWN4) (Figure 6). Three speleothems from two cave sites in the lower latitudes
cover this interval, AB-DC-03 and AB-DC-09 from Abaco Island, Bahamas, and JX2 from Juxtlahuaca
Cave in Mexico. Visually, these records show important similarities across this interval of significant
global climate change. Particularly noticeable are changes at end of Heinrich Stadial 1 (HS1) and the
onset of the Bölling warm period at ~14.5 ka (Figure 6). Records FS2-2012, COB-01-02, and MC3 from
western North America show shifts to more positive δ18 O values within age errors of each other and
of this transitional period noted in the NGRIP δ18 O record of temperature [115]. Records CWN4 from
Texas and the Abaco Island speleothems from the Bahamas show the opposite shift, with δ18 Ospel
decreasing across this interval. In western North America, records ML1, MC3, LC-1, FS2-2012, and
COB-01-02 display shifts to more negative δ18 Ospel heading into the Younger Dryas cold period at
~12.8 ka (Figure 6). Likewise, the CWN4 record shows a positive shift leading into this period before a
growth hiatus begins at ~12.5 ka.
These visually-apparent relationships can also be noted statistically (Figure 7, Table 2). The records
from the Great Basin and southwest (FS2-2012, COB-01-02, and LC-1) are positively correlated to
each other and negatively correlated to the CWN4 record and the tropical records from the Bahamas
and Mexico. Weak positive correlations are also apparent between the records from the Bahamas
and Mexico and the speleothem records from the Sierra Nevada in California. These correlations
correlated
Quaternary 2019, 2,to
5 each other and negatively correlated to the CWN4 record and the tropical records from
15 of 33
the Bahamas and Mexico. Weak positive correlations are also apparent between the records from the
Bahamas and Mexico and the speleothem records from the Sierra Nevada in California. These
suggest similar or
correlations related
suggest climate
similar mechanisms
or related climatelead to concurrent
mechanisms lead to shifts in precipitation,
concurrent and therefore
shifts in precipitation,
speleothem, δ18 O speleothem,
and therefore δ18O across
across this region this the
during region
lastduring the last deglaciation.
deglaciation.
Figure 6. Speleothem
Figure records
6. Speleothem covering
records the LGM
covering through
the LGM the most
through recent
the most deglaciation
recent that that
deglaciation are included
are
includedcompared
in SISAL_v1 in SISAL_v1 compared
to the 18 ONGRIP
NGRIPtoδthe 18O record from Greenland [115]. See Table 1 for
record δfrom Greenland [115]. See Table 1 for record details.
Ages (solid circles) and associated uncertainties are shown with each record. Periods of Northern
Hemisphere cooling are highlighted in blue. Records are arranged by latitude.
record details. Ages (solid circles) and associated uncertainties are shown with each record. Periods
of Northern
Quaternary 2019, 2, 5 Hemisphere cooling are highlighted in blue. Records are arranged by latitude. 16 of 33
Figure7.7.Network
Figure Networkplotplot
for deglacial speleothem
for deglacial records
speleothem included
records in SISAL_v1
included shown at shown
in SISAL_v1 zero temporal
at zero
lag
temporal lag with sites arranged geographically. Correlation (gXCF) strength increaseswidth
with sites arranged geographically. Correlation (gXCF) strength increases with of lineof
with width
and depth of color. Blue lines represent positive correlations and red lines represent negative ones.
line and depth of color. Blue lines represent positive correlations and red lines represent negative
These relationships are computed over the amount of time that each pair of records overlaps, so
ones. These relationships are computed over the amount of time that each pair of records overlaps, so
each relationship covers a slightly different temporal interval within the 10–22 ka window. Only
each relationship covers a slightly different temporal interval within the 10–22 ka window. Only
correlations that fall outside of the 5 and 95% quantiles drawn from 2000 replicate surrogate testing
correlations that fall outside of the 5 and 95% quantiles drawn from 2000 replicate surrogate testing
plotted. Pairwise gXCF values are shown in Table 2. Records shown are from Abaco Island (ABDC),
plotted. Pairwise gXCF values are shown in Table 2. Records shown are from Abaco Island (ABDC),
Cave of the Bells (COB), Cave without a Name (CWN), Fort Stanton Cave (FS2), Juxtlahuaca cave (JX2),
Cave of the Bells (COB), Cave without a Name (CWN), Fort Stanton Cave (FS2), Juxtlahuaca cave
Leviathan Cave (LC), Moaning Cave (MC), McLean’s Cave (ML), and Pinnacle Cave (PC).
(JX2), Leviathan Cave (LC), Moaning Cave (MC), McLean’s Cave (ML), and Pinnacle Cave (PC).
The LGM and deglacial climate of North and Central America is influenced by a number of
The LGM and deglacial climate of North and Central America is influenced by a number of
drivers including the presence and decay of the Laurentide ice sheet, glacial meltwater discharge
drivers including the presence and decay of the Laurentide ice sheet, glacial meltwater discharge and
and changes in ocean circulation, and insolation variations. Each of these factors drive changes in
changes in ocean circulation, and insolation variations. Each of these factors drive changes in
atmospheric circulation that influence precipitation, and therefore speleothem δ18 O in different ways
atmospheric circulation that influence precipitation, and therefore speleothem δ18O in different ways
across this region. At the LGM, squeezing and deflection of westerly winds and steering of storms
across this region. At the LGM, squeezing and deflection of westerly winds and steering of storms
along a northwest to southeast trend due to the pressure gradient caused by the high-pressure system
along a northwest to southeast trend due to the pressure gradient caused by the high-pressure system
over the Laurentide ice sheet increased moisture delivery to southwestern North America [4]. This may
over the Laurentide ice sheet increased moisture delivery to southwestern North America [4]. This
have coincided with an increased contribution from southwesterly AR events, with impacts shifted
may have coincided with an increased contribution from southwesterly AR events, with impacts
away from the Pacific Northwest and toward the southwest [49] (Figure 2B). The change in the westerly
shifted away from the Pacific Northwest and toward the southwest [49] (Figure 2B). The change in
winds advected colder air into southwestern North America, reducing the energy flux needed to drive
the westerly winds advected colder air into southwestern North America, reducing the energy flux
the North American Monsoon [50] (Figure 2B). Together, these processes enhanced the contribution
needed to drive the North American Monsoon [50] (Figure 2B). Together, these processes enhanced
of winter westerly storm precipitation to the southwest, reducing δ18 O in speleothems FS2-2012 and
the contribution of winter westerly storm precipitation to the southwest, reducing δ18O in
COB-01-02 (Figure 6).
speleothems FS2-2012 and COB-01-02 (Figure 6).
In southern Mexico, the more negative δ1818Ospel values in stalagmite JX2 are interpreted to reflect
In southern Mexico, the more negative δ Ospel values in stalagmite JX2 are interpreted to reflect
a relatively active Mesoamerican monsoon during the LGM [116]. However, JX2 δ18 O spel values
a relatively active Mesoamerican monsoon during the LGM [116]. However, JX2 δ Ospel values18
increase during Heinrich Stadial 1 (HS1), suggesting a reduction in the monsoon, possibly due to a
increase during Heinrich Stadial 1 (HS1), suggesting a reduction in the monsoon, possibly due to a
southward shift of the ITCZ following meltwater inputs in the North Atlantic [116]. This is consistent
with recent modeling experiments and climate records that advocate for a meridional shift of the
rainbelt, rather than an expansion or contraction, in response to asymmetric extra-tropical forcing

such as freshwater hosing [117–120]. The positive shift in JX2 during HS1 is concurrent with a rise
in δ18 Ospel at Abaco Island, Bahamas that is interpreted to reflect colder temperatures [91,92] and
underlies the positive correlation between these two records (Figure 7). In western North America, the
climate of HS1 is considered to be wetter than that of the LGM, as many pluvial lakes are high at this
time [121,122]. Hosing experiments suggest that this increased moisture is caused by an intensified
subtropical jet and a deepened Aleutian low, which may be related to the southward shifted ITCZ [123].
It is thought that the increased moisture is derived from southwesterly ARs, which may be consistent
with a small increase in δ18 Ospel in stalagmite ML1 from the western Sierra Nevada and can explain
the positive correlation between ML1 and JX2 (Figure 7). Other western North America stalagmites
display variable responses to HS1. The COB-02-01 and PC-1 stalagmites do not show substantial
variations in δ18 Ospel over HS1 (Figure 6). However, increased precipitation in Nevada is suggested by
a decrease in δ13 C values during HS1 in PC-1 from Pinnacle Cave, Nevada [124]. Stalagmite FS2-2012
shows first a decrease and then an increase in δ18 Ospel , which may reflect a two-phase HS1 suggested
by lake records that are proximal to Fort Stanton Cave [125].
Toward the end of HS1, a reduction in δ18 Ospel in the Texas stalagmite CWN4 is interpreted to
reflect lower surface water δ18 O in the Gulf of Mexico due to the input of glacial meltwater flowing
through the Mississippi River [18]. Concurrent increases in δ18 Ospel in FS2-2012 and COB-01-02 at
the start of the Bölling-Alleröd may reflect a decrease in the proportion of winter precipitation or
an increase in relatively higher δ18 O Gulf moisture reaching the southwest. In Abaco Island, this
transition is noted as a decrease in δ18 Ospel in two stalagmites caused by warming temperatures.
The Younger Dryas is marked by decreased δ18 Ospel in LC-1, FS2-2012, COB-01-02, and MC3 which
supports increased winter moisture and colder temperatures potentially related to an intensified storm
track resulting from enhanced meltwater flux to the North Atlantic [126]. Speleothem δ18 O increases
up to a hiatus in CWN4 reflecting reduced glacial meltwater in the Gulf of Mexico, and ultimately drier
conditions in central Texas, underlying the negative correlation between CWN4 and the southwestern
and Great Basin speleothem records (Figure 7).
4.2. Holocene
4.2.1. Early and Middle Holocene

The early and middle Holocene is represented by scattered records across Central and North
America. These include Cueva del Diablo (stalagmite CBD-2) from southern Mexico, Brown’s Cave
(BC01-07) from Florida, Natural Bridge Caverns in central Texas (NBJ), DeSoto Caverns in Alabama
(DSSG-4), Buckeye Creek Cave in Western Virginia (several BCC stalagmites), Leviathan Cave in
Nevada (LC-1), and Oregon Caves National Monument (OCNM02-01) (Figure 8). Complete coverage
of the Holocene is only available in stalagmite LC-1. Temporal coverage and resolution are quite
variable in the early to mid-Holocene records, and this likely contributes to the lack of significant
correlations among them.
Figure 8. Speleothem
Figure 8. Speleothem records
records covering
covering the
the Holocene
Holocene in in SISAL_v1
SISAL_v1 that
that include
include the
the early
early and
and middle
middle
Holocene. See Table
Holocene. See Table 11 for
for record
record details.
details. Ages
Ages (solid
(solid circles)
circles) and
and associated
associated uncertainties
uncertainties are
are shown
shown
with
with each
each record.
record. Records
Records are
are arranged
arranged byby latitude.
latitude.
The
The small
small number
number of of Holocene
Holocene speleothem
speleothem recordsrecords from from western
western NorthNorth America
America may may reflect
reflect
widespread
widespread aridity during the early and middle Holocene, e.g. [127]. The Holocene LC-1 record
aridity during the early and middle Holocene, e.g., [127]. The Holocene LC-1 record
shows 18 beginning in the early Holocene, a peak in δ18 O values around 8.0 ka,
shows anan increase
increase in in δδ18OOspel
spel beginning in the early Holocene, a peak in δ18O values around 8.0 ka,
and
and aa decrease
decrease to the present.
to the present. This This pattern
patternof ofδδ1818OOspel
spel change
change is is consistent
consistent with
with a lagged
a lagged response
response to
to
summer insolation, potentially related to the lagged response of the Arctic cryosphere to summer
summer insolation, potentially related to the lagged response of the Arctic cryosphere to summer
insolation,
insolation, asas variations
variations in in Arctic
Arctic sea
sea ice
ice could
could influence
influence on on the
the intensity
intensity of of Pacific
Pacific winter
winter storms
storms [3].
[3].
The OCNM02-01 record on the other hand, has been tied to changes
The OCNM02-01 record on the other hand, has been tied to changes in northeast Pacific sea surface in northeast Pacific sea surface
temperature
temperature and and winter
winter insolation
insolation [42]. The 8.2
[42]. The 8.2 ka ka event
event is is recorded
recorded in in aa high-resolution
high-resolution coastal
coastal
California speleothem that is not included in SISAL_v1 [44] as a
California speleothem that is not included in SISAL_v1 [44] as a period of enhanced winterperiod of enhanced winter storminess.
However,
storminess. further inlandfurther
However, LC-1 shows
inlandthe highest
LC-1 shows δ18theOspel at thisδtime
highest 18Ospel and no evidence
at this time andofno anevidence
8.2 ka coldof
event [3,47]. A hiatus in stalagmite CBD-2 suggests dry conditions in
an 8.2 ka cold event [3,47]. A hiatus in stalagmite CBD-2 suggests dry conditions in southern Mexico southern Mexico during this
event
during[128], but the
this event drying
[128], butencompasses a much broader
the drying encompasses a much temporal
broader window
temporalthanwindow
the short 8.2 the
than ka event.
short
In eastern North America, the BCC record from West Virginia displays
8.2 ka event. In eastern North America, the BCC record from West Virginia displays a shift to a shift to lower values at 4.2
lowerka
(Figure 8),4.2
which is coincident with 18
values at ka (Figure 8), which is acoincident
step-change with toalower δ Ospeltoinlower
step-change the Great Basin
δ18Ospel [47].
in the ThisBasin
Great shift
in the eastern United States was interpreted to reflect a reduction in summer,
[47]. This shift in the eastern United States was interpreted to reflect a reduction in summer, Gulf of Gulf of Mexico-derived
precipitation
Mexico-derived andprecipitation
is coincidentand with many other
is coincident withrecords
manyofother hydrologic
recordschange across the
of hydrologic globe
change [67].
across
More early[67].
the globe to middle
More earlyHolocene speleothem
to middle Holocene records
speleothemfrom North records and Central
from North America are needed
and Central America to
provide a detailed picture of climate change during this
are needed to provide a detailed picture of climate change during this time. time.
4.2.2. Last 2000 Years

4.2.2. Last 2000 Years

There are 16 records covering the last 2000 years in SISAL_v1 in Central America and the
Caribbean, of which the nine speleothems with the highest resolution are shown in Figure 9.
These comprise one record from the northern Yucatan peninsula (Tzabnah Cave, Mexico), three
speleothems from Belize (southern Yucatan, Yok Balum Cave and Macal Chasm Cave), two from
western Mexico (Juxtlahuaca Cave), one from Puerto Rico (Perdida Cave), and one speleothem from
each the lower latitudes on the isthmus of Panama (Chillibrillo Cave) and the higher latitudes on the
northern American continent (Oregon Caves National Monument).
Figure 9. Speleothem records covering the last 2000 years at approximately decadal resolution or
better that
Figure are included
9. Speleothem in SISAL_v1.
records coveringSeethe
Table
last12000
for record
years details. Ages (soliddecadal
at approximately circles) and associated
resolution or
uncertainties are shown with each record. Records are arranged by latitude.
better that are included in SISAL_v1. See Table 1 for record details. Ages (solid circles) and associated
uncertainties are shown with each record. Records are arranged by latitude.
Oxygen isotope values in speleothem PDR-1 from Puerto Rico during the last 800 years are
characterized by a pronounced multi-decadal variability [129]. Moving from Puerto Rico towards the
west, speleothem records from central America show a multi-decadal pattern superimposed upon
several multicentennial-scale trends during the last 2000 years BP [8,9]. Interpreting δ18 Ospel in the
Central American speleothems as a proxy for precipitation amount, the δ18 Ospel records from Yucatan
and also western Mexico show a series of droughts during the last millennia [9,93,129–131]. These major
dry events (marked with vertical bars in Figure 9) are particularly pronounced in MC01 from Belize,
where major dry events (MDE) were identified between 2840–3060, 2500–2540, 2060–2140, 1600–1700,
1050–1200, 750–900, 370–420, and 40–100 cal yr BP [8]. The timing of drought in the Mexico highlands
(JX6, JX-7) may have preceded that in the lowlands (YOKG, MC01, YOKI) [9]. Major dry events are
evident in most Central American and Caribbean δ18 Ospel records suggesting a common regional
forcing. Correlation analyses (Figure 10) show a positive correlation of Central American speleothem
records to both PDR-1 (Puerto Rico) and OCNM (Oregon, United States). The strongest positive
connection appears between the PDR-1 and MC01 in Belize, whereas no significant correlation was
derived for PDR-1 to the speleothem records located towards the west. This supports the observation
of an E-W-gradient of multidecadal versus centennial scale patterns, indicating that the influence of
the North Atlantic diminishes when moving across central America towards the west. This common
pattern is presumably the influence of North Atlantic Sea surface temperatures, which modulate the
meridional temperature gradient and consequently the strength of the trade winds and the CLLJ,
transporting moisture westwards into the Caribbean basin. Locations further west are less influenced
by the eastern trades and the CLLJ, but receive more moisture from Pacific sources. This, in turn,
is indicative of a more dominant influence of ENSO activity in speleothems from mid and western
Central America, as proposed for many of these records [6,8,9,130]
Figure 10. Network plot for high resolution records covering the last 2000 years. See Figure 7 for further
details.
Figure Pairwise gXCF values
10. Network arehigh
plot for shown in Tablerecords
resolution 2. Records shownthe
covering are last
from2000
Chilbrillo
years.Cave (CHIL-1),
See Figure 7 for
Juxtlahuaca Cave (JX-6),
further details. Machal
Pairwise gXCFChasm
values(MC01), Oregon
are shown Caves
in Table 2. National Monument
Records shown (OCNM),
are from Perdida
Chilbrillo Cave
Cave (PDR), Tzabnah
(CHIL-1), CaveCave
Juxtlahuaca (Chaac), andMachal
(JX-6), Yok Balum
ChasmCave(MC01),
(YOKI). Oregon Caves National Monument
(OCNM), Perdida Cave (PDR), Tzabnah Cave (Chaac), and Yok Balum Cave (YOKI).
A negative correlation is observed between δ18 Ospel of CHIL-1, the southernmost record from
the Isthmus of Panama,
A negative and both
correlation YOKI (Belize)
is observed between andδ18JX-6
Ospel(Mexico).
of CHIL-1,Athenumber of precipitation-based
southernmost record from the
records suggest that the seasonal extremes of the ITCZ rainbelt respond to local
Isthmus of Panama, and both YOKI (Belize) and JX-6 (Mexico). A number of precipitation-based summer insolation,
and consequently the rainbelt seasonal range undergoes latitudinal migrations [10,132–136].
records suggest that the seasonal extremes of the ITCZ rainbelt respond to local summer insolation, Other
evidence suggests that
and consequently therainbelt
the ITCZ rainbelt
seasonalcontracted/expanded around itsmigrations
range undergoes latitudinal mean position [120,137–139].
[10,132–136]. Other
According to this argument, asymmetric extratropical forcings like ice sheets
evidence suggests that the ITCZ rainbelt contracted/expanded around its mean position [120,137– or freshwater
hosing produce meridional
139]. According shifts inasymmetric
to this argument, the zonal extratropical
mean rainbelt, but orbital
forcings like icevariations produce
sheets or freshwater
expansion/contractions
hosing produce meridional in terms of the
shifts in global zonalmean
the zonal meanrainbelt,
[120]. However,
but orbitalthe variations
driving regional
produce
mechanisms still remain elusive since the dynamic response of the rainbelt
expansion/contractions in terms of the global zonal mean [120]. However, the driving variation is regionally
regional
variable, depending
mechanisms on surface
still remain type (land
elusive since or ocean)
the dynamicand surrounding
response of continental
the rainbeltconfiguration [10,120].
variation is regionally
variable, depending on surface type (land or ocean) and surrounding continental configuration
[10,120].
For the monsoon domain of southwestern Mexico, a precisely-dated (<10-year precision) and
replicated δ18Ospel record from Juxtlahuaca Cave, Mexico (JX-6 and JX-7) shows a combined Atlantic
and Pacific control of rainfall amount. The JX δ18Ospel record is correlated with both the North Atlantic
For the monsoon domain of southwestern Mexico, a precisely-dated (<10-year precision) and
replicated δ18 Ospel record from Juxtlahuaca Cave, Mexico (JX-6 and JX-7) shows a combined Atlantic
and Pacific control of rainfall amount. The JX δ18 Ospel record is correlated with both the North Atlantic
Oscillation reconstruction and with a tree-ring based reconstruction of ENSO [130]. These data suggest
that ocean-atmosphere variations in both the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean are important controls on
climate dynamics in southwestern Mexico and Central America.
There is also evidence for the influence of aerosol forcing by volcanic and human activity on
Mesoamerican rainfall variability from Belize [140,141]. Both studies provide evidence of long-lasting
volcanic effects on precipitation changes in Mesoamerica during the past centuries. However, the
authors also note, that direct climate effects cannot be attributed to volcanic aerosol forcing alone,
but may have exacerbated or prolonged the drought intervals beyond the duration of the direct
radiative imbalance [140–142]. In summary, this makes interpretation of precipitation-proxy records as
large-scale rainbelt movement challenging, requiring regional or global data syntheses.
5. Improvements to SISAL for North and Central America

Speleothems from North America have provided an important background understanding of
continental to regional scale paleoclimate information. In the low latitudes, the climatic information is
primarily related to precipitation amount and monsoon strength. In the higher latitudes, temperature
and moisture source appear to be the dominant controls on δ18 Ospel values. The tropical records suggest
a combined insolation and Atlantic Ocean circulation control on δ18 Ospel values, with continental
records showing high δ18 O values during monsoon weakenings during HS1 and the Younger Dryas,
and the Abaco Island record suggesting a strong temperature control on δ18 Ospel . These data suggest
that climate over much of the Caribbean and Central America is driven by Atlantic Ocean forcing.
For the desert regions of southwestern United States exclusive of the Great Basin, clear D/O-type
variability suggests that the variations in winter to summer precipitation amount are strong controls
on climate. For the Great Basin speleothem records, a clear forcing from northern hemisphere summer
insolation is evident, which may be related to teleconnections between the Arctic, Pacific Ocean, and
western United States circulation.
Central and North America are characterized by vast variations in climate, atmospheric processes,
geography, geology and climate history. Given this diversity and the lack of overlap among current
records, greater spatial and temporal coverage by speleothem records is necessary to gain a more
complete picture of paleoclimate change across this region over the past 200,000 years. Identified
published speleothem records that are not included in SISAL_v1 do improve this outlook (Figure 1;
Table 1), and the SISAL working group will aim towards including these in future versions of the
SISAL database [1]. Yet even with these contributions, greater temporal coverage is needed across
North and Central America for all time periods and new records should be developed. In particular,
there are currently few records available from MIS3 and older. Additional high-resolution records are
necessary to assess spatial trends in rapid climate change events such as D/O, Heinrich Stadials and the
deglaciation. More records are necessary from the last 2,000 years to more fully assess anthropogenic
impacts on the environment. In addition to the development of speleothem records, comprehensive
monitoring programs are needed to assess modern influences on speleothem geochemistry to aid
with constraining the environmental influences on speleothem geochemistry in the past. Speleothem
researchers should also attempt to provide replicated and near-equilibrium records from within
the same cave to ensure that the speleothem δ18 O is accurately encoding climatic change [143,144].
Lastly, future work should include identification of caves with suitable uranium-series geochemical
characteristics to produce the precise chronologies necessary to advance our understanding of the
timing of paleoclimatic change in this region.
Table 1. Identified North and Central American speleothem records.
Site Name Site ID Country Entity Name Entity ID Lat (ºN) Long (ºE) Elev. (m asl) Min Year BP Max Year BP SISAL_v1 Ref.
Lehman Caves 14 United States LMC-14 67 39.01 −114.2 2080 105,617 128,604 y [47]
Lehman Caves 14 United States LMC-21 68 39.01 −114.2 2080 133,340 174,096 y [47]
Lehman Caves 14 United States LC-2 69 39.01 −114.2 2080 128,888 133,168 y [111]
Cueva del Diablo 34 Mexico CBD-2 109 18.19 −99.9 1030 1220 10,812 y [128]
DeSoto Caverns 37 United States DSSG-4 112 33.37 −86.4 150 −58 4204 y [145]
Leviathan Cave 48 United States LC-1 124 37.89 −115.6 2400 −60 103,740 y [47]
McLean’s Cave 49 United States ML1 125 38.07 −120.4 300 10,971 19,391 y [45]
Moaning Cave 50 United States MC3 126 38.07 −120.5 520 8702 15,870 y [45]
Moaning Cave 50 United States MC3 126 38.07 −120.5 520 8702 15,870 y [43]
Natural Bridge Caverns 51 United States NBJ 127 29.69 −98.3 306 18 6381 y [26]
Tzabnah Cave 63 Mexico Chaac 147 20.73 −89.7 20 −54 1463 y [93]
Abaco Island Cave 70 Bahamas AB-DC-01 155 26.23 −77.2 −45 23,699 28,895 y [92]
Cave Without a Name 75 United States CWN4 164 29.89 −98.6 377 9546 28,490 y [18]
Chilibrillo Cave 78 Panama CHIL-1 167 9.17 −79.6 −79.6164 690 2180 y [6]
Macal Chasm 85 Belize MC01 178 16.88 −89.1 530 −43 5245 y [8]
Macal Chasm 85 Belize MC01 178 16.88 −89.1 530 −43 5245 y [131]
Brown’s Cave 95 United States BC01-07 191 27.89 −82.5 25 4627 6604 y [146]
Yok Balum Cave 107 Belize YOKI 209 16.21 −89.1 336 −56 1965 y [7]
Yok Balum Cave 107 Belize YOKG 210 16.21 −89.1 336 −34 399 y [140]
Pinnacle Cave 124 United States PC-1 259 35.97 −115.5 1792 15,585 20,000 y [124]
Buckeye Creek 128 United States BCC-2 271 37.98 −79.6 600 37 6945 y [67]
Buckeye Creek 128 United States BCC-4 272 37.98 −79.6 600 78 7184 y [67]
Buckeye Creek 128 United States BCC-6 273 37.98 −79.6 600 −24 7848 y [67]
Buckeye Creek 128 United States BCC-8 274 37.98 −79.6 600 116,501 126,712 y [112]
Buckeye Creek 128 United States BCC-10 275 37.98 −79.6 600 41,604 124,036 y [112]
Buckeye Creek 128 United States BCC_composite 276 37.98 −79.6 600 37 7847 y [67]
Cave of the Bells 134 United States COB-01-02 284 31.75 −110.8 11,484 53,335 y [40]
Juxtlahuaca Cave 136 Mexico JX-6 286 17.4 −99.2 934 −60 2397 y [9]
Juxtlahuaca Cave 136 Mexico JX-2 287 17.4 −99.2 934 11,553 22,061 y [116]
Juxtlahuaca Cave 136 Mexico JX-10 288 17.4 −99.2 934 6908 7244 y [116]
Juxtlahuaca Cave 136 Mexico JX-7 289 17.4 −99.2 934 −7 1000 y [130]
Table 1. Cont.
Oregon caves national monument 139 United States OCNM02-1 294 42.1 −123.4 1300 234 7992 y [42]
Fort Stanton Cave 147 United States FS2_2012 321 33.51 −105.4 1864 11,336 25,840 y [147]
Fort Stanton Cave 147 United States FS2_2010 322 33.51 −105.4 1864 11,310 55,846 y [5]
Devils Hole 171 United States DH2 373 36.43 −116.3 719 100,902 181,716 y [96]
Devils Hole 171 United States DH2-D 374 36.43 −116.3 719 4896 204,226 y [96]
Devils Hole 171 United States DH2-E Terminal1 375 36.43 −116.3 719 5534 50,131 y [96]
Devils Hole 171 United States DH2-E Terminal2 376 36.43 −116.3 719 117,435 154,922 y [96]
Perdida Cave 173 Puerto Rico PDR-1 378 18 −67.0 1450 −54 742 y [129]
Cold water Cave United States CWC-1s 43.47 −92.0 356 1147 7774 n [148]
Cold water Cave United States CWC-2ss 43.47 −92.0 356 1740 7270 n [148]
Cold water Cave United States CWC-3L 43.47 −92.0 356 2080 9040 n [148]
Devils Icebox Cave United States DIB-1 38.9 −92.3 250 610 3500 n [149]
Devils Icebox Cave United States DIB-2 38.9 −92.3 250 2010 3610 n [149]
Minnetonka Cave United States MC08-1 42.0875 −111.5 2347 n [150]
Chen Ha Cave Belize CH04-02 17 −89.0 550 4631 7159 n [151]
Goshute Cave United States GC_2 40.03 −114.8 2000 90,169 101,899 n [152]
Goshute Cave United States GC_3 40.03 −114.8 2000 83,704 86,223 n [152]
White Moon Cave United States WMC1 37 −122.2 170 6937 8604 n [44]
Arch Cave Canada DM05-01 50.55 −127.1 660 9 12,092 n [153]
Harrisons Cave Barbados HC-1 13 −59.0 300 n [154]
Xibalba Cave Belize GU-Xi-1 16.5 −89.0 350 −57 251 n [141]
Dos Anas Cave Cuba CG 22.38 −84.0 120 −50 1203 n [155]
Dos Anas Cave Cuba CP 22.38 −84.0 120 61 12,333 n [156]
Santo Tomas Cave Cuba CM 22.55 −83.8 170 6850 9914 n [156]
Chan Hol Cave Mexico Ch-7 20.16 −87.6 −8.5 n [157]
McLean’s Cave United States ML2 38.07 −120.4 300 55,158 66,902 n [110]
Bat Cave United States BC-11 32.1 −104.3 n [158]
Crystal Cave United States CRC-3 36.57 −118.8 n [159]
Ozark Caverns United States OC-2 38.02 −92.0 n [160]
Bridal Cave United States BC-3 38.01 −92.5 n [160]
Bridal Cave United States BC-2 (2) 38.01 −92.5 n [160]
Cosmic Caverns United States CS-2A 36.26 −93.3 n [160]
Beckham Creek Cave United States BCC-10 35.57 −93.2 n [160]
Table 1. Cont.
Mystery Cave United States MC-28 43.62 −92.3 n [161]
Onondaga Caverns United States ON-3 38.03 −91.1 n [160]
Onondaga Caverns United States ON-3-B 38.03 −91.1 n [162]
Actun Tunichil Muknal Cave Belize ATM-7 17.1 −88.9 n [94]
Crevice Cave United States CCC-2 37.45 −89.5 n [61]
Crevice Cave United States CCDBL-L 37.45 −89.5 n [61]
Crevice Cave United States CCDBL-S 37.45 −89.5 n [61]
Crevice Cave United States CCE-1 37.45 −89.5 n [61]
Terciopelo Cave Costa Rica CT-6 10.1667 −85.3 n [95]
Terciopelo Cave Costa Rica CT-7 10.1667 −85.3 n [95]
Venado Cave Costa Rica V1 10.1667 −85.3 n [163]
Palco Cave Puerto Rico PR-PA-1b 18.35 −66.5 n [164]
Pink Panther Cave United States PP-1 32.08 −105.2 n [165]
Table 2. Timing of overlap and gXCF values for significant pairwise correlations between speleothem
records for the LGM-deglacial and last 2000-year time periods.
Rec1 Rec2 Test_Start (yr BP) Test_End (yr_BP) gXCF

AB-DC-09 JX2 13,766 22,061 0.78
COB-01-02 FS2_2012 11,400 23,696 0.58
JX2 FS2_2012 11,552 22,000 −0.52
AB-DC-09 PC-1 16,000 20,000 −0.24
FS2_2012 MC3 12,000 16,000 −0.54
ABDC03 MC3 14,300 15,700 0.66
ABDC03 COB-01-02 14,300 15,700 0.45
ABDC03 FS2_2012 14,300 15,700 −0.57
FS2_2012 ML1 12,000 19,000 −0.30
PC-1 ML1 16,000 20,000 0.13
ML1 JX2 12,000 19,000 0.32
CWN4 COB-01-02 11,484 19,264 −0.81
CWN4 FS2_2012 11,336 19,264 −0.64
CWN4 ML1 12,000 19,000 0.46
LC-1 COB-01-02 11,484 13,290 0.70
LC-1 FS2_2012 11,336 13,290 0.78
MC01 YOKI 600 2000 0.18
CHIL-1 YOKI 600 2000 −0.10
PDR-1 MC01 0 1400 0.59
MC01 JX-6 0 2000 0.15
CHIL-1 JX-6 600 2000 −0.17
JX-6 OCNM02-1 0 2000 0.14
Author Contributions: All authors contributed to the collection of data and liaison with original authors of studies
reviewed here. J.L.O. and S.F.W. organized and wrote the manuscript with input from all authors. All authors
analyzed data, reviewed the literature, and drafted and edited figures. All authors discussed manuscript ideas,
edited earlier versions, and approved this version of the manuscript.
Funding: J.L.O. acknowledges funding from the National Science Foundation (NSF grant AGS-1554998). S.F.W.
acknowledges travel funding from the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD).
Acknowledgments: We thank everyone involved in SISAL for the extraordinary work of record gathering and
database construction. SISAL is a working group of the Past Global Changes (PAGES) program, and we thank
PAGES for their support. We thank Sandy Harrison and Laia Comas Bru for helpful editorial comments and
figure construction. This contribution benefited from helpful comments by two anonymous reviewers. We thank
the World Karst Aquifer Mapping project (WOKAM) team for providing us with the karst region map presented
in Figure 1.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1. Comas-Bru, L.; Harrison, S. SISAL: Bringing added value to speleothem research. Quaternary 2019, in press.
2. Atsawawaranunt, K.; Comas-Bru, L. The SISAL database: A global resource to document oxygen and carbon
isotope records from speleothems. Earth Syst. Sci. 2018, 10, 1687–1713. [CrossRef]
3. Lachniet, M.; Asmerom, Y.; Polyak, V.; Denniston, R. Arctic cryosphere and Milankovitch forcing of Great
Basin paleoclimate. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 12955. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. Oster, J.L.; Ibarra, D.E.; Winnick, M.J.; Maher, K. Steering of westerly storms over western North America at
the Last Glacial Maximum. Nat. Geosci. 2015, 8, 201–205. [CrossRef]
5. Asmerom, Y.; Polyak, V.J.; Burns, S.J. Variable winter moisture in the southwestern United States linked to
rapid glacial climate shifts. Nat. Geosci. 2010, 3, 114–117. [CrossRef]
6. Lachniet, M.S.; Burns, S.J.; Piperno, D.R. A 1500-year El Niño/Southern Oscillation and rainfall history for
the Isthmus of Panama from speleothem calcite. JGR Atmos. 2004, 109, D20117. [CrossRef]
7. Kennett, D.J.; Breitenbach, S.F.M.; Aquino, V.V.; Asmerom, Y.; Awe, J.; Baldini, J.U.L.; Bartlein, P.;
Culleton, B.J.; Ebert, C.; Jazwa, C.; et al. Development and disintegration of Maya political systems in
response to climate change. Science 2012, 338, 788–791. [CrossRef]
8. Akers, P.D.; Brook, G.A.; Railsback, L.B.; Liang, F.; Iannone, G.; Webster, J.W.; Reeder, P.P.; Cheng, H.;
Edwards, R.L. An extended and higher-resolution record of climate and land use from stalagmite MC01
from Macal Chasm, Belize, revealing connections between major dry events, overall climate variability, and
Maya sociopolitical changes. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 2016, 459, 268–288. [CrossRef]
9. Lachniet, M.S.; Bernal, J.P.; Asmerom, Y.; Polyak, V.; Piperno, D. A 2400 yr Mesoamerican rainfall
reconstruction links climate and cultural change. Geology 2012, 40, 259–262. [CrossRef]
10. Lechleitner, F.A.; Breitenbach, S.F.M.; Rehfeld, K.; Ridley, H.E.; Asmerom, Y.; Prufer, K.M.; Marwan, N.;
Goswami, B.; Kennett, D.J.; Aquino, V.V.; et al. Tropical rainfall over the last two millennia: Evidence for a
low-latitude hydrologic seesaw. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 45809. [CrossRef]
11. Chen, Z.; Auler, A.S.; Bakalowicz, M.; Drew, D.; Griger, F.; Hartmann, J.; Jiang, G.; Moosdorf, N.; Richts, A.;
Stevanovic, Z.; et al. The World Karst Aquifer Mapping project: Concept, mapping procedure and map of
Europe. Hydrogeol. J. 2017, 25, 771–785. [CrossRef]
12. Palecki, M.A.; Angel, J.R.; Hollinger, S.E. Storm Precipitation in the United States. Part I: Meteorological
Characteristics. J. Appl. Meteorol. 2005, 44, 933–946. [CrossRef]
13. Redmond, K.T.; Koch, R.W. Surface climate and streamflow variability in the western United States and their
relationship to large-scale circulation indices. Water Resour. Res. 1991, 27, 2381–2399. [CrossRef]
14. Seager, R.; Hoerling, M. Atmosphere and Ocean Origins of North American Droughts. J. Clim. 2014, 27,
4581–4606. [CrossRef]
15. Cook, E.R.; Seager, R.; Cane, M.A.; Stahle, D.W. North American drought: Reconstructions, causes, and
consequences. Earth-Sci. Rev. 2007, 81, 93–134. [CrossRef]
16. Cayan, D.R.; Redmond, K.T.; Riddle, L.G. ENSO and Hydrologic Extremes in the Western United States*.
J. Clim. 1999, 12, 2881–2893. [CrossRef]
17. Friedman, I. Stable isotope composition of waters in the Great Basin, United States 1. Air-mass trajectories.
J. Geophys. Res. 2002, 107. [CrossRef]
18. Feng, W.; Casteel, R.C.; Banner, J.L.; Heinze-Fry, A. Oxygen isotope variations in rainfall, drip-water and
speleothem calcite from a well-ventilated cave in Texas, USA: Assessing a new speleothem temperature
proxy. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2014, 127, 233–250. [CrossRef]
19. Ralph, F.M.; Dettinger, M.D. Storms, floods, and the science of atmospheric rivers. EOS Trans. Am.
Geophys. Union 2011, 92, 265–266. [CrossRef]
20. Dettinger, M. Climate Change, Atmospheric Rivers, and Floods in California—A Multimodel Analysis of
Storm Frequency and Magnitude Changes1. JAWRA J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 2011, 47, 514–523. [CrossRef]
21. Zhu, Y.; Newell, R.E. A Proposed Algorithm for Moisture Fluxes from Atmospheric Rivers. Mon. Weather Rev.
1998, 126, 725–735. [CrossRef]
22. McCabe-Glynn, S.; Johnson, K.R.; Strong, C.; Zou, Y.; Yu, J.-Y.; Sellars, S.; Welker, J.M. Isotopic signature of
extreme precipitation events in the western U.S. and associated phases of Arctic and tropical climate modes.
J. Geophys. Res. D Atmos. 2016, 121, 8913–8924. [CrossRef]
23. Kim, J.-S.; Kug, J.-S.; Jeong, S.-J. Intensification of terrestrial carbon cycle related to El Niño-Southern
Oscillation under greenhouse warming. Nat. Commun. 2017, 8, 1674. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
24. Adams, D.K.; Comrie, A.C. The North American Monsoon. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 1997, 78, 2197–2213.
[CrossRef]
25. Metcalfe, S.E.; Barron, J.A.; Davies, S.J. The Holocene history of the North American Monsoon: “Known
knowns” and “known unknowns” in understanding its spatial and temporal complexity. Quat. Sci. Rev.
2015, 120, 1–27. [CrossRef]
26. Wong, C.I.; Banner, J.L.; Musgrove, M. Holocene climate variability in Texas, USA: An integration of existing
paleoclimate data and modeling with a new, high-resolution speleothem record. Quat. Sci. Rev. 2015, 127,
155–173. [CrossRef]
27. Wise, E.K. Spatiotemporal variability of the precipitation dipole transition zone in the western United States.
Geophys. Res. Lett. 2010, 37. [CrossRef]
28. Hu, Q.; Feng, S.; Oglesby, R.J. Variations in North American Summer Precipitation Driven by the Atlantic
Multidecadal Oscillation. J. Clim. 2011, 24, 5555–5570. [CrossRef]
29. Oster, J.L.; Kelley, N.P. Tracking regional and global teleconnections recorded by western North American
speleothem records. Quat. Sci. Rev. 2016, 149, 18–33. [CrossRef]
30. Vachon, R.W.; Welker, J.M.; White, J.W.C.; Vaughn, B.H. Monthly precipitation isoscapes (δ18 O) of the
United States: Connections with surface temperatures, moisture source conditions, and air mass trajectories.
J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115. [CrossRef]
31. Ersek, V.; Mix, A.C.; Clark, P.U. Variations of δ18 O in rainwater from southwestern Oregon. J. Geophys. Res.
2010, 115, D09109. [CrossRef]
32. Oster, J.L.; Montañez, I.P.; Kelley, N.P. Response of a modern cave system to large seasonal precipitation
variability. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2012, 91, 92–108. [CrossRef]
33. Berkelhammer, M.; Stott, L.; Yoshimura, K.; Johnson, K.; Sinha, A. Synoptic and mesoscale controls on the
isotopic composition of precipitation in the western United States. Clim. Dyn. 2011, 38, 433–454. [CrossRef]
34. Buenning, N.H.; Stott, L.; Yoshimura, K.; Berkelhammer, M. The cause of the seasonal variation in the oxygen
isotopic composition of precipitation along the western U.S. coast. J. Geophys. Res. D Atmos. 2012, 117.
[CrossRef]
35. Buenning, N.; Stott, L.; Kanner, L.; Yoshimura, K. Diagnosing Atmospheric Influences on the Interannual
18O/16O Variations in Western U.S. Precipitation. Water 2013, 5, 1116–1140. [CrossRef]
36. Sharp, Z. Principles of Stable Isotope Geochemistry; Pearson Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA, 2007;
344p.
37. Wright, W.E.; Long, A.; Comrie, A.C.; Leavitt, S.W.; Cavazos, T.; Eastoe, C. Monsoonal moisture sources
revealed using temperature, precipitation, and precipitation stable isotope timeseries. Geophys. Res. Lett.
2001, 28, 787–790. [CrossRef]
38. Palmer, M.V.; Palmer, A.N. Petrographic and isotopic evidence for late-stage processes in sulfuric acid caves
of the Guadalupe Mountains, New Mexico, USA. Int. J. Speleol. 2012, 41, 10. [CrossRef]
39. Winograd, I.J.; Riggs, A.C.; Coplen, T.B. The relative contributions of summer and cool-season precipitation
to groundwater recharge, Spring Mountains, Nevada, USA. Hydrogeol. J. 1998, 6, 77–93. [CrossRef]
40. Wagner, J.D.M.; Cole, J.E.; Beck, J.W.; Patchett, P.J.; Henderson, G.M.; Barnett, H.R. Moisture variability in the
southwestern United States linked to abrupt glacial climate change. Nat. Geosci. 2010, 3, 110–113. [CrossRef]
41. Pape, J.R.; Banner, J.L.; Mack, L.E.; Musgrove, M.; Guilfoyle, A. Controls on oxygen isotope variability in
precipitation and cave drip waters, central Texas, USA. J. Hydrol. 2010, 385, 203–215. [CrossRef]
42. Ersek, V.; Clark, P.U.; Mix, A.C.; Cheng, H.; Edwards, R.L. Holocene winter climate variability in mid-latitude
western North America. Nat. Commun. 2012, 3, 1219. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
43. Oster, J.L.; Montañez, I.P.; Sharp, W.D.; Cooper, K.M. Late Pleistocene California droughts during deglaciation
and Arctic warming. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2009, 288, 434–443. [CrossRef]
44. Oster, J.L.; Sharp, W.D.; Covey, A.K.; Gibson, J.; Rogers, B.; Mix, H. Climate response to the 8.2 ka event in
coastal California. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 3886. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
45. Oster, J.L.; Montañez, I.P.; Santare, L.R.; Sharp, W.D.; Wong, C.; Cooper, K.M. Stalagmite records of
hydroclimate in central California during termination 1. Quat. Sci. Rev. 2015, 127, 199–214. [CrossRef]
46. Mccabe-Glynn, S.E.; Johnson, K.R.; Berkelhammer, M.B.; Sinha, A.; Cheng, H.; Edwards, L. Pacific ocean
sea surface temperature influence on southwestern United States climate during the past millennium: New
evidence from a well-calibrated, high-resolution stalagmite δ18 O record from the Sierra Nevada, California.
Quat. Int. 2013, 310, 236–237. [CrossRef]
47. Lachniet, M.S.; Denniston, R.F.; Asmerom, Y.; Polyak, V.J. Orbital control of western North America
atmospheric circulation and climate over two glacial cycles. Nat. Commun. 2014, 5, 3805. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
48. Lachniet, M.S. Chapter 20—A Speleothem Record of Great Basin Paleoclimate: The Leviathan Chronology,
Nevada. In Developments in Earth Surface Processes; Oviatt, C.G., Shroder, J.F., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam,
The Netherlands, 2016; Volume 20, pp. 551–569.
49. Lora, J.M.; Mitchell, J.L.; Risi, C.; Tripati, A.E. North Pacific atmospheric rivers and their influence on western
North America at the Last Glacial Maximum. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2017, 44, 1051–1059. [CrossRef]
50. Bhattacharya, T.; Tierney, J.E.; Addison, J.A.; Murray, J.W. Ice-sheet modulation of deglacial North American
monsoon intensification. Nat. Geosci. 2018, 11, 848–852. [CrossRef]
51. Bartlein, P.J.; Anderson, K.H.; Anderson, P.M.; Edwards, M.E.; Mock, C.J.; Thompson, R.S.; Webb, R.S.;
Webb, T., III; Whitlock, C. Paleoclimate simulations for North America over the past 21,000 years: Features
of the simulated climate and comparisons with paleoenvironmental data. Quat. Sci. Rev. 1998, 17, 549–585.
[CrossRef]
52. Roy, P.D.; Rivero-Navarrete, A.; Sánchez-Zavala, J.L. Atlantic Ocean modulated hydroclimate of the
subtropical northeastern Mexico since the last glacial maximum and comparison with the southern US.
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2016, 434, 141–150. [CrossRef]
53. McGee, D.; Donohoe, A.; Marshall, J.; Ferreira, D. Changes in ITCZ location and cross-equatorial heat
transport at the Last Glacial Maximum, Heinrich Stadial 1, and the mid-Holocene. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.
2014, 390, 69–79. [CrossRef]
54. Harvey, F.E.; Welker, J.M. Stable isotopic composition of precipitation in the semi-arid north-central portion
of the US Great Plains. J. Hydrol. 2000, 238, 90–109. [CrossRef]
55. Aharon, P.; Dhungana, R. Ocean-atmosphere interactions as drivers of mid-to-late Holocene rapid climate
changes: Evidence from high-resolution stalagmite records at DeSoto Caverns, Southeast USA. Quat. Sci. Rev.
2017, 170, 69–81. [CrossRef]
56. Liu, Z.; Bowen, G.J.; Welker, J.M. Atmospheric circulation is reflected in precipitation isotope gradients over
the conterminous United States. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115. [CrossRef]
57. Gat, J.R.; Bowser, C.J.; Kendall, C. The contribution of evaporation from the Great Lakes to the continental
atmosphere: Estimate based on stable isotope data. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1994, 21, 557–560. [CrossRef]
58. Burnett, A.W.; Kirby, M.E.; Mullins, H.T.; Patterson, W.P. Increasing Great Lake–Effect Snowfall during the
Twentieth Century: A Regional Response to Global Warming? J. Clim. 2003, 16, 3535–3542. [CrossRef]
59. Machavaram, M.V.; Krishnamurthy, R.V. Earth surface evaporative process: A case study from the Great
Lakes region of the United States based on deuterium excess in precipitation. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1995,
59, 4279–4283. [CrossRef]
60. Dorale, J.A.; González, L.A.; Reagan, M.K.; Pickett, D.A.; Murrell, M.T.; Baker, R.G. A high-resolution record
of Holocene climate change in speleothem calcite from cold water cave, Northeast Iowa. Science 1992, 258,
1626–1630. [CrossRef]
61. Dorale, J.A.; Edwards, R.L.; Ito, E.; Gonzalez, L.A. Climate and vegetation history of the midcontinent from
75 to 25 ka: A speleothem record from crevice cave, Missouri, USA. Science 1998, 282, 1871–1874. [CrossRef]
62. Sjostrom, D.J.; Welker, J.M. The influence of air mass source on the seasonal isotopic composition of
precipitation, eastern USA. J. Geochem. Explor. 2009, 102, 103–112. [CrossRef]
63. Tian, C.; Wang, L.; Kaseke, K.F.; Bird, B.W. Stable isotope compositions (δ2 H, δ18 O and δ17 O) of rainfall and
snowfall in the central United States. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 6712. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
64. Good, S.P.; Mallia, D.V.; Lin, J.C.; Bowen, G.J. Stable isotope analysis of precipitation samples obtained
via crowdsourcing reveals the spatiotemporal evolution of Superstorm Sandy. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e91117.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
65. Lawrence, R.J.; Gedzelman, D.S. Low stable isotope ratios of tropical cyclone rains. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1996,
23, 527–530. [CrossRef]
66. Price, R.M.; Swart, P.K.; Willoughby, H.E. Seasonal and spatial variation in the stable isotopic composition
(δ18 O and δD) of precipitation in south Florida. J. Hydrol. 2008, 358, 193–205. [CrossRef]
67. Hardt, B.; Rowe, H.D.; Springer, G.S.; Cheng, H.; Edwards, R.L. The seasonality of east central North
American precipitation based on three coeval Holocene speleothems from southern West Virginia.
68. Springer, G.S.; Poston, H.A.; Hardt, B. Groundwater lowering and stream incision rates in the Central
Appalachian Mountains of West Virginia, USA. J. Speleol. 2014, 44, 99–105. [CrossRef]
69. Giannini, A.; Kushnir, Y.; Cane, M.A. Interannual Variability of Caribbean Rainfall, ENSO, and the Atlantic
Ocean*. J. Clim. 2000, 13, 297–311. [CrossRef]
70. Taylor, M.A.; Alfaro, E.J. Central America and the Caribbean, Climate of. In Encyclopedia of World Climatology;
Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2005; pp. 183–189.
71. Schneider, T.; Bischoff, T.; Haug, G.H. Migrations and dynamics of the intertropical convergence zone. Nature
2014, 513, 45–53. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
72. Waliser, D.E.; Gautier, C. A Satellite-derived Climatology of the ITCZ. J. Clim. 1993, 6, 2162–2174. [CrossRef]
73. Poveda, G.; Waylen, P.R.; Pulwarty, R.S. Annual and inter-annual variability of the present climate in
northern South America and southern Mesoamerica. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 2006, 234, 3–27.
[CrossRef]
74. Philander, S.G.H.; Gu, D.; Lambert, G.; Li, T.; Halpern, D.; Lau, N.-C.; Pacanowski, R.C. Why the ITCZ Is
Mostly North of the Equator. J. Clim. 1996, 9, 2958–2972. [CrossRef]
75. Amador, J.A. The Intra-Americas Sea Low-level Jet. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2008, 1146, 153–188. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
76. Mestas-Nuñez, A.M.; Enfield, D.B.; Zhang, C. Water Vapor Fluxes over the Intra-Americas Sea: Seasonal and
Interannual Variability and Associations with Rainfall. J. Clim. 2007, 20, 1910–1922. [CrossRef]
77. Hodell, D.A.; Anselmetti, F.S.; Ariztegui, D.; Brenner, M.; Curtis, J.H.; Gilli, A.; Grzesik, D.A.; Guilderson, T.J.;
Müller, A.D.; Bush, M.B. An 85-ka record of climate change in lowland Central America. Quat. Sci. Rev. 2008,
27, 1152–1165. [CrossRef]
78. George, R.K.; Waylen, P.; Laporte, S. Interannual variability of annual streamflow and the Southern
Oscillation in Costa Rica. Hydrol. Sci. J. 1998, 43, 409–424. [CrossRef]
79. Magaña, V.O.; Vázquez, J.L.; Pérez, J.L.; Pérez, J.B. Impact of El Niño on precipitation in Mexico. Geofís. Int.
2003, 42, 313–330.
80. Lachniet, M.S.; Patterson, W.P. Oxygen isotope values of precipitation and surface waters in northern Central
America (Belize and Guatemala) are dominated by temperature and amount effects. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.
2009, 284, 435–446. [CrossRef]
81. Lachniet, M.S.; Patterson, W.P. Use of correlation and stepwise regression to evaluate physical controls on
the stable isotope values of Panamanian rain and surface waters. J. Hydrol. 2006, 324, 115–140. [CrossRef]
82. Lachniet, M.S.; Patterson, W.P.; Burns, S.; Asmerom, Y.; Polyak, V. Caribbean and Pacific moisture sources on
the Isthmus of Panama revealed from stalagmite and surface water δ18 O gradients. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2007,
34, 149. [CrossRef]
83. Lachniet, M.S. Sea surface temperature control on the stable isotopic composition of rainfall in Panama.
84. Jones, I.C.; Banner, J.L.; Humphrey, J.D. Estimating recharge in a tropical Karst Aquifer. Water Resour. Res.
2000, 36, 1289–1299. [CrossRef]
85. Vieten, R.; Warken, S.; Winter, A.; Scholz, D.; Miller, T.; Spötl, C.; Schröder-Ritzrau, A. Monitoring of Cueva
Larga, Puerto Rico—A First Step to Decode Speleothem Climate Records. In Karst Groundwater Contamination
and Public Health; Advances in Karst Science; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2017; pp. 319–331.
86. Vieten, R.; Warken, S.; Winter, A.; Schröder-Ritzrau, A.; Scholz, D.; Spötl, C. Hurricane Impact on Seepage
Water in Larga Cave, Puerto Rico. J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci. 2018, 123, 879–888. [CrossRef]
87. Medina-Elizalde, M.; Burns, S.J.; Polanco-Martínez, J.M.; Beach, T.; Lases-Hernández, F.; Shen, C.-C.;
Wang, H.-C. High-resolution speleothem record of precipitation from the Yucatan Peninsula spanning
the Maya Preclassic Period. Glob. Planet. Chang. 2016, 138, 93–102. [CrossRef]
88. Lases-Hernandez, F.; Medina-Elizalde, M.; Burns, S.; DeCesare, M. Long-term monitoring of drip water and
groundwater stable isotopic variability in the Yucatán Peninsula: Implications for recharge and speleothem
rainfall reconstruction. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2019, 246, 41–59. [CrossRef]
89. Sánchez-Murillo, R.; Durán-Quesada, A.M.; Birkel, C.; Esquivel-Hernández, G.; Boll, J. Tropical precipitation
anomalies and d-excess evolution during El Niño 2014-16. Hydrol. Process. 2017, 31, 956–967. [CrossRef]
90. Vuille, M. Modeling δ18 O in precipitation over the tropical Americas: 1. Interannual variability and climatic
controls. J. Geophys. Res. 2003, 108. [CrossRef]
91. Arienzo, M.M.; Swart, P.K.; Pourmand, A.; Broad, K.; Clement, A.C.; Murphy, L.N.; Vonhof, H.B.; Kakuk, B.
Bahamian speleothem reveals temperature decrease associated with Heinrich stadials. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.
2015, 430, 377–386. [CrossRef]
92. Arienzo, M.M.; Swart, P.K.; Broad, K.; Clement, A.C.; Pourmand, A.; Kakuk, B. Multi-proxy evidence
of millennial climate variability from multiple Bahamian speleothems. Quat. Sci. Rev. 2017, 161, 18–29.
[CrossRef]
93. Medina-Elizalde, M.; Burns, S.J.; Lea, D.W.; Asmerom, Y.; von Gunten, L.; Polyak, V.; Vuille, M.; Karmalkar, A.
High resolution stalagmite climate record from the Yucatán Peninsula spanning the Maya terminal classic
period. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2010, 298, 255–262. [CrossRef]
94. Frappier, A.B.; Sahagian, D.; Carpenter, S.J.; González, L.A.; Frappier, B.R. Stalagmite stable isotope record
of recent tropical cyclone events. Geology 2007, 35, 111–114. [CrossRef]
95. Lachniet, M.S.; Johnson, L.; Asmerom, Y.; Burns, S.J.; Polyak, V.; Patterson, W.P.; Burt, L.; Azouz, A.
Late Quaternary moisture export across Central America and to Greenland: Evidence for tropical rainfall
variability from Costa Rican stalagmites. Quat. Sci. Rev. 2009, 28, 3348–3360. [CrossRef]
96. Moseley, G.E.; Edwards, R.L.; Wendt, K.A.; Cheng, H.; Dublyansky, Y.; Lu, Y.; Boch, R.; Spötl, C. Reconciliation
of the Devils Hole climate record with orbital forcing. Science 2016, 351, 165–168. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
97. Rehfeld, K.; Münch, T.; Ho, S.L.; Laepple, T. Global patterns of declining temperature variability from the
Last Glacial Maximum to the Holocene. Nature 2018, 554, 356–359. [CrossRef]
98. Wong, C.I.; Breecker, D.O. Advancements in the use of speleothems as climate archives. Quat. Sci. Rev. 2015,
127, 1–18. [CrossRef]
99. Lambert, W.J.; Aharon, P. Controls on dissolved inorganic carbon and δ13 C in cave waters from DeSoto
Caverns: Implications for speleothem δ13 C assessments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2011, 75, 753–768.
[CrossRef]
100. Mickler, P.J.; Banner, J.L.; Stern, L.; Asmerom, Y.; Edwards, R.L.; Ito, E. Stable isotope variations in modern
tropical speleothems: Evaluating equilibrium vs. kinetic isotope effects 1. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2004, 68,
4381–4393. [CrossRef]
101. Tremaine, D.M.; Froelich, P.N.; Wang, Y. Speleothem calcite farmed in situ: Modern calibration of δ18 O and
δ13 C paleoclimate proxies in a continuously-monitored natural cave system. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2011,
75, 4929–4950. [CrossRef]
102. Banner, J.L.; Guilfoyle, A.; James, E.W.; Stern, L.A.; Musgrove, M. Seasonal Variations in Modern Speleothem
Calcite Growth in Central Texas, U.S.A. J. Sediment. Res. 2007, 77, 615–622. [CrossRef]
103. Wong, C.I.; Banner, J.L.; Musgrove, M. Seasonal dripwater Mg/Ca and Sr/Ca variations driven by cave
ventilation: Implications for and modeling of speleothem paleoclimate records. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta
2011, 75, 3514–3529. [CrossRef]
104. Meyer, K.W.; Feng, W.; Breecker, D.O.; Banner, J.L.; Guilfoyle, A. Interpretation of speleothem calcite δ13 C
variations: Evidence from monitoring soil CO2 , drip water, and modern speleothem calcite in central Texas.
Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2014, 142, 281–298. [CrossRef]
105. Daëron, M.; Guo, W.; Eiler, J.; Genty, D.; Blamart, D.; Boch, R.; Drysdale, R.; Maire, R.; Wainer, K.; Zanchetta, G.
13 C18 O clumping in speleothems: Observations from natural caves and precipitation experiments. Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta 2011, 75, 3303–3317. [CrossRef]

106. Feng, W.; Banner, J.L.; Guilfoyle, A.L.; Musgrove, M.; James, E.W. Oxygen isotopic fractionation between drip
water and speleothem calcite: A 10-year monitoring study, central Texas, USA. Chem. Geol. 2012, 304–305,
53–67. [CrossRef]
107. Rehfeld, K.; Kurths, J. Similarity estimators for irregular and age-uncertain time series. Clim. Past 2014, 10,
108. Epskamp, S.; Cramer, A.; Waldorp, L.; Schmittmann, V.; Borsboom, D. qgraph: Network Visualizations of
Relationships in Psychometric Data. J. Stat. Softw. 2012, 48, 1–18. [CrossRef]
109. Dansgaard, W.; Johnsen, S.J.; Clausen, H.B.; Dahl-Jensen, D.; Gundestrup, N.; Hammer, C.U.; Oeschger, H.
North Atlantic climatic oscillations revealed by deep Greenland ice cores. In Climate Processes and Climate
Sensitivity; Hansen, J.E., Takahashi, T., Eds.; Geophysical Monograph Series; American Geophysical Union:
Washington, DC, USA, 1984; Volume 29, pp. 288–298. ISBN 9780875904047.
110. Oster, J.L.; Montañez, I.P.; Mertz-Kraus, R.; Sharp, W.D.; Stock, G.M.; Spero, H.J.; Tinsley, J.; Zachos, J.C.
Millennial-scale variations in western Sierra Nevada precipitation during the last glacial cycle MIS 4/3
transition. Quat. Res. 2014, 82, 236–248. [CrossRef]
111. Shakun, J.D.; Burns, S.J.; Clark, P.U.; Cheng, H.; Edwards, R.L. Milankovitch-paced Termination II in a
Nevada speleothem? Geophys. Res. Lett. 2011, 38, L18701. [CrossRef]
112. Springer, G.S.; Rowe, H.D.; Hardt, B.; Cheng, H.; Edwards, R.L. East central North America climates during
marine isotope stages 3–5. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2014, 41, 3233–3237. [CrossRef]
113. Berger, A. Long-Term Variations of Daily Insolation and Quaternary Climatic Changes. J. Atmos. Sci. 1978,
35, 2362–2367. [CrossRef]
114. Winograd, I.J.; Coplen, T.B.; Landwehr, J.M.; Riggs, A.C.; Ludwig, K.R.; Szabo, B.J.; Kolesar, P.T.; Revesz, K.M.
Continuous 500,000-year climate record from vein calcite in Devils hole, Nevada. Science 1992, 258, 255–260.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
115. Seierstad, I.K.; Abbott, P.M.; Bigler, M.; Blunier, T.; Bourne, A.J.; Brook, E.; Buchardt, S.L.; Buizert, C.;
Clausen, H.B.; Cook, E.; et al. Consistently dated records from the Greenland GRIP, GISP2 and NGRIP ice
cores for the past 104 ka reveal regional millennial-scale δ18 O gradients with possible Heinrich event imprint.
Quat. Sci. Rev. 2014, 106, 29–46. [CrossRef]
116. Lachniet, M.S.; Asmerom, Y.; Bernal, J.P.; Polyak, V.J.; Vazquez-Selem, L. Orbital pacing and ocean
circulation-induced collapses of the Mesoamerican monsoon over the past 22,000 y. Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. USA 2013, 110, 9255–9260. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
117. Broccoli, A.J.; Dahl, K.A.; Stouffer, R.J. Response of the ITCZ to Northern Hemisphere cooling.
118. Schmidt, M.W.; Spero, H.J. Meridional shifts in the marine ITCZ and the tropical hydrologic cycle over the
last three glacial cycles. Paleoceanogr. Paleoclimatol. 2011, 26. [CrossRef]
119. Wang, X.; Auler, A.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Cheng, H.; Ito, E.; Wang, Y.; Kong, X.; Solheid, M. Millennial-scale
precipitation changes in southern Brazil over the past 90,000 years. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2007, 34. [CrossRef]
120. Singarayer, J.S.; Valdes, P.J.; Roberts, W.H.G. Ocean dominated expansion and contraction of the late
Quaternary tropical rainbelt. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 9382. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
121. Munroe, J.S.; Laabs, B.J.C. Temporal correspondence between pluvial lake highstands in the southwestern
US and Heinrich Event 1. J. Quat. Sci. 2013, 28, 49–58. [CrossRef]
122. Ibarra, D.E.; Egger, A.E.; Weaver, K.L.; Harris, C.R.; Maher, K. Rise and fall of late Pleistocene pluvial lakes
in response to reduced evaporation and precipitation: Evidence from Lake Surprise, California. GSA Bull.
2014, 126, 1387–1415. [CrossRef]
123. McGee, D.; Moreno-Chamarro, E.; Green, B.; Marshall, J.; Galbraith, E.; Bradtmiller, L. Hemispherically
asymmetric trade wind changes as signatures of past ITCZ shifts. Quat. Sci. Rev. 2018, 180, 214–228.
[CrossRef]
124. Lachniet, M.S.; Asmerom, Y.; Polyak, V. Deglacial paleoclimate in the southwestern United States: An abrupt
18.6 ka cold event and evidence for a North Atlantic forcing of Termination I. Quat. Sci. Rev. 2011, 30,
3803–3811. [CrossRef]
125. Broecker, W.; Putnam, A.E. How did the hydrologic cycle respond to the two-phase mystery interval? Quat.
Sci. Rev. 2012, 57, 17–25. [CrossRef]
126. Wong, C.I.; Potter, G.L.; Montañez, I.P.; Otto-Bliesner, B.L.; Behling, P.; Oster, J.L. Evolution of moisture
transport to the western US during the last deglaciation. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2016, 43, 3468–3477. [CrossRef]
127. Hermann, N.W.; Oster, J.L.; Ibarra, D.E. Spatial patterns and driving mechanisms of mid-Holocene
hydroclimate in western North America. J. Quat. Sci. 2018, 33, 421–434. [CrossRef]
128. Bernal, J.P.; Lachniet, M.; McCulloch, M.; Mortimer, G.; Morales, P.; Cienfuegos, E. A speleothem record of
Holocene climate variability from southwestern Mexico. Quat. Res. 2011, 75, 104–113. [CrossRef]
129. Winter, A.; Miller, T.; Kushnir, Y.; Sinha, A.; Timmermann, A.; Jury, M.R.; Gallup, C.; Cheng, H.; Edwards, R.L.
Evidence for 800 years of North Atlantic multi-decadal variability from a Puerto Rican speleothem.
130. Lachniet, M.S.; Asmerom, Y.; Polyak, V.; Bernal, J.P. Two millennia of Mesoamerican monsoon variability
driven by Pacific and Atlantic synergistic forcing. Quat. Sci. Rev. 2017, 155, 100–113. [CrossRef]
131. Webster, J.W.; Brook, G.A.; Railsback, L.B.; Cheng, H.; Edwards, R.L.; Alexander, C.; Reeder, P.P. Stalagmite
evidence from Belize indicating significant droughts at the time of Preclassic Abandonment, the Maya
Hiatus, and the Classic Maya collapse. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 2007, 250, 1–17. [CrossRef]
132. Wang, X.; Auler, A.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Cheng, H.; Ito, E.; Solheid, M. Interhemispheric anti-phasing of rainfall
during the last glacial period. Quat. Sci. Rev. 2006, 25, 3391–3403. [CrossRef]
133. Arbuszewski, J.A.; deMenocal, P.B.; Cléroux, C.; Bradtmiller, L.; Mix, A. Meridional shifts of the Atlantic
intertropical convergence zone since the Last Glacial Maximum. Nat. Geosci. 2013, 6, 959–962. [CrossRef]
134. Wang, P.X.; Wang, B.; Cheng, H.; Fasullo, J.; Guo, Z.T.; Kiefer, T.; Liu, Z.Y. The global monsoon across
timescales: Coherent variability of regional monsoons. Clim. Past 2014, 10, 2007–2052. [CrossRef]
135. Cruz, F.W., Jr.; Burns, S.J.; Karmann, I.; Sharp, W.D.; Vuille, M.; Cardoso, A.O.; Ferrari, J.A.; Dias, P.L.S.;
Viana, O. Insolation-driven changes in atmospheric circulation over the past 116,000 years in subtropical
Brazil. Nature 2005, 434, 63–66. [CrossRef]
136. Sachs, J.P.; Sachse, D.; Smittenberg, R.H.; Zhang, Z.; Battisti, D.S.; Golubic, S. Southward movement of the
Pacific intertropical convergence zone AD 1400–1850. Nat. Geosci. 2009, 2, 519–525. [CrossRef]
137. Collins, J.A.; Schefuß, E.; Heslop, D.; Mulitza, S.; Prange, M.; Zabel, M.; Tjallingii, R.; Dokken, T.M.; Huang, E.;
Mackensen, A.; et al. Interhemispheric symmetry of the tropical African rainbelt over the past 23,000 years.
Nat. Geosci. 2010, 4, 42–45. [CrossRef]
138. Denniston, R.F.; Ummenhofer, C.C.; Wanamaker, A.D.; Lachniet, M.S.; Villarini, G.; Asmerom, Y.; Polyak, V.J.;
Passaro, K.J.; Cugley, J.; Woods, D.; et al. Expansion and Contraction of the Indo-Pacific Tropical Rain Belt
over the Last Three Millennia. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 34485. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
139. Yan, H.; Wei, W.; Soon, W.; An, Z.; Zhou, W.; Liu, Z.; Wang, Y.; Carter, R.M. Dynamics of the intertropical
convergence zone over the western Pacific during the Little Ice Age. Nat. Geosci. 2015, 8, 315–320. [CrossRef]
140. Ridley, H.E.; Asmerom, Y.; Baldini, J.U.L.; Breitenbach, S.F.M.; Aquino, V.V.; Prufer, K.M.; Culleton, B.J.;
Polyak, V.; Lechleitner, F.A.; Kennett, D.J.; et al. Aerosol forcing of the position of the intertropical
convergence zone since ad 1550. Nat. Geosci. 2015, 8, 195–200. [CrossRef]
141. Winter, A.; Zanchettin, D.; Miller, T.; Kushnir, Y.; Black, D.; Lohmann, G.; Burnett, A.; Haug, G.H.;
Estrella-Martínez, J.; Breitenbach, S.F.M.; et al. Persistent drying in the tropics linked to natural forcing.
Nat. Commun. 2015, 6, 7627. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
142. Zanchettin, D.; Timmreck, C.; Graf, H.-F.; Rubino, A.; Lorenz, S.; Lohmann, K.; Krüger, K.; Jungclaus, J.H.
Bi-decadal variability excited in the coupled ocean–atmosphere system by strong tropical volcanic eruptions.
Clim. Dyn. 2012, 39, 419–444. [CrossRef]
143. Lachniet, M.S. Are aragonite stalagmites reliable paleoclimate proxies? Tests for oxygen isotope time-series
replication and equilibrium. GSA Bull. 2015, 127, 1521–1533. [CrossRef]
144. Dorale, J.A.; Liu, Z. Limitations of Hendy test criteria in judging the paleoclimatic suitability of speleothems
and the need for replication. J. Cave Karst Stud. 2009, 71, 73–80.
145. Aharon, P.; Aldridge, D.; Hellstrom, J. Rainfall Variability and the Rise and Collapse of the Mississippian
Chiefdoms: Evidence from a Desoto Caverns Stalagmite: Giosan/Climates, Landscapes, and Civilizations.
In Climates, Landscapes, and Civilizations; Giosan, L., Fuller, D.Q., Nicoll, K., Flad, R.K., Clift, P.D., Eds.;
Geophysical Monograph Series; American Geophysical Union: Washington, DC, USA, 2012; pp. 35–42,
ISBN 9781118704325.
146. Pollock, A.L.; van Beynen, P.E.; DeLong, K.L.; Polyak, V.; Asmerom, Y. A speleothem-based mid-Holocene
precipitation reconstruction for West-Central Florida. Holocene 2017, 27, 987–996. [CrossRef]
147. Polyak, V.J.; Asmerom, Y.; Burns, S.J.; Lachniet, M.S. Climatic backdrop to the terminal Pleistocene extinction
of North American mammals. Geology 2012, 40, 1023–1026. [CrossRef]
148. Denniston, R.F.; González, L.A.; Asmerom, Y.; Baker, R.G.; Reagan, M.K.; Arthur Bettis, E. Evidence for
increased cool season moisture during the middle Holocene. Geology 1999, 27, 815–818. [CrossRef]
149. Denniston, R.F.; DuPree, M.; Dorale, J.A.; Asmerom, Y.; Polyak, V.J.; Carpenter, S.J. Episodes of late Holocene
aridity recorded by stalagmites from Devil’s icebox Cave, Central Missouri, USA. Quat. Res. 2007, 68, 45–52.
[CrossRef]
150. Lundeen, Z.; Brunelle, A.; Burns, S.J.; Polyak, V.; Asmerom, Y. A speleothem record of Holocene paleoclimate
from the northern Wasatch Mountains, southeast Idaho, USA. Quat. Int. 2013, 310, 83–95. [CrossRef]
151. Pollock, A.L.; van Beynen, P.E.; DeLong, K.L.; Polyak, V.; Asmerom, Y.; Reeder, P.P. A mid-Holocene
paleoprecipitation record from Belize. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 2016, 463, 103–111. [CrossRef]
152. Denniston, R.F.; Asmerom, Y.; Polyak, V.; Dorale, J.A.; Carpenter, S.J.; Trodick, C.; Hoye, B.; González, L.A.
Synchronous millennial-scale climatic changes in the Great Basin and the North Atlantic during the last
interglacial. Geology 2007, 35, 619–622. [CrossRef]
153. Marshall, D.; Ghaleb, B.; Countess, R.; Gabities, J. Preliminary paleoclimate reconstruction based on a 12,500
year old speleothem from Vancouver Island, Canada: Stable isotopes and U-Th disequilibrium dating.
Quat. Sci. Rev. 2009, 28, 2507–2513. [CrossRef]
154. Mangini, A.; Blumbach, P.; Verdes, P.; Spötl, C.; Scholz, D.; Machel, H.; Mahon, S. Combined records from
a stalagmite from Barbados and from lake sediments in Haiti reveal variable seasonality in the Caribbean
between 6.7 and 3 ka BP. Quat. Sci. Rev. 2007, 26, 1332–1343. [CrossRef]
155. Fensterer, C.; Scholz, D.; Hoffmann, D.; Spötl, C.; Pajón, J.M.; Mangini, A. Cuban stalagmite suggests
relationship between Caribbean precipitation and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation during the past
1.3 ka. Holocene 2012, 22, 1405–1412. [CrossRef]
156. Fensterer, C.; Scholz, D.; Hoffmann, D.L.; Spötl, C.; Schröder-Ritzrau, A.; Horn, C.; Pajón, J.M.; Mangini, A.
Millennial-scale climate variability during the last 12.5ka recorded in a Caribbean speleothem. Earth Planet.
Sci. Lett. 2013, 361, 143–151. [CrossRef]
157. Stinnesbeck, W.; Becker, J.; Hering, F.; Frey, E.; González, A.G.; Fohlmeister, J.; Stinnesbeck, S.; Frank, N.;
Terrazas Mata, A.; Benavente, M.E.; et al. The earliest settlers of Mesoamerica date back to the late Pleistocene.
PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0183345. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
158. Asmerom, Y.; Polyak, V.J.; Rasmussen, J.B.T.; Burns, S.J.; Lachniet, M. Multidecadal to multicentury scale
collapses of Northern Hemisphere monsoons over the past millennium. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2013, 110,
9651–9656. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
159. McCabe-Glynn, S.; Johnson, K.R.; Strong, C.; Berkelhammer, M.; Sinha, A.; Cheng, H.; Edwards, R.L. Variable
North Pacific influence on drought in southwestern North America since AD 854. Nat. Geosci. 2013, 6,
160. Denniston, R.F.; González, L.A.; Asmerom, Y.; Reagan, M.K.; Recelli-Snyder, H. Speleothem carbon isotopic
records of Holocene environments in the Ozark Highlands, USA. Quat. Int. 2000, 67, 21–27. [CrossRef]
161. Denniston, R.F.; González, L.A.; Baker, R.G.; Asmerom, Y.; Reagan, M.K.; Edwards, R.L.; Alexander, E.C.
Speleothem evidence for Holocene fluctuations of the prairie-forest ecotone, north-central USA. Holocene
1999, 9, 671–676. [CrossRef]
162. Denniston, R.F.; Gonzalez, L.A.; Asmerom, Y.; Polyak, V.; Reagan, M.K.; Saltzman, M.R. A high-resolution
speleothem record of climatic variability at the Allerød–Younger Dryas transition in Missouri, central United
States. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 2001, 176, 147–155. [CrossRef]
163. Lachniet, M.S.; Asmerom, Y.; Burns, S.J.; Patterson, W.P.; Polyak, V.J.; Seltzer, G.O. Tropical response to the
8200 yr B.P. cold event? Speleothem isotopes indicate a weakened early Holocene monsoon in Costa Rica.
Geology 2004, 32, 957–960. [CrossRef]
164. Rivera-Collazo, I.; Winter, A.; Scholz, D.; Mangini, A.; Miller, T.; Kushnir, Y.; Black, D. Human adaptation
strategies to abrupt climate change in Puerto Rico ca. 3.5 ka. Holocene 2015, 25, 627–640. [CrossRef]
165. Asmerom, Y.; Polyak, V.; Burns, S.; Rassmussen, J. Solar forcing of Holocene climate: New insights from a
speleothem record, southwestern United States. Geology 2007, 35, 1–4. [CrossRef]
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Speleothem Paleoclimatology For The Caribbean, Central America, and North America

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Speleothem Paleoclimatology For The Caribbean, Central America, and North America

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Speleothem Paleoclimatology For The Caribbean, Central America, and North America

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

quaternary

Quaternary 2019, 2, 5; doi:10.3390/quat2010005 www.mdpi.com/journal/quaternary

2. Study Region and Climate

2.1.2.1. Climate and Controls on δ 18Op in Western North America

2.1.2. Controls on δ18 Op and δ18 Ospel

2.2.1. Climate of Eastern North18America

2.2.2. Controls on δ18 Op and δ18 Ospel

2.3.1. Climate of Central America and the Caribbean

2.3.2. Controls on δ18 Op and δ18 Ospel

3. North and Central American Speleothem Records in SISAL_v1

3.1. Spatial and Temporal Coverage and Regional Potential

3.2. Monitoring and Instrumental Data Availability

4.1.2. Last Glacial Maximum and Deglaciation

rainbelt, rather than an expansion or contraction, in response to asymmetric extra-tropical forcing

4.2.1. Early and Middle Holocene

4.2.2. Last 2000 Years

4.2.2. Last 2000 Years

5. Improvements to SISAL for North and Central America

Table 1. Identified North and Central American speleothem records.

Rec1 Rec2 Test_Start (yr BP) Test_End (yr_BP) gXCF

Cosmochim. Acta 2011, 75, 3303–3317. [CrossRef]

You might also like