energies

Article
Solid Fuel Characteristics of Pellets Comprising Spent Coffee
Grounds and Wood Powder
Duk-Gam Woo 1, *, Sang Hyeon Kim 2 and Tae Han Kim 2, *

1 Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0808, Japan

2 Department of Bio-industrial Machinery Engineering, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea;
sjnaroo@gmail.com
* Correspondence: dgwoo@bpe.agr.hokudai.ac.jp (D.-G.W.); thakim@knu.ac.kr (T.H.K.);
Tel.: +81-117-062-539 (D.-G.W.); +82-539505793 (T.H.K.); Fax: +81-117-064-147 (D.-G.W.); +82-539-506-780
(T.H.K.)

Abstract: To help mitigate the effects of global warming and fossil fuel depletion caused by human
use of fossil fuels, solid fuel pellets were developed from a mixture of spent coffee grounds (SCG)
and pine sawdust (PS). The feasibility of SCG-PS pellets as biofuel was also verified by evaluating
its fuel quality. An increase in the proportion of SCG in the pellet led to an increase in its calorific
value, owing to the high C, H, and oil contents, and increases in the ash and S contents, owing to
the high S content in SCG. Analysis of the feedstock particle size distribution revealed that SCG
particles are smaller than PS particles; thus, the durability of the pellet decreases as the proportion
of SCG increases. Accordingly, the samples with higher SCG proportions (70 and 90 wt.%) did
not meet the moisture content standards for biomass solid refuse fuel (bio-SRF) set by the Korea
Ministry of Environment, whereas the samples with lower SCG proportions did. In particular, CP10
(10 wt.% SCG + 90 wt.% PS) satisfied the quality standards of Grade 1 wood pellets, demonstrating
the feasibility of using SCG as a raw material for biofuel pellet production.



Keywords: spent coffee grounds; pellet; bio solid refuse fuel; fuel characteristics; solid fuel qual-


ity standards
Citation: Woo, D.-G.; Kim, S.H.; Kim,
T.H. Solid Fuel Characteristics of
Pellets Comprising Spent Coffee
Grounds and Wood Powder. Energies 1. Introduction
2021, 14, 371. https://doi.org/
The careless use of fossil fuels is responsible for issues such as global warming and
10.3390/en14020371
energy resource depletion. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from fossil fuel use have
Received: 21 December 2020
significantly increased, resulting in a seven-fold increase in the annual CO2 emissions,
Accepted: 7 January 2021
from 4 to 28 million tons, over the past 60 years [1,2]. Coal is a major global primary
Published: 11 January 2021 energy source, accounting for 27.8% of all primary energy sources, as of 2017. The exhaust
emissions, such as CO2 and particulate matter (PM), generated by the use of coal have
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu- adverse effects, such as respiratory diseases, climate change, and reduced atmospheric
tral with regard to jurisdictional clai- visibility [3]. According to the Korea Institute for Energy Economics, coal is the most
ms in published maps and institutio- used energy source after petroleum, accounting for 28.5% of all energy sources in Korea,
nal affiliations. and its use increases annually [4]. To address these problems, there is growing interest
in new and renewable energy sources that can replace fossil fuels. In particular, biomass
and agro-industrial waste, which are renewable energy resources with environmental and
economic benefits, are emerging as practical alternative energy resources [5].
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Li-
Among new and renewable energy sources, bio-solid fuel is attracting research at-
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
tention as an energy source that can replace coal. For example, the production of wood
This article is an open access article
pellets increased by a factor of 22 in 10 years, from 8527 tons in 2009 to 187,745 tons in
distributed under the terms and con-
2018 [6]. Driven by the surge in the demand for wood pellets, the imported volume of
ditions of the Creative Commons At-
tribution (CC BY) license (https://
wood pellets is increasing annually. Approximately three million tons of wood pellets
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
were imported in 2018, comprising approximately 94% of the total supply of wood pellets
4.0/). consumed in Korea [6]. The price of imported wood pellets increased by 52%, from USD

Energies 2021, 14, 371. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14020371 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2021, 14, 371 2 of 17

100 per metric ton in 2016 to USD 152 per metric ton in 2018, and the production cost of
domestic wood pellets increased by 12% to KRW 370,000 per metric ton in 2019, compared
with the previous year (KRW 330,000 per metric ton) [6,7]. To alleviate the increasing
production cost of wood pellets and the difficulty of securing raw materials, extensive
research is underway to develop agro-pellets using agricultural by-products and residual
waste that can replace wood [8–10]. Among them, spent coffee grounds (SCG) are a po-
tential raw material for pellets. As of 2017, the global coffee consumption amounted to
97 million metric tons, and coffee is the most traded commodity after petroleum [11,12].
Given the huge quantity of SCG residue from coffee production (2 kg of SCG per 1 kg of
coffee), leading coffee suppliers such as Nestlé have sought to use SCG as compost, solid
fuel, and biodiesel [13,14]. SCG is the main residue of the coffee industry, with 6 million
tons generated worldwide annually [15]. In 2012, 3.12 million tons of coffee beans were
imported into the EU to be processed and manufactured, and in the same year, 355,777
tons of instant coffee was produced in the EU and 400,000 tons of coffee grounds were
generated in Japan [15,16]. The Korean National Assembly Research Service reported that
the annual generation of spent coffee grounds (dry based) in Korea increased from 93,398
tons in 2012 to 149,038 tons in 2019. They reported that if all ~150,000 tons of coffee grounds
were recycled as bioenergy raw materials, the cost of the energy supply produced through
wood pellets in 2017 (including waste disposal and energy supply costs) could be reduced
by USD 16 million and the supply could be reduced by about 8% (852,778 Gcal) [17]. In ad-
dition, Bio-bean, an SCG recycling company in the UK, reported that 80% of CO2 emissions
could be reduced by reusing coffee grounds rather than disposing of them in landfills [18].
In Italy, according to Bottani et al., the mixture pellet price, which was analyzed based
on various factors such as collection, transportation, and production, is 0.1 €/kg for SCG
50% pellets (50% pine sawdust (PS) blended) and 0.05 €/kg for 98% SCG pellets (2% starch
blended) [19]. These results show that the price of SCG pellets is very low compared to the
Italian wood pellet price of 0.27 €/kg in 2011 [20]. Generally, the price of SCG pellets is
estimated to be about 40% of the price of wood pellets [21].
SCG is composed of a variety of organic compounds, including lignin, cellulose,
lipids, polysaccharides, fats, and minerals, enabling SCG to be used in various fields [8].
SCG contains 15%–20% oil; thus, it has a high calorific value (19–26.9 MJ/kg). After it
is converted into solid fuel, it can replace currently-used wood pellets [8,22]. However,
raw materials with a high oil content tend to impair the densification of pellets, and they
need to be mixed with other biomass or waste products [23]. In addition, a previous study
revealed a significant decrease in burning efficiency and substantial increase in particle
emissions (PM 2.5) for SCG pellets [5]. To overcome these deficiencies, some researchers
have proposed mixing SCG with wood pellets [24]. Miranda et al., reported that the
physical characteristics of pellets prepared using olive waste (pomace) and pyrenean oak
residues varied with the blending ratio of the two materials. A higher proportion of olive
pomace resulted in a higher calorific value, and a higher proportion of pyrenean oak
residues produced higher durability [23]. Lisowski et al., reported that the mean particle
size of SCG was 0.6 mm and that the particle size distribution is an important parameter
of biomass because it affects durability and strength during the pelletization process [8].
These results suggest that the fuel characteristics of pellets vary with the particle size and
feedstock blending ratio.
Previous studies have been conducted on the combustion performance and gaseous
and particulate emission of SCG mixed pellets [5], evaluation of quality standards for pellets
mixed with coffee and various biomasses [25], and determination of pellet characteristics
according to pellet molding conditions [8]. Nosek et al., reported that the calorific value
of pellets mixed with coffee grounds and pine sawdust increased with increasing in the
proportion of coffee grounds and that the pellets with high proportions of coffee grounds
produced increased the exhaust emissions [26]. However, there is a lack of evaluation
based on the fuel quality standards to commercialize coffee and pine sawdust mixed
pellets as fuel. To enable the utilization of SCG as pellets, a renewable energy resource
Energies 2021, 14, 371 3 of 17

with environmental and economic benefits, the quality standards of solid fuel must be
met. Thus, in this study, we prepared pellet samples comprising a mix of SCG and PS,
measured the sample size, and analyzed the effect of the sample particle size on the physical
properties. In addition, as the fuel characteristics of the pellets changed according to the
SCG mixing ratio, we evaluated their physicochemical fuel characteristics according to the
SCG blending ratio to determine the feasibility of using SCG as a raw material for pellets.
Finally, we proposed an optimal mixing ratio of SCG and PS to serve as a guideline in the
manufacturing of SCG-PS pellets.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Feedstocks
SCG and PS, which were used as feedstocks for the experiment, were provided by
Starbucks Coffee Korea and Pohang City Forestry Cooperative, respectively. Their pre-
desiccation moisture contents were 46.3% and 34.2%, respectively. The feedstocks were
dried in an oven at 105 ◦ C for 24 h before pelletization [27]. The equilibrium moisture
content of spent coffee grounds was 7%, and the moisture content was set to 15%–17% to
facilitate pelletization [25]. Table 1 outlines the elemental and proximate analysis of SCG
and PS, demonstrating that SCG has higher contents of C, H, and ash than PS.

Table 1. Proximate and elementals analysis of feedstock.

Proximate Analysis (wt.% db) Elementals Analysis (wt.% db)

Feedstock
Ash FC VM Car Har Oar Nar Sar
Spent
coffee 2.12 11.51 78.44 61.13 8.99 26.60 2.91 0.37
ground
Pine
0.2 13.5 86.3 47.10 6.10 46.27 <0.1 <0.01
sawdust
FC: fixed carbon; VM: volatile matter.

2.2. Feedstock Particle Size Distribution

The particle sizes of the SCG and PS samples for pelletization were measured using a
vibratory sieve shaker (SSH-310-1, Chunggye Corp., Seoul, Republic of Korea). A 100-g
sample was placed on the sieve (mesh sizes: 4 mm, 2 mm, 1 mm, 500 µm, 250 µm, 106 µm,
53 µm, and 26 µm) and shaken for 5 min while being sieved to separate the sizes.
In this study, all measurements were performed in triplicate, and the mean values of
the measurements are presented as the results. This applies to all measurements conducted
in this study.

2.3. Pelletization Process

Pellets were formed by mixing SCG and PS using the following SCG:PS weight ratios:
0:10, 1:9, 3:7, 5:5, 7:3, 9:1, and 10:0, as listed in Table 2. CO and PS in Table 2 represent 100
wt.% SCG and 100 wt.% PS, respectively. CP10 and CP90 represent the blending ratios of
SCG 10 wt.% to PS 90 wt.% and SCG 90 wt.% to PS 10 wt.%, respectively. The SCG and PS
samples were dried to a moisture content of 15%–17% and were formed into pellets using
a pelletizer (SP-3000, Geumgang ENG, Daegu, Republic of Korea) under the following
conditions: preheating to 80 ◦ C, compression ratio of 5, dice rotation speed of 11 rpm, and
pelletizer torque of 22 kW. Table 3 presents the pelletizer specifications.
Energies 2021, 14, 371 4 of 17

Table 2. Names and spent coffee grounds (SCG) contents of the samples used in the experiment.

Blends Pellet Nominal Name SCG Content (wt.%)

SCG CO SCG PS 100
CP10 SCG 10
CP30 SCG 30
SCG:PS CP50 SCG 50
CP70 SCG 70
CP90 SCG 90
PS PS PS 100

Table 3. Pelletizer specifications.

Description (Unit) Specification

Inner matrix-diameter (mm) 410
Dices (n) 324
Dice diameter (mm) 8
Length of dices (mm) 55
Press rollers (n) 2
Nominal power of press motor (kW) 22
Max. production capacity (kg/h) 500

2.4. Fuel Characteristics

2.4.1. Bulk Density
Bulk density is a useful index for estimating space requirements for transport and
storage. It is expressed as the weight of the pellets that fill the volume of a specific container.
The bulk density of the samples was calculated using the following Equation (1) as per ISO
17828:2015:

m pc − mc
BDar = , (1)
V
where BDar is the pellet bulk density on a wet basis (kg/m3 ), mpc is the weight of the
container with the pellets (kg), mc is the weight of the empty container (kg), and V is the
volume of the empty container (m3 ).

2.4.2. Durability
Durability is a measure of resistance to impact or abrasion during handling and trans-
portation, and this fuel characteristic is strongly affected by the storage conditions [9,28].
A durability test was performed in accordance with the ISO17831-1:2015 standard for fuel
pellet durability, and the durability was calculated using the pellet weights before and after
tumbling in the following Equation (2):
m at
DU = × 100, (2)
mbt

where DU is the durability (%), mat is the pellet weight after tumbling (g), and mbt is the
pellet weight before tumbling (g).

2.4.3. Moisture Content

The moisture content of the pellets was measured using a moisture analyzer (FD-720,
KETT, Tokyo, Japan) in accordance with the method specified in ISO18134-1:2015. we
determined the moisture content using the following Equation (3):

Mwt − Mdt
MC = , (3)
Mdt − Mc
Energies 2021, 14, 371 5 of 17

where MC is the moisture content (%), Mwt is the mass of the container and wet pellets
(g), Mdt is the mass of the container and dry pellets (g), and Mc is the mass of the empty
container (g).

2.4.4. Pellet Quality Standard

Analyses of ash (ISO 18122), the calorific value (ISO 18125), Cl and S (ISO 16994),
and heavy metals (ISO 16968) were conducted by Daedeok Analytical Research Institute,
Daejeon City, Republic of Korea. Table 4 outlines the quality standards for wooden pellets
(KS M 3938:2017) and biomass solid refuse fuel (bio-SRF) of the Korea Ministry of Envi-
ronment (Ministry of Environment Notification No. 2014-135). The quality of the pellets
formed in this study was evaluated by comparing it with the quality standards for solid
fuel presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Quality standards for wood pellet and bio-solid refuse fuel.

Wood Pellet
Specifications Bio-SRF
Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4
Diameter (mm) 6–8 6–8 6–8 6–8 ≤50
Length (mm) ≤32 ≤32 ≤32 ≤32 ≤100
Bulk density
≥640 ≥600 ≥550 ≥500 -
(kg/m3 )
Moisture (wt.%
≤10 ≤15 ≤15 ≤15 ≤10
wb)
Ash (wt.%) ≤0.7 ≤1.5 ≤3.0 ≤6.0 ≤15
Durability (%) ≥97.5 ≥97.5 ≥95 ≥95 -
Calorific value
≥18.0 ≥18.0 ≥16.9 ≥16.9 ≥13.18
(MJ/kg)
Biomass content
- - - - ≥95
(wt.%)
S (%) ≤0.05 ≤0.05 ≤0.05 ≤0.05 ≤0.6
Cl (%) ≤0.05 ≤0.05 ≤0.05 ≤0.05 ≤0.5
As (mg/kg) ≤1.0 ≤1.0 ≤1.0 ≤1.0 ≤5.0
Cd (mg/kg) ≤0.5 ≤0.5 ≤0.5 ≤0.5 ≤5.0
Cr (mg/kg) ≤10 ≤10 ≤10 ≤10 ≤70
Cu (mg/kg) ≤10 ≤10 ≤10 ≤10 -
Pb (mg/kg) ≤10 ≤10 ≤10 ≤10 ≤100
Ni (mg/kg) ≤10 ≤10 ≤10 ≤10 -

2.5. Statistical Analyses

The differentials between the physicochemical properties of pellets with different SCG
mixing ratios were compared using a one-way analysis of variance. Post hoc Tukey’s honest
significant difference (HSD) test (p < 0.05) was conducted when significant differences were
found. In addition, linear regression was used to determine to what extent the variation of
the blending ratio of SCG would affect the response variables (physicochemical properties),
and the signs and coefficients from the linear models were used to determine the trend
(increasing/decreasing). The statistical analyses were performed using SPSS 20.0 (IBM
Corp., Armonk, NY, USA).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Particle Size Distribution
Figure 1 illustrates the particle size distributions of SCG, PS, and a mixture of SCG and
PS. SCG particles smaller than or equal to and larger than 500 µm accounted for 87.2% and
12.8%, respectively. The comparable values for PS were 95.3% and 4.7%; that is, SCG has a
higher proportion of fine particles than PS. Accordingly, the higher the proportion of SCG
in the SCG-PS mixture, the higher the proportion of particles smaller than 500 µm, which
increased from 13.8% (CP10) to 76.8% (CP90). Moreover, the proportion of larger particles
Energies 2021, 14, 371 6 of 17

(≥500 µm) increased from 23.2% (CP90) to 86.2% (CP10) as the proportion of SCG decreases.
SCG particles are assumed to be very fine as a result of grinding coffee beans with a grinder.
In the pelletization process, the feedstock particle size distribution is the main factor
affecting pellet quality parameters, such as bulk density and durability. It has been reported
that a particle size of 1–2 mm is optimal for the formation of pellets with excellent physical
properties [29,30]. The proportion of PS particles with a diameter of 1–2 mm is 10 times
that of SCG particles (37.7% vs. 0.34%). Although pulverization of feedstocks is typically
required for pelletization, SCG can be supplied in powder form, making pulverization
superfluous, which has a cost-saving effect considering commercialization [31].

Figure 1. Particle size distribution of feedstocks.

3.2. Evaluation of Fuel Characteristics

3.2.1. Pellet Size
Figure 2 compares the sizes of pellets produced using SCG, PS, and SCG-PS mixtures
with five different blending ratios. It shows that the pellet size varies depending on the
proportion of SCG. The pellet diameter increased as the SCG content increased until the
blending ratio of SCG and PS reached 5:5, and it remained approximately constant at lower
proportions of SCG. The pellet length increased as the proportion of SCG decreased, and
it decreased when the proportion of SCG was less than 30%. This behavior indicates that
the particle size of SCG affects the pellet size during pelletization and that for an SCG
proportion lower than 10%, no difference is induced by the PS pelletization conditions.
CO and CP90 have a mean diameter of 5 mm, falling short of the size standard (6–25 mm
diameter). However, CP70, CP30, CP10, and PS satisfy the Grade 1 quality standard for
wood pellets. CP50 had a mean diameter of 8 mm and corresponds to the Grade 4 standard
for wood pellets. In terms of pellet length, all samples satisfy the quality standard of 32 mm
or less. Figure 3 shows photographs of all the samples.
Energies 2021, 14, 371 7 of 17

Figure 2. Pellet size according to SCG blending ratio. Each point is the mean of three repeated
measurements and is the mean ± standard deviation. The means with different letters (a–d) above
the bars indicate significant differences based on Tukey’s honest significant difference (HSD) test
(p < 0.05).

Figure 3. Pellets produced using various blending ratios of SCG and pine sawdust (PS).

3.2.2. Bulk Density

As shown in Figure 4, the bulk density, which is dependent on the proportion of SCG,
was the highest in the CO and PS single-feedstock samples and the lowest (510 kg/m3 )
in CO50 (SCG:PS = 50:50). The bulk density of CP50, which was pelletized with SCG
and PS at a ratio of 5:5, was the smallest among all the samples, and it met the Grade 4
quality standard for wood pellets. The bulk density generally increased when pelletizing
feedstocks with small particle sizes because smaller particles provide a larger surface area
during densification [32]. However, when feedstocks of different particle sizes are mixed,
smaller particles are excessively dried during the densification process, which impairs
the interparticle bonding force, lowering the bulk density [33]. The lowest bulk density,
observed in CP50, is assumed to be attributed to the irregular particle size distribution,
which triggers separation between fine and coarse particles [34].
Energies 2021, 14, 371 8 of 17

Figure 4. Bulk density of pellets according to SCG blending ratio. Each point is the mean of three
repeated measurements and is the mean ± standard deviation. The means with different letters (a–d)
above the bars indicate significant differences based on Tukey’s HSD test (p < 0.05).

3.2.3. Moisture Content

The moisture content of each pellet sample was generally lower than that of the
feedstocks (15%–17%) under the influence of frictional heat and the preheating temperature
generated during the pelletization process [35]. As shown in Figure 5, the moisture contents
of CP90 and CP70 were 15.5% and 12.1%, respectively, which failed to satisfy the moisture
content standard of 10% or less for Grades 1 and 2 wood pellets. The moisture contents of
all other samples were in the range of 7%–9.6%, satisfying the moisture content standard
for Grades 1 and 2 wood pellets.

Figure 5. Pellet moisture content according to SCG blending ratio. Each point is the mean of three
repeated measurements and is the mean ± standard deviation. The means with different letters (a–c)
above the bars indicate significant differences based on Tukey’s HSD test (p < 0.05).
Energies 2021, 14, 371 9 of 17

3.2.4. Durability
Pellet durability is a measure of pellet strength. Currently, a durability of at least 95%
is required according to domestic industrial wood pellet quality standards. Figure 6 shows
the durability of the pellet samples for different proportions of SCG. CP30 and CP10
exhibited durability levels of 96.5% and 98.8%, respectively, satisfying the durability re-
quirements for Grade 3 and Grade 1 wood pellets, respectively. However, the durability of
the samples containing 50 wt.% SCG or more ranges from 67.9% to 87.1%, and thus did not
satisfy the durability standard for wood pellets (≥95%).

Figure 6. Pellet durability according to SCG blending ratio. Each point is the mean of three repeated
measurements and is the mean ± standard deviation. The means with different letters (a–d) above
the bars indicate significant differences based on Tukey’s HSD test (p < 0.05).

According to previous studies, a feedstock with a high oil content (>6.5%) adversely
affects the interparticle bonding force during pelletization, resulting in reduced durabil-
ity [36]. Given the high oil content of SCG (15%–20%) [22], the durability decreased as the
SCG proportion increased. This effect is due to interference with interparticle bonding,
which results from a decrease in pelletization pressure [36]. This durability problem can
be solved by adding a binder, such as lignin or starch, or by controlling the pelletization
conditions (e.g., moisture content, temperature, and pelletization pressure) [36,37].

3.2.5. Calorific Value

Figure 7 compares the calorific values of the pellet samples. All samples, including
both CO and PS single-feedstock samples and SCG-PS mixed pellet samples, met the
quality standards for wood pellets and bio-SRF standards. The high heating value (HHV)
and low heating value (LHV) of CO were the highest, at 23.8 and 20.1 MJ/kg, respectively.
Those of PS were 20.7 and 17.6 MJ/kg, respectively; thus, the HHV and LHV values of the
CO pellets were higher than those of the PS pellet sample by 15% and 14%, respectively.
Miranda et al., reported that the calorific value increases as the C content of pellets in-
creases [38], which may be attributed to the exothermic reaction that occurs when C and H
react with O2 during combustion. Thus, the calorific value increased as the SCG proportion
increased, owing to the effect of higher C and H contents compared with PS [39]. The oil
component of SCG is also considered to have a positive effect on the calorific value [40].
In addition, energy consumption occurs when the moisture contained in the pellets evapo-
rates during combustion, decreasing the calorific value. This characteristic explains why
Energies 2021, 14, 371 10 of 17

the calorific value was lower in CP90 than in CP70, despite the higher moisture content of
the former [41].

Figure 7. Pellet heating value according to SCG blending ratio. Each point is the mean of three
repeated measurements and is the mean ± standard deviation. The means with different letters (a–c)
above the bars indicate significant differences based on Tukey’s HSD test (p < 0.05).

3.2.6. Ash
Ash refers to the inorganic residue remaining after the pellets are completely burned,
which is expressed using a percentage according to dry weight. As shown in Figure 8, the
ash content of the pellets was positively correlated with the SCG proportion and inversely
correlated with the PS proportion. The ash content of pure SCG pellets was 2.5%, and
that of pure PS pellets was 0.5%, which may be owing to the abundance of incomplete
combustion elements contained in SCG compared with PS. The PS samples contained
less than 0.1% N and 0.01% S; however, the corresponding values for the SCG samples
were 2.91% and 0.37%. Additionally, Cl was more abundant in SCG than in PS (113 vs.
40 ppm). These differences in the contents of the components were verified to determine
the ash content. The ash content of wood pellets should not exceed 1.0% and 6.0% to be
classified into Grades 1 and 4, respectively, and the ash content satisfying the bio-SRF
quality standard is less than 15.0%. The large difference in the quality standard between
wood pellets and bio-SRF is in agreement with the difference between the ash content
standard and wood pellet standard because bio-SRF contains more incomplete combustion
factors than wood pellets. The ash contents of CO, CP90, and CP70 were calculated to
be 2.5%, 2.4%, and 2.0%, respectively, meeting the Grade 3 (≤3.0%) standard for wood
pellets. The ash contents of CP50 and CP30 satisfied the Grade 2 (≤1.5%) standard at 1.5%
and 1.3%, respectively, and CP10 and PS satisfied the Grade 1 (≤0.7%) standard at 0.7%
and 0.5%, respectively. Duca et al., reported that the level of ash content can serve as a
parameter for the quick evaluation of pellet quality. If the quality standard of a grade with
a high ash content is satisfied, other quality factors typically exhibit the same grade level as
the grade for the ash content [42]. In this study, CP10 and PS, which satisfied the Grade 1
for the quality standard for ash content, satisfied the Grade 1 quality standard for all other
factors as well.
Energies 2021, 14, 371 11 of 17

Figure 8. Ash content of pellets according to SCG blending ratio. Each point is the mean of three
repeated measurements and is the mean ± standard deviation. The means with different letters (a–e)
above the bars indicate significant differences based on Tukey’s HSD test (p < 0.05).

3.2.7. Chlorine and Sulphur

Figure 9 shows the Cl and S concentrations in pellets with different blending ratios.
Cl was present in negligible amounts (<0.01%) in all samples, satisfying the quality standard
(<0.05%). Limousy et al., reported that the Cl concentrations in SCG and PS were negligible
at 0.011% and 0.004%, respectively [5]. The S concentrations in PS, CP10, and CP30 were
0.01%, 0.02%, and 0.04%, respectively, satisfying the Grade 1 (<0.05%) standard for S
concentration in wood pellets. The S concentrations in SCG and PS were 0.37% and less
than 0.01%, respectively, and the S concentration increased as the SCG proportion increases,
owing to the high S content in SCG. S and Cl constitute the major defects of pellets that
mix agricultural by-products and wood residues because they corrode equipment and
are responsible for GHG and PM emissions. Alkali metals present in biomass can cause
problems related to slagging and fouling due to the low melting temperatures of many
compounds formed in the combustion process, and alkali chlorides condensing in heat
exchangers may lead to severe corrosion [43]. However, the S in biomass plays an important
role by being able to sulfate alkali chlorides. These alkali chlorides may become alkali
sulfate due to the S in the biomass, leading to ash with significantly lower corrosion
potential [44]. In addition, biomass generally contains relatively high contents of alkali and
alkaline earth metals, especially Ca, K, and Na. They effectively recover the SO2 and SO3
formed by producing sulfates, so the final concentration of free H2 SO4 in the flue gas is
usually less than 1 ppmv [45]. Fuels with high K and Cl contents may lead to problems
with fouling and corrosion; however, these problems may be solved by co-firing fuels with
high S content [46]. Therefore, to ensure the sustainable use and commercialization of
mixed biomass pellets, the determination of an appropriate blending ratio is crucial [47].
Energies 2021, 14, 371 12 of 17

Figure 9. S and Cl concentrations of pellets according to SCG blending ratio. Each point is the mean
of three repeated measurements and is the mean ± standard deviation. The means with different
letters (a–d) above the bars indicate significant differences based on Tukey’s HSD test (p < 0.05).

3.2.8. Heavy Metals

Table 5 presents the results of the analysis of the following heavy metals contained
in the pellets: As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, and Ni. The Cu content was correlated positively with
the proportion of SCG. Moreover, the Cu contents of the samples with higher proportions
of SCG (CO, CP90, and CP70) surpassed the maximum quality standard for Cu content
(10 mg/kg); therefore, those samples did not meet the quality standard for wood pellets.
However, they satisfied the bio-SRF quality standard because Cu is not an assessment
criterion in the bio-SRF quality standard. The Cd and Pb contents tended to increase as the
proportion of PS increased; however, they did not exceed their respective quality standards.
The contents of the remaining heavy metals (As, Cr, and Ni) satisfied their respective quality
standards in all samples. Considering that heavy metals affect pellet treatment and that
ash is used as fertilizer, all the pellet samples were subjected to heavy metal analysis to test
their eligibility for fertilizer as combustion residues. All samples satisfied the heavy metal
contents specified in the Korean fertilizer standards [48]. Considering the environmental
impact, and that heavy metal contents affect PM emissions during combustion, pellets with
low heavy metal contents may have less PM emissions during combustion [49]. Zang et al.,
reported that Cl promotes the formation of volatile metal chlorides. In particular, the
refractory heavy metal component Cu is formed as a gaseous volatile metal oxide in a
reaction with Cl; thus, an increase in Cu content can increase PM emission [50]. However,
given the negligible Cl content (<0.01%) in all pellet samples in this study, an increase
in the Cu content owing to an increase in the SCG proportion is unlikely to increase PM
emissions. Moreover, because the Pb content decreased as the SCG proportion increased,
PbCl2 , which is primarily divided into the particulate phase, is expected to decrease [51].
However, considering the possible increase in metal sulfate, owing to an increase in the S
content at a higher SCG blending ratio, it is necessary to analyze the exhaust emissions
during the combustion of SCG-mixed pellets [52].
Energies 2021, 14, 371 13 of 17

Table 5. Fuel properties of various pellets.

Specifications CO CP90 CP70 CP50 CP30 CP10 PS

Diameter × Length (mm) 5×7 5×9 6 × 11 9 × 18 8 × 21 8 × 14 8 × 15
Bulk density (kg/m3 ) 710 680 500 510 580 710 760
Moisture (wt.% wb) 8.7 15.5 12.1 9.6 9.5 7.0 7.8
Ash (wt.%) 2.5 2.4 2.0 1.5 1.5 0.8 0.5
Durability (%) 67.9 67.3 82.8 87.1 96.4 98.8 98.7
HHV (MJ/kg) 23.1 22.6 23.2 22.1 21.5 20.9 20.7
LHV (MJ/kg) 20.1 17.5 18.7 18.4 17.9 18.0 17.6
Biomass content (wt.%) 98 97 98 98 99 99 99
S (%) 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.08 0.04 0.02 0.01
Cl (%) <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 0.01 <0.01
As (mg/kg) <0.10 <0.10 <0.10 <0.10 <0.10 <0.10 <0.10
Cd (mg/kg) <0.10 <0.10 0.11 0.19 0.35 0.79 0.73
Cr (mg/kg) <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 1.1 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
Cu (mg/kg) 14.6 14.6 12.2 9.5 5.6 3.9 1.7
Pb (mg/kg) <1.5 <1.5 1.8 4.3 5.4 6.2 8.1
Ni (mg/kg) <1.2 <1.2 <1.2 1.2 <1.2 <1.2 <1.2

Table 5 outlines the analysis results of the fuel characteristics of the SCG-PS mixed
pellets. CO and CP90 did not meet the wood pellet quality standards for pellet size,
durability, and heavy metal (Cu). CP70 did not meet the wood pellet quality standards
for durability and moisture content, and CP50 did not meet the standards for diameter
and durability. CP30 satisfied the Grade 3 wood pellet quality standards, and it may be
classified as Grade 1 if its durability is enhanced. CP10 exhibited a higher calorific value
and durability than PS, and it satisfied the Grade 1 wood pellet quality standards. All pellet
samples except for CP90 and CP70 satisfied the bio-SRF quality standard. By analyzing
the physicochemical fuel characteristics of the SCG-mixed pellet samples, we verified the
feasibility of using SCG mixed pellets as fuel.

3.2.9. Regression Analysis

Table 6 presents the results of linear regression analysis conducted to determine the
effects of the blending ratio of SCG on the pellet properties. The blending ratio of SCG
affects most of the pellet properties except for bulk density. The pellet diameter, length, and
durability decreased as the SCG mixing ratio increased. On the other hand, the calorific
value, ash content, and S content tended to increase as the SCG mixing ratio increased.
The durability (R2 = 88.3%) displays a strong negative correlation with the blending ratio of
SCG. An increase in the SCG blending ratio considerably degrades the pellet durability due
to the oil content in SCG. In addition, the diameter (R2 = 56.9%) and length (R2 = 45.5%)
showed a negative linear correlation with the SCG mixing ratio.

Table 6. Linear regression analysis of pellet properties depending on SCG blending ratio.

Variable Linear Model SE F-Value t-Value R-Square

Diameter = 8.929 − 3.667 × X 0.732 25.071 *** −5.007 *** 0.569
Length = 18.394 − 9.074 × X 2.278 15.864 *** −3.983 *** 0.455
Durability = 102.663 − 34.156 × X 2.851 143.483 *** −11.978 *** 0.883
Calorific value (HHV) = 20.690 + 2.878 × X 0.508 32.034 *** 5.660 *** 0.628
Ash = 0.542 + 2.041 × X 0.105 378.105 *** 19.445 *** 0.952
Sulphur = 0.016 + 0.093 × X 0.016 32.203 *** 5.675 *** 0.629
SE: standard error, p *** < 0.001.
Energies 2021, 14, 371 14 of 17

On the other hand, the HHV (R2 = 62.8%) and S content (R2 = 62.9%) displayed
positive correlations with the SCG blending ratio. The positive correlation between the
SCG blending ratio and ash content showed a very high coefficient of determination (R2 =
95.2%). Due to the high ash content of SCG, the ash content of the pellets increased with
increasing SCG blending ratio. The bulk density and moisture had no linear correlation
with the SCG blending ratio.
Thus, the SCG mixing ratio had linear correlations with the physicochemical properties
of the pellets except for the bulk density and moisture content. In particular, as the calorific
value, S content, and ash content had positive correlations and the durability, diameter,
and length had negative correlations, it is considered that a suitable mixing ratio of SCG is
important to improve the fuel characteristics of SCG-PS pellets.

4. Conclusions
The fuel characteristics of pellet samples with different blending ratios of SCG and PS
were evaluated. CP10 (SCG:PS = 10:90) satisfied the Grade 1 quality standard for wood
pellets. CO (pure SCG) did not meet the wood pellet quality standards but satisfied the bio-
SRF quality standard. Thus, this study verified the feasibility of using SCG-mixed pellets
as an alternative fuel source to replace wood pellets. SCG provides the advantage of not
requiring pulverization before pelletization because it is supplied as a powder. However,
the proportion of fine particles (<500 µm) accounted for 87.2%, and pellets with higher SCG
proportions exhibited lower durability. This limitation can be mitigated by the high energy
efficiency of SCG, which is attributed to its high calorific value. In addition, the calorific
value, ash content, and S content had positive linear correlations with the SCG mixing
ratio, and the diameter, length, and durability had negative linear correlations with the
SCG mixing ratio. Therefore, suitable mixing of SCG is important for the manufacturing
of SCG-PS pellets. The significance of this study is that it verified the feasibility of using
SCG as a solid fuel source as a sustainable alternative to carbon-heavy coal. The results of
this study are expected to serve as a useful basis for commercializing SCG-mixed pellets to
realize the environmental and economic effects of reusing SCG and turning waste into a
resource. In future research, studies that evaluate the combustion performance of SCG-PS
pellets as solid fuels by comparing the combustion efficiency and exhaust emissions with
those of the conventional wood pellets or coal should be conducted.

Author Contributions: D.-G.W. as first author planned the experiments and wrote the manuscript.
S.H.K. conducted the experiments, and collected and analyzed the data. T.H.K. led the overall
research as a corresponding author and helped revised the manuscript. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the Korea Institute of Planning and Evaluation for Technology
(IPET) in Food, Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries through the Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs
Research Center Support Program, funded by the Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs
(MAFRA) (716001-7).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy reasons.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Energies 2021, 14, 371 15 of 17

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
Bio-SRF Biomass solid refuse fuel
CO Spent coffee grounds pellet
CP10 Mixed pellet of 90% pine sawdust and 10% spent coffee grounds
CP30 Mixed pellet of 70% pine sawdust and 30% spent coffee grounds
CP50 Mixed pellet of 50% pine sawdust and 50% spent coffee grounds
CP70 Mixed pellet of 30% pine sawdust and 70% spent coffee grounds
CP90 Mixed pellet of 10% pine sawdust and 90% spent coffee grounds
FC Fixed carbon
GHG Greenhouse gas
HHV High heating value
LHV Low heating value
PI Pine sawdust pellet
PS Pine sawdust
SCG Spent coffee grounds
VM Volatile matter

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