Q5 and 6

sarhad university of science and information
technology peshawar
Course Name and Code: Electric Machines for Technologies-EE120
Roll Number: 17-SP-96509
Reg. Number: SUIT-17-02-076-0050
Name of Student: TAWSIF AHMAD
Degree Program: B-Tech (H) Electrical
Display Date: 31/03/2021
Submission Date 01/04/2021

Roll Number: 17-SP-96509 Reg. Number: SUIT-17-02-076-0050

Q# 2:
Write in details about testing of dc machines in direct and indirect method.
ANSWER:
Testing Methods of DC Machines
Basically, the testing of DC machines classified into two types. Namely, direct and indirect
tests. The indirect test is further classified into two. They are Swinburne and Hopkinson’s
Test. The classification chart of testing DC machines is shown in the figure below.
Direct Test
A direct test is applicable for small machines where some amount of load is applied to the
machine. After applying the load the voltage and current values are noted. By analyzing these
values, we can conclude the application of machine. The applied load on a machine is shown
in the figure below.
In the figure above, it is shown that a load is applied to the shaft of a machine by two handles
arranged at the top. These handles H1 and H2 are used to tighten the belt which is attached to
the pulley of the machine. These two handles are supported by two springs S1 and S2.
Whenever the handles are twisted some load is put on the pulley and this force is measured
by the springs S1 and S2.
By applying different types of loads on the machine the efficiency is calculated. The
efficiency is determined by the formula below.
The efficiency of the machine Ƞm = (w (S1 – S2) 9.81) / VtIl * 100
where S1 and S2 = Spring force
Vt = terminal voltage,
Il = Line current, and
w = weight.
1

There are some drawbacks to using this method. They are
Indirect Test
There are two types of indirect test
i. Swinburne and
ii. Hopkinson’s Test
Swinburne Test on DC Shunt Machines
This test is mainly applicable for conducting a No-load test. DC shunt machine is the best
option for conducting No-test. During the No-load test, the current directly appears across the
field winding of the DC series machine which results in the burning of winding. So,
considering this case a DC series machine is not used for this test. Hence, the DC shunt is the
best option as the field winding is connected in parallel to the armature. The circuit diagram
that depicts the Swinburne test is shown in the figure below.
This method is best suitable for testing at No-load. It can be operated for large machines. The
drawbacks of a direct test are overcome in this method. An ammeter is connected in series
with the machine to find the current and the field winding in parallel with the armature. The
parallelly fed field winding is connected with a variable winding such that as it is varied the
current in the armature changes. This change is noted by observing the ammeter reading.
Different readings are noted by varying the load at different points.
By this method efficiency at any point can be determined and this method is suitable for
large-rated machines. But there are some drawbacks to this machine, it cannot determine
stray load losses exactly.
Hopkinson’s Test
2

Hopkinson’s test is also called a Regenerative test as a regenerative process takes place
during this process. The drawbacks of the Swinburne test are overcome by this test. The
circuit diagram that depicts regenerative testing is shown in the figure below.
From the figure, we can observe that the motor and generator are coupled together. Initially,
DC supply is given to the motor as the motor begins to rotate it further also initiates the
generator also to rotate. The switch between the motor and generator is initially open. After
the initial rotation of the generator, it is switched ON such that the current from the generator
is carried to the motor. This is the condition which is actually a regenerative action.
Therefore, it is considered as the regenerative testing method. The ammeters are connected at
each point of the machine such as at the armature of motor and generator and also in series
with the field windings. The field windings are connected in parallel with either of the
machines (motor and generator) to vary the load. As and when the load has varied the
currents in these ammeters are to be noted and tabulated.
Q# 3:
Why Alternators are operated in parallel, also write the required condition and excitation used
in it.
ANSWER:
Following are some of the main causes due to which alternator are connected in parallel.
 because the various power stations are interconnected through the national grid.
Therefore, the output of any single alternator is small compared with the total
interconnected capacity. For example, the total capacity of the interconnected system
may be over 40,000 MW while the capacity of the biggest single alternator may be
500 MW. For this reason, the performance of a single alternator is unlikely to affect
appreciably the voltage and frequency of the whole system. An alternator connected
to such a system is said to be connected to infinite busbars. The outstanding electrical
3

characteristics of such busbars are that they are constant-voltage, constant frequency
busbars.
 When there is maintenance or an inspection, one machine can be taken out from
service and the other alternators can keep up for the continuity of supply.
 Load supply can be increased.
 During light loads, more than one alternator can be shut down while the other will
operate in nearly full load.
 High efficiency.
 The operating cost is reduced.
 Ensures the protection of supply and enables cost-effective generation.
 The generation cost is reduced.
 Breaking down of a generator does not cause any interruption in the supply.
 Reliability of the whole power system increases.
CONDITIONS FOR PARALLEL OPERATIONS OF ALTERNATOR
The proper method of connecting an alternator to the infinite busbars is called synchronizing.
A stationary alternator must not be connected to live busbars. It is because the induced e.m.f.
is zero at standstill and a short- circuit will result. In order to connect an alternator safely to
the infinite busbars, the following conditions are met:
i) The terminal voltage (r.m.s. value) of the incoming alternator must be the same as
busbars voltage.
ii) The frequency of the generated voltage of the incoming alternator must be equal
to the busbars frequency.
iii) The phase of the incoming alternator voltage must be identical with the phase of
the busbars voltage. In other words, the two voltages must be in phase with each
other.
iv) The phase sequence of the voltage of the incoming alternator should be the same
as that of the busbars.
EXCITATION OF ALTERNATORS
4
The amount of excitation required depends on the load current, load power factor and speed
of the machine. The more excitation is needed in the system when the load current is large,
the speed is less, and the power factor of the system becomes lagging.
The excitation system is the single unit in which the each alternator has its exciter in the form
of generator. The centralised excitation system has two or more exciter which feeds the bus-
bar. The centralised system is very cheap, but the fault in the system adversely affects the
alternators in the power plant.
There are three main types by mean of which alternators are excited
i. DC Excitation System
ii. AC Excitation System
a. Rotor Excitation System
a. Brushless Excitation System
iii. Static Excitation System
DC Excitation System
The DC excitation system has two exciters – the main exciter and a pilot exciter. The exciter
output is adjusted by an automatic voltage regulator (AVR) for controlling the output
terminal voltage of the alternator. The current transformer input to the AVR ensures limiting
of the alternator current during a fault.
When the field breaker is open, the field discharge resistor is connected across the field
winding so as to dissipate the stored energy in the field winding which is highly inductive.
AC Excitation System
The AC excitation system consists of an alternator and thyristor rectifier bridge directly
connected to the main alternator shaft. The main exciter may either be self-excited or
separately excited. The AC excitation system may be broadly classified into two categories
which are:
a. Rotating Thyristor Excitation System
The rotating portion is being enclosed by the dashed line. This system consists an AC exciter,
stationary field and a rotating armature. The output of the exciter is rectified by a full wave
thyristor bridge rectifier circuit and is supplied to the main alternator field winding.
The alternator field winding is also supplied through another rectifier circuit. The exciter
voltage can be built up by using it residual flux. The power supply and rectifier control
5

generate the controlled triggering signal. The alternator voltage signal is averaged and
compare directly with the operator voltage adjustment in the auto mode of operation. In the
manual mode of operation, the excitation current of the alternator is compared with a separate
manual voltage adjustment.
b. Brushless Excitation System
The rotating portion being enclosed by a dashed line rectangle. The brushless excitation
system consists an alternator, rectifier, main exciter and a permanent magnet generator
alternator. The main and the pilot exciter are driven by the main shaft. The main exciter has a
stationary field and a rotating armature directly connected, through the silicon rectifiers to the
field of the main alternators.
Static Excitation System
In this system, the supply is taken from the alternator itself through a 3-phase star/delta
connected step-down transformer. The primary of the transformer is connected to the
alternator bus and their secondary supplies power to the rectifier and also feed power to the
grid control circuit and other electrical equipment.
This system has a very small response time and provides excellent dynamic performance.
This system reduced the operating cost by eliminating the exciter windage loss and winding
maintenance.
6

Q# 4:
A 440-V, 50-Hz, 50-hp, three-phase induction motor is drawing 75 A at 0.85 PF lagging. The stator
copper losses are 2.5 kW. The friction and windage losses are 800 W, the core losses are 1800 W, and
the stray losses are negligible. Find the efficiency of the motor.
Solution
Given Data:
Line Voltage=V L=440 volt s
Line Current =I L =75 amper e
frequency=f =50 H z
Power Factor=cos θ=085
Stator Cu Losses=PSCL =2.5 k W
Fraction∧windage losses=P F ∧W =800 W =0.8 k W
Core losses=Pcore =1800W =1.8 k W
Required Data:
Effeciency of the motor=?
Pout
as we know that effeciency=η= × 100
P¿
P¿ =√ 3V L I L cos θ=√ 3 × 440× 75× 0.85=48584 W
P¿ =48.58 k W
Pout =P conv −P F ∧W
Pconv =P AG −P RCL
P AG=P ¿−P SCL−P core
P AG=48.58−2.5−1.8=44.28 k W
P AG=44.28 k W
Pout =44.28−0.8=43. 48 k W
P out 43.28
effeciency=η= ×100= ×100=89.5 %
P¿ 48.58
effeciency=η=89.5 %
7

Q# 5:
What is instrument transformer? Explain its types and where we can use it?
ANSWER:
The type of transformers which are used for protection and extend the range of a.c.
instruments is called instrument transformer.
Instrument transformers are necessary for:
Isolating the protection, control & measurement equipment from the high voltages of a power
system, Supplying the equipment with the appropriate values of current and voltage.
Types of Instrument Transformers
There are two types of Instrument Transformers which are:-
1. Current Transformer (CT)

2. Potential Transformer (PT)
Current Transformer (CT)
A current transformer is a device that is used to measure high alternating current in a

conductor. The conductor carrying large current passes through a circular laminated iron
core. The conductor constitutes a one-turn primary winding. The secondary winding consists
of a large number of turns of much fine wire wrapped around the core as shown below. Due
to transformer action, the secondary current is transformed to a low value which can be
measured by ordinary meters. The secondary current of the transformer is determine by
NP
Secondary Current =I S=I P ×
NS
8

CONSTRUCTION
The construction of current transformer is most similar to that of an ordinary transformer; a

current transformer has a primary winding, a magnetic core and a secondary winding.
The primary winding of a current transformer is connected in series with the power circuit,
The impedance is negligible compared with that of the power circuit.
The alternating current flowing in the primary produces a magnetic field in the core &
induces a current in the secondary winding.
The CT's primary circuit consists of a single 'turn' of conductor, with a secondary of many
tens or hundreds of turns.
The primary winding may be a permanent part of the current transformer, with a heavy
copper bar to carry current through the magnetic core.
WORKING:
The primary winding of a current transformer is connected in series with the power circuit,
The impedance is negligible compared with that of the power circuit.
The alternating current flowing in the primary produces a magnetic field in the core &
induces a current in the secondary winding.
Reduce power system current to lower value for measurement
Insulate secondary circuits from the primary
Permit the use of standard current ratings for secondary equipment
Potential Transformer (PT)
It is a device that is used to measure high alternating voltage. It is essentially a step-down

transformer having small number of secondary turns as shown in Fig below. The high
alternating voltage to be measured is connected directly across the primary. The low voltage
winding (secondary winding) is connected to the voltmeter. The power rating of a potential
transformer is small (seldom exceeds 300 W) since voltmeter is the only load on the
transformer.
Construction:
The construction of a Potential Transformer is most similar to that of an ordinary step down
transformer.
Primary of this transformer is connected across the phases or and ground depending upon the
requirement
PT has lowers turns winding at its secondary, In an ideal Potential Transformer when rated
burden connected across the secondary the ratio of primary and secondary voltages of
9

transformer is equal to the turns ratio. But in actual transformer there must be an error in the
voltage ratio as well as in the phase angle between primary and secondary voltages
Working:
Provides isolation from high voltages
Must operate in the linear region to prevent accuracy problems - Do not over specify VT.
Must be capable of driving the burden, specified by relay manufacturer.
Protection class VT will suffice
Q#. 6:
What is transformer? What is the purpose of open and short circuit test of a transformer?
ANSWER:
A transformer is a static piece of equipment used either for raising or lowering the voltage of
an a.c. supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. It essentially consists of
two windings, the primary and secondary, wound on a common laminated magnetic core as
shown in Fig Bellow. The winding connected to the a.c. source is called primary winding (or
primary) and the one connected to load is called secondary winding (or secondary). The
alternating voltage V1 whose magnitude is to be changed is applied to the primary.
Depending upon the number of turns of the primary (N1) and secondary (N2), an alternating
e.m.f. E2 is induced in the secondary. This induced e.m.f. E 2 in the secondary causes a
secondary current I2. Consequently, terminal voltage V2 will appear across the load. If V 2 >
V1, it is called a step up-transformer. On the other hand, if V 2 < V1, it is called a step-down
transformer.
10
Working
When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, an alternating flux  is set up in the
core. This alternating flux links both the windings and induces e.m.f.s E 1 and E2 in them
according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. The e.m.f. E 1 is termed as primary
e.m.f. and e.m.f. E2 is termed as secondary e.m.f.
Mathematically:
d∅
E1=−N 1
dt
d∅
E2=−N 2
dt
E2 N 2
=
E1 N 1
The magnitudes of E2 and E1 depend upon the number of turns on the secondary and primary
respectively. If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1 (or V2 > V1) and we get a step-up transformer. On the
other hand, if N2 < N1, then E2 < E1 and we get a step-down transformer. If load is connected
across the secondary winding, the secondary e.m.f. E 2 will cause a current I2 to flow through
the load. Thus, a transformer enables us to transfer a.c. power from one circuit to another
with a change in voltage level.
Following are the major points which will have to be noted:
1. The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagnetic induction.

2. There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary.
3. The a.c. power is transferred from primary to secondary through
magnetic flux.
4. There is no change in frequency i.e., output power has the same frequency as the input
power.
5. The losses that occur in a transformer are:
(a) Core losses—eddy current and hysteresis losses
(b) Copper losses—in the resistance of the windings
11

In practice, these losses are very small so that output power is nearly equal to the input
primary power. In other words, a transformer has very high efficiency.
Open-Circuit or No-Load Test
This test is conducted to determine the iron losses (or core losses) and parameters R 0 and X0
of the transformer. In this test, the rated voltage is applied to the primary (usually low-voltage
winding) while the secondary is left open circuited. The applied primary voltage V1 is
measured by the voltmeter, the no load current I0 by ammeter and no-load input power W0 by
wattmeter as shown in Fig “a” below As the normal rated voltage is applied to the primary,
therefore, normal iron losses will occur in the transformer core. Hence wattmeter will record
the iron losses and small copper loss in the primary. Since no-load current I 0 is very small
(usually 2-10 % of rated current). Cu losses in the primary under no-load condition are
negligible as compared with iron losses. Hence, wattmeter reading practically gives the iron
losses in the transformer. It is reminded that iron losses are the same at all loads. Fig.
“b”shows the equivalent circuit of transformer on no-load.
Iron losses , P i=Wattmeter reading=W 0 Noload current= Ammeter reading=I 0

Applied voltage=Voltmeter reading=V 1 Input power=W 0=V 1 × I 0 cos ∅
W0
Noload p . f =cos ∅0= × I0
V1
I W =I O cos ∅ 0 ; I m =I 0 sin ∅ 0
V1 V
R0 = ∧X 0 = 1
IW Im
Thus open-circuit test enables us to determine iron losses and parameters R0 and X0 of the
transformer.
12
a b
Short-Circuit or Impedance Test
This test is conducted to determine R01 (or R02), X01 (or X02) and full-load
copper losses of the transformer. In this test, the secondary (usually low-voltage winding) is
short-circuited by a thick conductor and variable low voltage is applied to the primary as
shown in Fig. “c” The low input voltage is gradually raised till at voltage VSC, full-load
current I1 flows in the primary.
Then I2 in the secondary also has full-load value since I1/I2 = N2/N1. Under such conditions,
the copper loss in the windings is the same as that on full load.
There is no output from the transformer under short-circuit conditions. Therefore, input
power is all loss and this loss is almost entirely copper loss. It is because iron loss in the core
is negligibly small since the voltage VSC is very small. Hence, the wattmeter will practically
register the full-load copper losses in the transformer windings. Fig. “d” shows the equivalent
circuit of a transformer on short circuit as referred to primary; the no-load current being
neglected due to its smallness.
C d
Full load Cu Losses=PC =Wattmeter reading=W S
Applied Voltage=Voltmeter Reading=V SC
Full load primary current = Ammeter reading=I 1
13

PC =I R 1+ I R '2=I 12 R01
2 2
1 1
PC
R01=
I 21
Where R01 is the total resistance of transformer referred to primary.
V SC
Total impedance referred to primary , Z 01=
I1
Total leakage reactance referred to primary , X 01= √ (Z ¿¿ 012 ¿−R201) ¿ ¿
PC
Short circuit p . f =cos ∅ 2=
V SC I 1
Thus short circuit test gives the full load Cu losses, R01 and X01
14

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sarhad university of science and information

Roll Number: 17-SP-96509

Reg. Number: SUIT-17-02-076-0050

Name of Student: TAWSIF AHMAD

Degree Program: B-Tech (H) Electrical

Display Date: 31/03/2021

Submission Date 01/04/2021

Roll Number: 17-SP-96509 Reg. Number: SUIT-17-02-076-0050

Write in details about testing of dc machines in direct and indirect method.

Testing Methods of DC Machines

The efficiency of the machine Ƞm = (w (S1 – S2) 9.81) / VtIl * 100

where S1 and S2 = Spring force

Vt = terminal voltage,

Il = Line current, and

Roll Number: 17-SP-96509 Reg. Number: SUIT-17-02-076-0050

There are two types of indirect test

Swinburne Test on DC Shunt Machines

Roll Number: 17-SP-96509 Reg. Number: SUIT-17-02-076-0050

Roll Number: 17-SP-96509 Reg. Number: SUIT-17-02-076-0050

CONDITIONS FOR PARALLEL OPERATIONS OF ALTERNATOR

Roll Number: 17-SP-96509 Reg. Number: SUIT-17-02-076-0050

a. Rotating Thyristor Excitation System

Roll Number: 17-SP-96509 Reg. Number: SUIT-17-02-076-0050

b. Brushless Excitation System

Static Excitation System

Roll Number: 17-SP-96509 Reg. Number: SUIT-17-02-076-0050

Line Voltage=V L=440 volt s

Line Current =I L =75 amper e

Power Factor=cos θ=085

Stator Cu Losses=PSCL =2.5 k W

Fraction∧windage losses=P F ∧W =800 W =0.8 k W

Core losses=Pcore =1800W =1.8 k W

Effeciency of the motor=?

P¿ =√ 3V L I L cos θ=√ 3 × 440× 75× 0.85=48584 W

P AG=P ¿−P SCL−P core

Roll Number: 17-SP-96509 Reg. Number: SUIT-17-02-076-0050

Instrument transformers are necessary for:

Types of Instrument Transformers

There are two types of Instrument Transformers which are:-

1. Current Transformer (CT)

Current Transformer (CT)

A current transformer is a device that is used to measure high alternating current in a

Roll Number: 17-SP-96509 Reg. Number: SUIT-17-02-076-0050

The construction of current transformer is most similar to that of an ordinary transformer; a

Reduce power system current to lower value for measurement

Insulate secondary circuits from the primary

Permit the use of standard current ratings for secondary equipment

Potential Transformer (PT)

It is a device that is used to measure high alternating voltage. It is essentially a step-down

Roll Number: 17-SP-96509 Reg. Number: SUIT-17-02-076-0050

Provides isolation from high voltages

Must be capable of driving the burden, specified by relay manufacturer.

Protection class VT will suffice

Roll Number: 17-SP-96509 Reg. Number: SUIT-17-02-076-0050

1. The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagnetic induction.

(a) Core losses—eddy current and hysteresis losses

(b) Copper losses—in the resistance of the windings

Roll Number: 17-SP-96509 Reg. Number: SUIT-17-02-076-0050

Open-Circuit or No-Load Test

Iron losses , P i=Wattmeter reading=W 0 Noload current= Ammeter reading=I 0