Moisture Determination by

Karl Fischer Titration

Background of the Chemistry and Recent Developments

Craig Aurand
Supelco/Sigma-Aldrich
Bellefonte, Pa
Overview

Karl Fischer History

Pyridine vs. HYDRANAL®
Instrumentation Types- Coulometric or Volumetric
Sample Solubility
Control of pH
Side Reactions
Quality Control-Water Standards
Instrument Maintenance

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 What is Karl Fischer
titration?
• Karl Fischer is an analytical technique used to
measure the moisture (water) content in solids,
liquids or gases.
• Karl Fischer was a chemist working at a
petrochemical company in Germany in the 1930’s.
He developed the technique. Sigma-Aldrich’s
Riedel-de Haën chemists Eugen Scholz and Helga
Hoffmann improved upon it.
• Titration is defined as:
• “A technique to determine the concentration of a
substance in solution by adding to it a standard
reagent of known concentration in carefully
measured amounts until a reaction of definite and
known proportion is completed, as shown by a color
change or by electrical measurement, and then
calculating the unknown concentration.”

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 How does K-F titration
work?
In general, K-F titration can be summarized into a series of steps:
1. Add reagent (“titrant”) to a burette
• The reagents include alcohol, SO2, a base and I2
2. Add sample solvent to the titration vessel
3. Begin stirring the vessel
4. Zero the instrument by titrating unwanted moisture in the system
5. Add the weighed sample to the titration vessel
6. Begin adding reagent from the burette while stirring
7. When the endpoint is reached, the electrode will detect no change in current
upon addition of more reagent
8. By knowing how much titrant was added, the water content can be calculated
9. Normally, the K-F instrument does the calculations and reports the results as “%
water” or “ppm water.”

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 The Karl Fischer reaction
K-F titration involves two reactions:
• In the first reaction, an alcohol (usually methanol or ethanol), sulfur dioxide
(SO2) and a base (RN) react to form an alkylsulfite intermediate:

(rxn. 1) CH3OH + SO2 + RN  [RNH]SO3CH3

• In the second reaction, the alkylsulfite reacts with iodine (I2) and the water
from the sample:

(rxn. 2) [RNH]SO3CH3 + I2 + H2O + 2RN  [RNH]SO4CH3 + 2[RNH]I

• Since water and I2 are consumed in equimolar amounts in reaction 2, if you

know the amount of I2 consumed, you know the amount of water that was
present in the sample.

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 Types of K-F titration
• There are 2 types of K-F titration: Volumetric & Coulometric

• Although the endpoint of the reaction is marked by a persistence of the yellow (I2)
color, using the eyes is not very accurate. Both methods use bipotentiometric
titration to measure the amount of I2 consumed by the water

• Bipotentiometric titration is simply monitoring the extent of reaction by measuring

changes in electrical conductivity of the reaction solution

• The difference between them is primarily in the way the I2 is generated:

• In volumetric titration, the I2 is included with the reagents
• In coulometric titration, the I2 is generated at an electrode

• Which one the customer chooses depends on:

• The method they are following or personal preferences (if any)
• The titration equipment they currently have in their lab
• The water levels in the sample, generally:
– Volumetric: 0.1 – 100% H2O
– Coulometric: 0.001 – 0.1% H2O
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 Bipotentiometric titration:
Measuring I2
• The second reaction in the K-F titration – the one that actually consumes the
water – is a redox reaction:
[RNH]SO3CH3 + I2 + H2O +2RN  [RNH]SO4CH3 + 2[RNH]I

• Sulfur is oxidized from alkylsulfite (oxidation number +4) to alkylsulfate

(oxidation number +6):
SO3CH3-2  SO4CH3-2 + 2e-

• Iodine is reduced:
I2 + 2e-  2I- (E0 = 0.54 V)

• The reduction of iodine consumes electrons generated by the oxidation of sulfur,

which changes the electrical potential of the system.
• The change in potential is detected by an electrode (a double platinum
electrode).

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Instrumentation Types

Coulometric or Volumetric

•While both techniques are based on the same two step reaction mechanism, they differ in
the way that Iodine is introduced to the reaction

•The same K-F reactions occur in Coulometric titration as do in Volumetric titration

•However, in the Coulometric system, the I2 is generated in situ rather than added as a
reagent
•It is generally considered more sensitive to lower water levels
•The I2 is generated at the anode:2 I- I2 + 2e-
•The cathode reaction is: 2RNH + 2e- H2 + 2RN

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The Coulometric System
• Micro Detection System

• “Absolute Method”

• High Water Capacity Reagents

• Designed for Titration of Liquids & Gases Only

• Less System Flexibility

• Co-Solvents are limited

• No Option for Temperature Modification

• No Option for Homogenizer

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Cell with diaphragm

The cell with the diaphragm uses two solutions, one in the
cathode chamber the other in the anode chamber.

Cathode compartment filled with Anode compartment filled with Titration begins. Note H2
catholyte solution (e.g. anolyte solution (e.g. formation (bubbles) at the
HYDRANAL®- Coulomat CG) HYDRANAL®- Coulomat AG) cathode:
I2 formation occurs at the anode: 2H+ + 2e-  H2(g)
2I-  I2 +2e-
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 Cell without diaphragm

• The diaphragmless cell uses one solution that has all reagents needed for K-F titration
(e.g. HYDRANAL®- Coulomat AG).

Cathode (reduction)
H2 formation:
2H+ + 2e-  H2
(cathode not visible in
this picture)

Anode (oxidation)
I2 formation:
2I-  I2 +2e-
note brown color Double platinum
indicator electrode

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The Volumetric System

• Designed for Higher Water Concentrations

• Fast Titration (30 mg Water per minute)

• Designed for Titration of Solids, Liquids & Gases

• System Flexibility
• Modified Solvent Systems
• Temperature Adjustment
• Peripheral Equipment (Homogenizer, Oven)

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One Component System
The one component systems are the most popular.
The benefit of a one component volumetric titration is that it
has almost unlimited water capacity.

Titrant
Contains all reactants (SO2, I2 and base) except the
water, dissolved in diethyleneglycol monoethyl
ether (DEGEE) (e.g. HYDRANAL®- Composite)

Burette

Sample solvent
Methanol or other solvent to which sample is
added (e.g. HYDRANAL®- Methanol Dry/ Methanol
Titration Rapid or CompoSolver E)
vessel

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Two Component System
The benefits of a two component volumetric titration are:
• Higher titration speed
• Greater accuracy for small amounts of water
• Higher buffer capacity
• Exact and stable titer

Titrant
Contains I2 in methanol or ethanol
(e.g. HYDRANAL®- Titrant or Titrant E)

Burette

Sample solvent
Contains SO2 and base in methanol or ethanol
(e.g. HYDRANAL®- Solvent or Solvent E)
Titration
vessel

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Volumetric System

Different Burette systems

Older style burette

New style burette

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Sample Solubility
Sample Solubility is Extremely Important to Obtain Total Water
Content

•Total Water = Surface Water + Bound Water

•Methods to Improve Sample Solubility
•Co-Solvent Additions
•Elevate Solvent System Temperature
•Add Homogenizer to System

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Sample Solubility

Co-Solvent Addition - Chloroform

• Dissolution of fats, oils, and long-chained hydrocarbons is poor in Methanol

• Increases the solubility of long chain Carboxylic Acids,Ethers, Hydrocarbons

• Inhibits the dissolution of inorganic salts, and some sugars

• Changes the KF reaction stoichiometry...

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Sample Solubility
Co-Solvent Addition - Chloroform
Reagents Containing Chloroform

HYDRANAL®- Coulomat A
General use for a system with a HYDRANAL®- Solvent CM
diaphragm, contains methanol
Solvent for use with oils; mix
and chloroform
of chloroform and methanol

HYDRANAL®- Coulomat Oil

HYDRANAL®- LipoSolver CM
Anolyte for analysis of oils, Solvent for use with Lipids; mix
contains methanol, of chloroform and methanol
chloroform and xylene
HYDRANAL®- Chloroform HYDRANAL®- Solver (Crude) Oil
Use as co-solvent for Karl Fischer
Max Water 0.01% Solvent for use with oils; mix of methanol,
18 chloroform and xylene
Sample Solubility

Co-Solvent Addition - Alcohol

• Dissolution of long-chained hydrocarbons is poor in Methanol

• Increases the solubility of long chain Carboxylic Acids,Ethers, Hydrocarbons

• Suitable alcohols include: 1-Propanol, 1-Pentanol, and 1-Hexanol

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Sample Solubility
Co-Solvent Addition - Alcohol
Reagents Containing Alcohol

HYDRANAL®- Coulomat AG HYDRANAL®- Solvent Oil

General use with or without a
Solvent for use with oils; free
diaphragm, methanol based
of halogenated hydrocarbons
HYDRANAL®- Coulomat AG-H
Specially manufactured for use with HYDRANAL®- LipoSolver MH
long-chained hydrocarbons and oils Solvent for use with Lipids; mix
in a system with or without a of 1-Hexanol and methanol
diaphragm,contains methanol and 1-
pentanol HYDRANAL®- CompoSolver E

HYDRANAL®- Coulomat E Ethanol based solvent for one component

Ethanol based anolyte, safer less titration. Replaces Methanol
toxic formulation. Contains
Methanol.
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Sample Solubility
Co-Solvent Addition - Formamide

• Formamide improves solubility of polar substances in Methanol

• Addition of Formamide is preferred for analysis of carbohydrates, proteins, and

inorganic salts

• Increases the speed of the Karl Fischer reaction

• Incompatible in a coulometric cell with a diaphragm

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Sample Solubility
Co-Solvent Addition - Organic Solvents

• Acetonitrile good polar solvent

• N-Methylpyrrolidone dissolves polymer

• Pyridine good polar solvent, also basic for neutralization of acids

• Toluene, Xylene improve solubility of dirty oils

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Sample Solubility

Co-Solvent Addition - Solvents to Avoid

• Dimethylformamide delays KF reaction (Lab Report L424)

• Dimethylsulfoxide recovery rates are too low (Lab Report L141)

• Secondary and Tertiary Alcohols cause increase in titer values

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Sample Solubility
Co-Solvent Addition Recommendations

Co-Solvent Addition Limit Addition Limit Addition Limit

Volumetric Coulometric W/D Coulometric WO/D
Chloroform 70% 25% 0%
Alcohol 70% 30% 20%
Formamide 50% 0% 20%
N-Methylpyrrolidone 50% 0% 0%
Pyridine 70% 30% 20%
Toluene 70% 30% 20%
Xylene 70% 30% 20%
W/D = With Diaphragm WO/D = Without Diaphragm

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Titration at Elevated
Temperature

Sluggish Titrations
Sample is slow to dissolve
Sample releases water slowly

Titration at 50° C
Use Thermostatically Controlled Vessel
Co-Solvent addition acceptable

Change of titrator
parameters not
necessary
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Addition of the Homogenizer

• Used directly in the titration cell

• Volumetric system only

• Increases surface area and water extraction of the sample

• Ideal for solid samples and viscous liquids

• Pharmaceutical tablets
• Foodstuffs
• Paints and Oils

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 Influence of the base
• Both K-F reactions:
(rxn. 1) CH3OH + SO2 + RN  [RNH]SO3CH3
pyridine
(rxn. 2) [RNH]SO3CH3 + I2 + H2O + 2RN  [RNH]SO4CH3 + 2[RNH]I
imidazole

depend on a base (RN).

• Pyridine was the original K-F base.
• pyridine, because of its weak basicity, cannot totally neutralize the
methylsulfurous acid.
• The equilibrium in rxn. 1 is not completely shifted to the right. The reaction
with pyridine is therefore slow and the endpoint is not stable, often making the
repeatability using pyridine very poor.

Imidazole was chosen to replace pyridine.

• Imidazole shifts the rxn. 1 completely to the right, reaction is swift and
endpoints clear and stable.
• Imidazole also does not have the unpleasant odor and toxicity of pyridine.
• imidazole is the patented foundation of the HYDRANAL® line

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Pyridine vs. HYDRANAL®
Titration Speed

pH=4

pH=5

pH=6

Key: A=Titrant/Solvent, B=Composite/Methanol, C=Pyridine/Methanol

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Control of pH
Neutralization of Acids
Low pH decreases the KF reaction rate
Neutralize acids using:
HYDRANAL®- Buffer Acid - Volumetric system only
Imidazole Coulometric system
Recommended amount of Imidazole
Volumetry: 7g of Imidazole per 30 ml solvent
Coulometry: 20g of Imidazole per 100ml anolyte
HYDRANAL®- Buffer Acid not compatible with Methanol reactive
compounds.

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Control of pH
Neutralization of Acids
Acids can shift working pH of the Karl Fischer system

Aqueous Acids-neutralize in titration vessel with

HYDRANAL® - Imidazole or HYDRANAL®- Buffer Acid

Concentrated Acids-neutralize in methanol free medium

before titration.

HYDRANAL® - Buffer Acid should not be used in this case,

because it contains Methanol.

Strong Carboxylic Acids-must be neutralized

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Effect of pH on Equivalent
Potential

pH=4

pH=5

pH=6

Key: A=Titrant/Solvent, B=Composite/Methanol, C=Pyridine/Methanol

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 pH influence on Karl
Fischer
• A pH between 5 and 7.5 is the optimum range for a Karl Fischer titration. Below a
pH of 2, the reaction will not run. From pH 2 – 5, reaction is slow. Above a pH of 8,
the iodine is consumed by side reactions causing false high results
• Our K-F reagents are designed to give optimum pH control

Optimum pH range

Side
Slow reactions
reaction

No reaction

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pH dependence of the Karl Fischer reaction
Control of pH
Neutralization of Bases
High pH will slowly consume iodine

Neutralize bases using:

HYDRANAL®-Buffer Base
Benzoic Acid
Salicylic Acid

Recommended amount of Benzoic or Salicylic

Volumetry: 7g of Acid per 30 ml solvent
Coulometry: 20g of Acid per 100ml anolyte

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Control of pH
Neutralization of Bases
Bases can shift working pH of KF system

Weak basic amines (heterocycles)- no system modifications

required

Strong basic amines (aliphatic amines)-require

HYDRANAL®- Benzoic Acid or
HYDRANAL®- Buffer Base

Irregular amines-require
HYDRANAL®- Benzoic acid and methanol-free solvent system

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Side Reactions
Side Reactions Classified as…

Reactions Influenced by Methanol

• Aldehydes react to form acetals, also undergo

Bisulfite addition
• Ketones react to form ketals
• Amines undergo methylation
• Siloxanes undergo esterification

Reactions with Iodine

• Halogenated Hydrocarbons containing free

halogens
• Mercaptans (Thiols)
• Phenols
• Peroxides

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Methanol Side Reactions
Aldehyes and Ketones React with Methanol forming acetal

R CH3OH R OCH3
C O+ C + H2O
R CH3OH R OCH3
Water is the by-product

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Methanol Free Reagents
Volumetric Reagents

• HYDRANAL®- Composite 5K
Titrating reagent for water determination of Aldehydes
and Ketones
• HYDRANAL®- Working Medium K
Working medium for water determination of Aldehydes
and Ketones. Contains Chloroform and Chloroethanol.
• HYDRANAL®- Medium K
Working medium for water determination of Aldehydes and
Ketones. Contains Chloroform and 2,2,2-Trifluroethanol.
• HYDRANAL®- KetoSolver
Working medium for water determination of Aldehydes
and Ketones. Free of halogenated hydrocarbons.

Coulometric Reagents

• HYDRANAL®- Coulomat AK
Anolyte for the water determination of Ketones.
• HYDRANAL®- Coulomat CG-K
Catholyte for the water determination of Ketones
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Iodine Side Reactions

Testing for Iodine Reactivity

• Dissolve a few Iodine Crystals in Methanol and Introduce Sample

• Watch for Solution to Change Color, if Clear Iodine Reaction is Present

Reactions with Iodine

• Halogenated Hydrocarbons containing free halogens require reducing the free halogen
• Reducing agent contains 10 g Imidazole + 5g SO2 in 100 ml MeOH
• Requires a blank of the reducing agent
• HYDRANAL® Solvent can be used as Reducing Agent

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Iodine Side Reactions

Reactions with Iodine

Mercaptans (Thiols) are oxidized by iodine

2 RSH + I2 RSSR + 2 HI

Suppress the side reaction by treating sample with N-ethylmaleimide in a buffered

solvent system using HYDRANAL®- Buffer Acid

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Iodine Side Reactions
Reactions with Iodine
Inhibition of Thiol Oxidation by Iodine

Volumetric Thiol Reduction

Composite 5 + (5:1) MeOH/ Buffer with 1 g N-

ethylmaleimide

Sample introduced to solvent allowing 5 min

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pre-stir time
Iodine Side Reactions
Reactions with Iodine

• Most Phenols do not react with KF reagents, higher molecular weight phenols and
amino-phenols are most problematic

• Volumetric method is most suitable since the Oxidation potential is high in coulometry

• Acidify Solvent system to reduce interference

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Quality Control
Water

• First standard that comes to mind

• May be appropriate for certain applications

• Sample Size determines suitability

42
Quality Control
Standard/Sample
Introduction

Inject below the

surface of the solution

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Quality Control

Water
50

40

30 20 ML Burette
Sample
Size in 10 ML Burette
Milligrams of 20
Water 5 ML Burette
10 1ML Burette

0
Titer 5 Titer 2 Titer 1
44
Quality Control
Sodium Tartrate dihydrate

• Solid Standard for Volumetric system

• Stable Water Content 15.66% ± 0.05%

• Solubility in Methanol limited

• Also available as NIST Traceable Product Number 34696

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Quality Control
HYDRANAL® - Standard 5.00

• Liquid standard for volumetric system

• Contains 5.00 ± 0.02mg/ml at 20°C

• Packaged in 100 ML and 500 ML Bottles

HYDRANAL® - Water Standard 10.0

• Liquid Standard Contains 10.0mg water per gram

• Packaged in 8 ml Glass Ampoules to insure

integrity

• Standard is Traceable to NIST SRM 2890

• Certificate of Analysis in each package

46
Quality Control

Water Standard 10.0

5
4.5
4
Sample 3.5
Size In 3 20 ML
Grams 2.5 10 ML
2 5 ML
1.5 1 ML
1
0.5
0
Titer 5 Titer 2 Titer 1
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Quality Control
Test #1 Test #2 Test #3 Mean Absolute Relative
Standard Standard
Deviation Deviation

Water 100.80% 98.84% 100.48% 99.81% 1.1% 1.1%

Sodium
Tartrate 15.53% 15.38% 15.62% 15.51% 0.12% 0.8%
Dihydrate

Ampoule 0.099% 0.100% 0.100% 0.0997% 0.0006% 0.6%

Standard with
0.1% water

Ampoule 0.9999% 0.9992% 1.0010% 1.0000% 0.0009% 0.09%

Standard with
1% water

48
Quality Control
Handling Standards

• Use dry glass gas-tight syringe (5ml or 10ml)

• Rinse syringe with standard

• Minimize exposure of standard to atmospheric moisture

• Weigh all samples using “weight by difference” Technique

49
Quality Control

Instrument Maintenance

• Clean Titration Vessel with Appropriate Solvent

• Replace Septum regularly

• Change desiccant regularly (New HYDRANAL® Molecular Sieve)

• Replace Volumetric unit’s seals

• Coulometric units should use Teflon sleeves not grease

• When necessary perform Nitric Acid Cleaning

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Quality Control
Nitric Acid Cleaning

• Rinse electrodes with methanol to remove reagents

• Use Concentrated Nitric Acid to soak electrodes

• Rinse with copious amount of water to remove acid

• Rinse with methanol

• Dry in low temperature (50° to 75° C) Oven

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HYDRANAL® Technical Center
Your Source for Help
with Karl Fischer
Technical Support 800-HYDRANAL(493-7262)
• Application Assistance
• Sample Analysis/Method Development
• Technical Literature on Karl Fischer
• Technical Training Seminars
• Web site www.sigmaaldrich.com

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