Social Media Usage and Development of Psychiatric Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
published: 13 January 2021

doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.508595
Social Media Usage and

Development of Psychiatric
Disorders in Childhood and
Adolescence: A Review
Ilaria Cataldo 1,2 , Bruno Lepri 2 , Michelle Jin Yee Neoh 3 and Gianluca Esposito 1,3,4*
1
Affiliative Behavior and Physiology Lab, Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento, Trento, Italy,
2
Mobile and Social Computing Lab, Bruno Kessler Foundation, Trento, Italy, 3 Social and Affective Neuroscience Lab,
Psychology Program, School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore, 4 Lee Kong Chian
School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
Social media platforms, such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, are now part
of almost everyone’s social life, especially for the newer generations. Children and
teenagers grew up together with these Internet-based services, which have become an
integral part of their personal and social life. However, as reported in various studies,
psychological and psychiatric problems are sometimes associated with problematic
usage of social media. The primary purpose of this review is to provide an overview
Edited by: of the cognitive, psychological, and social outcomes correlated with a problematic
Kevin A. Pelphrey, use of social media sites during the developmental stages, from age 10 to 19
University of Virginia, United States
years. With a specific focus on depression, anxiety, eating, and neurodevelopmental
Reviewed by:
Jens Foell,
disorders, the review also discusses evidence related to genetic and neurobiological
Florida State University, United States issues, together with the implications in clinical work and future directions under
Stephanie Zerwas,
a multidisciplinary perspective. While the scientific community has made significant
University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill, United States progress in enhancing our understanding of the impact of social media on teenagers’
*Correspondence: lives, more research integrating biological and environmental factors is required to fully
Gianluca Esposito elucidate the development of these disorders.
gianluca.esposito@ntu.edu.sg;
gianluca.esposito@unitn.it Keywords: social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, depression, anxiety, adolescence, psychiatric disorders
Specialty section:
This article was submitted to 1. SOCIAL MEDIA: AN INCREASING PHENOMENON IN HUMAN
Social Cognition,
BEHAVIOR
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Psychiatry
In our global digital world, social connections are embedded within the external environment we
Received: 04 November 2019 are physically engaged in and the life that we virtually share on social media. Social media is a
Accepted: 02 November 2020 class of mobile and Internet-based applications that allow people to receive information and to
Published: 13 January 2021
build and share user-generated content. Through the creation of a virtual profile, it is possible
Citation: to interact with real-life friends, meet new people from all over the world, connect with one’s
Cataldo I, Lepri B, Neoh MJY and
favorite celebrities, and to maintain both online and offline relationships. Since 2004, the use
Esposito G (2021) Social Media
Usage and Development of
of social media has been increasing rapidly, with the possibility to be connected to the Internet
Psychiatric Disorders in Childhood anytime and anywhere. According to the nature of the content, the user can choose, from a wide
and Adolescence: A Review. range of applications, the platform that best suits the purpose of the communication. For example,
Front. Psychiatry 11:508595. Facebook is more focused on real-life friends and relatives and encourage interactions through
doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.508595 services such as sharing pictures, videos, status updates, and joining groups with specific interests.
Frontiers in Psychiatry | www.frontiersin.org 1 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 508595

Cataldo et al. Social Media and Psychiatric Disorders
Social platforms like Twitter, which are also known as attention, salience, mood fluctuation, and anxiety), and aspects
“microblogs,” are characterized by brief communication. Other related to the social sphere (i.e., social desirability, popularity,
applications, like Instagram or Snapchat, provide photo- and and conflicts), resulting in a decreased perceived quality of life.
video-sharing services, together with the possibility to like, Feedback from people belonging to the virtual social community
comment, and re-post preferred content. Figure 1 shows the can affect individual self-esteem and, generally, well-being (9–
popularity of the leading social networks, ranked by the 13). A problematic use can also affect other aspects of a teenager’s
worldwide number of active users (source: ourworldindata.org). daily life, such as academic performance, time management
Social media platforms are widely used across different age issues, procrastination, distraction (14), and sleep disturbances
groups and cultures, but especially for children and teenagers, (15). In severe cases, averse outcomes could arise and, if
online communication represents “a window into the secret prolonged, can become highly impactful, with the further risk of
world of adolescent peer culture, even as it offers young people developing psychiatric disorders (16). As the Internet and social
a new screen for the projection of adolescent developmental media are a recent phenomenon, it is more likely that the effect of
issues” (1). While social media offers tremendous potential in excessive or problematic usage will affect individuals during more
allowing self-expression of personality and maintaining contact sensitive temporal frames, such as childhood and adolescence.
with a network of friends, some studies have also highlighted A survey conducted in the United States in 2018 reported that
the risk of negative consequences of excessive online social 45% of the teenagers interviewed say they are almost constantly
platforms usage (2, 3). Online social interaction, the blurring online, without differences among sexes, ethnicities, family
of lines between offline and virtual life (4, 5), and the concept incomes, and parental level of education (for the full report, see
of digital identity (6) have become topics of great interest in Teens, Social Media & Technology 2018). Given the continuous
psychology and mental health fields (7). Researchers in the field exposure to the virtual environment, it is essential to understand
are attempting to find a consensual definition of the concept the impact that online social relationships have on mental health
of “problematic social media use,” as it is often confused with and interpersonal functioning in developmental stages. The aim
a description of addictive behavior related to general Internet of our review, compared to other recent publications [see (17,
services, which has been included in the 5th edition of the 18)], is to provide a detailed overview of not only the effect
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of mental disorders (8). In of social media in general but also of the associations between
accordance with a biopsychosocial framework, problematic use specific platforms and psychopathology. We believe that this
of social media involves a set of alterations affecting biological point is relevant, as it is important to distinguish among the
functions (i.e., neurotransmitters regulation and circadian different social media platforms given that each of them has
rhythm); cognitive, psychological, and affective mechanisms (i.e., specific, unique features that drive young users’ preferences.
FIGURE 1 | Number of people using social media from 2004 until the end of 2019; estimates correspond to monthly active users, defined as those who logged in
during the past 30 days. Source: Esteban Ortiz-Ospina (2019)–-“The Rise of Social Media,” published online at ourworldindata.org and retrieved from
https://ourworldindata.org/rise-of-social-media.

Furthermore, social media usage is often included in the broader 2.1. Eligibility Criteria
category of Internet usage, despite the social connotation that From a methodological perspective, studies had to fulfill the
primarily describes and defines these kinds of sites. Moreover, the following criteria to be included: journals and proceedings of
included articles were discussed according to specific disorders conference papers published up to the end of July 2020, published
that can develop during childhood and adolescence, not merely in English, and meeting the following criteria:
depression and anxiety that are the most explored disorders but
1. participants: children and adolescents until the age of 19
also addictive behaviors toward substances and eating disorders
with a profile on at least one of the most popular social
(EDs), as both start to develop during adolescence. In fact,
media platforms (Facebook, YouTube, WhatsApp, WeChat,
developmental stages are more vulnerable to environmental
Instagram, Twitter, TikTok, Tumblr, Reddit, Pinterest,
insults just because of the greater plasticity of the central nervous
Snapchat, MySpace, Q-Zone); we opted to consider the age
system, the multiple biological changes, and the formation of
of 19 as the upper limit of adolescence, in accordance with
psychological mechanisms that drive social behaviors (19, 20).
the definition provided by the World Health Organization
Due to the differences that define each platform, one of the main
https://apps.who.int/adolescent/second-decade/section2/page
purposes of the present review is to provide evidence related
1/recognizing-adolescence.html;
to targeted social media services, instead of a more general
2. interventions: assessment of psychiatric disorders in the
discussion on social media. In fact, we retain that the multifaceted
developmental ages (depressive symptoms, anxiety and related
manifestation of diverse psychological issues might be expressed
issues, EDs and body dissatisfaction, neurodevelopmental
differently through the multiple ways of communication, such
disorders, substance misuse or abuse);
as text, video, or picture. As social behavior and the risk for
3. comparison: it is not applicable, as we only included studies
psychiatric disorders is related to the activity of determined
based on the sample of social media users;
brain regions and biological features (21, 22), and since we
4. outcomes: we considered the levels of psychological well-being
are addressing the outcomes of problematic social media usage
or diagnosis of psychiatric disorders as the outcome;
(PSMU) under a biopsychosocial perspective, we will also provide
5. study design: we included studies containing quantitative
an overview about the neuroscientific and gene-by-environment
approaches to produce empirical data and qualitative designs.
contribution to the interplay between social media and the
development of psychiatric disorders in adolescence.
2.2. Results
For the selection procedure for the included articles, please
refer to Figure 2. In the results, we will discuss only the studies
2. METHODS AND RESULTS resulting from the literature research. In Table 1, all the articles
The review adopted the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic included in the review are listed, together with the principal
reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) model in conducting a information. Effect size computations for each study have been
systematic literature review. A search of four scientific electronic performed using an effect size calculator (64) or calculated
databases yielded 42 papers for qualitative evaluation. We manually. When more variables were analyzed in the study, we
searched PubMed Central, PubMed, PsycInfo, and Scopus reported the range of values for effect sizes (Cohen’s d). Disorders
databases for articles on psychiatric disorders in youths related will be discussed in distinguished macro-categories, divided by
to social media. Since this topic embraces multiple fields, such diagnostic class, according to the DSM-5(65). Relevant topics
as computer science and information and communication such as involvement/changes of neural correlates and genetic
technologies, we also browsed the Association for Computing contribution will also be discussed. A total of 31,823 papers were
Machinery Digital Library and the Institute of Electrical and screened by title and abstract, 1,394 were considered for further
Electronics Engineers Xplore Digital Library to find relevant screening, and 511 duplicate papers were removed. Note that 839
research articles in the proceedings of conferences focused on papers were removed after assessment for eligibility according
the role of social media in explaining psychological issues in the to the exclusion criteria, resulting in 44 papers included in
developmental age. We comparatively analyzed the literature the review.
from 2006 up to the end of July 2020, combining different
keywords and Boolean operators. A database was generated by 2.3. Depressive Symptoms and Mood
combining terms and Boolean operators, such as “social media” Disorders
AND “child*,” “social media use” AND “child*,” “social media” Depression is a prevalent mood disorder, in which symptoms
AND “disorder” AND “youth*”. To include more targeted include persistent sadness and a loss of interest in activities that
records, we conducted a further search on the same databases the person enjoys typically, together with the inability to carry out
using terms describing the specific issues we meant to address daily activities (65). With regard to childhood and adolescence,
in this review: (“YouTube” OR “WeChat” OR “TikTok” OR interpersonal models of depression in developmental ages
“Reddit” OR “Pinterest” OR “Facebook” OR “Instagram” OR accentuate the cyclical associations between social experiences
“Twitter” OR “Tumblr” OR “MySpace” OR “Whatsapp”) and depressive symptoms. New schemes in the interpersonal
AND (“psychiatric disorder” OR “mental health” OR environment, with more articulated, frequent, and unsupervised
“psychological well-being”) AND (“adolescent*” OR “youth*” contacts, may represent a further complication as the influence of
OR “teenager*”). peer relationships may affect a person’s identity and psychological

FIGURE 2 | Flow chart of procedural articles shortlisting according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines.
well-being (66). As depression and internalizing symptoms have loneliness is a predictor for more intense usage of social media
increased among youths in the last decade (67), it is vital to (71), as it might represent a solution to alleviate depressed mood,
question to what extent social media usage is directly linked to reinforcing PSMU (68). Specific kinds of actions on social media,
this and to understand how they impact each other. related to the peculiarity of the site, were found to be associated
with adverse emotional and relational outcomes at different times
2.3.1. Effects of Social Media Usage on Depressive and vice versa. With regard to Instagram, Frison and Eggermont
Symptoms reported that former browsing behavior was related to a later
Given that social media provide users with a range of possible increase in depressed mood (38). Moreover, levels of depressed
activities, it is possible to identify specific patterns of usage. For mood at Time 1 were associated with increased Instagram posting
instance, a set of actions such as browsing other users’ photos at Time 2, without differences between boys and girls (38). As
or scrolling through comments or news feeds has been labeled for Facebook, levels of depressive symptoms at the first stage
as passive social media use. Recent research indicates that this can be predictive of a lower number of Facebook friends and
sort of behavior and depression are linked in both directions. fewer ties between friends in the second stage (52). Another study
Passive social media usage could directly aggravate depressive based on Facebook data highlights the relationships between
symptoms, like loss of interest or blue mood, and thwart personal internalizing symptoms and online communication in terms
well-being (16, 32, 68, 69). High social media use appears to be of received comments offering support in response to posts
predictive of depressive symptoms and low offline social support indicating negative or depressive emotional states, with girls
from both family and peers (57). It might also act indirectly receiving more backing compared to boys. Such rumination-like
through mediators such as reduced sense of belonging (70), behavior through social media might affect negatively not only
hence increasing levels of loneliness first (43) and, subsequently, the mood of the person who posts but also of those who respond,
depressive mood and stress (16), which, in turn, reinforce each increasing levels of internalizing symptoms and depression
other (68). (72). Depressive symptoms, together with sleep problems, can
represent a positive predictor for excessive involvement in
2.3.2. Effects of Depressive Symptoms on Social Facebook-related activities (53). Similarly, emotional dependence
Media Usage on Facebook has been found to be negatively correlated to
Passive social media use appears to be increased by depressive several aspects of adolescents’ psychological well-being, such
symptoms, loneliness, and high levels of stress. In a longitudinal as autonomy, purpose in life, positive relationships, personal
study, Kross and colleagues have demonstrated that a sense of growth, self-acceptance, and ability to manage one’s environment

TABLE 1 | List of the studies included in the review.
n Article Age N Social media Disorder/symptoms Findings ES
1 Szwedo et al. (23) 13/20 89 g, MS Depressive symptoms, social anxiety – (depr); + (s.anx) 0.40–0.60
2 Moreno et al. (24) 18–19 66 g Alcohol use + 0.72
3 Pumper and Moreno (25) 12–14 315 g Alcohol use + 0.15
4 Tiggemann and Slater (26) 13–15 1,087 g, MS Body image concerns + 0.26
5 D’Angelo et al. (27) 18–19 312 g Alcohol use + 0.20
6 Huang et al. (28) 14–15 1,563 g, MS Alcohol and cigarette use ns na
7 Birnbaum et al. (29)) 12–21 80 g, ¡, 7 Psycotic-spectrum and mood disorder na na
8 Nesi and Prinstein (30) 12–16 619 g, ¡ Depressive symptoms + 0.53
9 Bert et al. (31) 18 341 7 Pro-anorexia na na
10 Ehrenreich and Underwood (2016) 18 125 g Internalizing symptoms + 0.58
11 Frison et al. (32) 12–19 1,612 g Depressive symptoms ns 0.58
12 Marczinski et al. (33) 19 146 g Alcohol use + 0.44
13 Moreno et al. (34) 17–19 94 g, 7 Alcohol use + 0.47–0.92
14 Naeemi and Tamam (35) 13–16 401 g Psychological well-being – 0.67
15 Sampasa-Kanyinga and Chaput (36) 11–19 4,468 g, 7, , Body image concerns + 0.39
16 Abar et al. (37) 19 252 g Substance use na na
17 Frison and Eggermont (38) 12–19 671 ¡ Depressed mood + 0.42
18 Gul et al. (39) 13–19 289 g ADHD + 0.69
19 Jacob et al. (40) 16–24 21 5 Self-injury + na
20 Nesi et al. (30) 15–16 658 g Alcohol use + 0.43
21 Nesi et al. (30) 13–16 816 g, ¡ Depressive symptoms + 0.85
22 Pontes (41) 10-18 509 g Depressive symptoms, anxiety + 0.62–0.68
23 Spilkova et al. (42) 16 4,887 g, 7, , Binge drinking, marjiuana use + (drink); ns (marj) 0.88
24 van Rooij et al. (43) 12–15 3,945 7 Depressive symptoms, social anxiety + 0.45–0.95
25 Weinstein (44) 14–18 507 ¡ Depressive symptoms + 0.68
26 Brown et al. (45) 16 52 ¡ Self-injury, suicidal ideation na na
27 Muzaffar et al. (46) 12–20 102 g Depressive symptoms, social anxiety ns na
28 Niu et al. (47) 12–18 764 QZ Depressive symptoms + 0.44
29 Settanni et al. (48) 15 283 g ADHD symptoms + 0.56
30 Chang et al. (49) 12–16 303 ¡ Body esteem – 0.58
31 de Vries et al. (50) 12–19 440 g Body dissatisfaction + 0.49
32 Louragli et al. (51) 12–19 541 g Anxiety, nomophobia + 0.50–0.98
33 Negriff (52) 13/21 319 g Depressive symptoms - 0.58
34 Przepiorka and Blachnio (53) 12–17 426 g Depressive symptoms + 0.83
35 Raudsepp and Kais (54) 13 397 g, ¡, 7 Depressive symptoms + 0.72
36 15–25 4,816 g, ¡, 7, v Alcohol use + 0.12–0.43
Savolainen et al. (55)
37 Shakir et al. (2019) 12–18 537 g, ¡, 7, , 5 Cyberbullying na na
38 Steers et al. (56) 17–19 316 g alcohol use + 0.69
39 Vannucci and Ohannessian (57) 11-14 1205 g, ¡, 7, , 5 Depressive symptoms, panic disorder + 0.28-.92
symptoms
40 Yurdagül et al. (58) 14–19 491 ¡ Depressive symptoms, anxiety, social + 0.28–0.50
anxiety, body dissatisfaction
41 Boursier et al. (59) 13–19 693 g, ¡, v, Body image concerns + 0.36
42 Fardouly et al. (60) 10–12 528 ¡, , v Depressive symptoms, social anxiety, + (depr.); ns 0.43–0.82
body satisfaction (s.anx); – (body)
43 Stockdale and Coyne (61) 17/19 385 g, ¡, 7 Depressive symptoms, anxiety ns (depr.); + (anx) 0.36
44 Brown et al. (62) 16 59 ¡ Self-injury na na
Age, range of age of the participants; N, sample size; ES, effect size; +, directly proportional; –, inversely proportional; ns, non-significant; na, not applicable; g, Facebook; ¡, Instagram;
7, Twitter; v, YouTube; , Snapchat; 5, Tumblr; , Skype; MS, MySpace; QZ, QZone. Icons of social media platforms have been created using the fontawesome package (63).
(35). An addictive attitude toward Facebook was found to be found an association between changes in PSMU and changes in
positively correlated with depression, regardless of age (age range depressive symptoms in both directions, with baseline levels of
10–18) and gender (41). Longitudinal research on adolescent girls depressive symptoms being predictive of PSMU (54).

2.3.3. Social Comparison and Negative Affect 13 (Time 1) and 20 (Time 2). Interestingly, higher depressive
Social comparison is a mechanism highly involved in the symptoms at Time 1 predicted a preference for communication
development of a person’s identity starting from childhood, via social media, but at Time 2, higher depressive symptoms
where evaluations are more distorted especially in a positive were predictive of lesser online disclosure (23). This change in
way, throughout adolescence, when the greater development of direction might be explained by the different ways, especially
cognitive skills permit the generation of more realistic estimates social withdrawal, through which depression is manifested in
(73). Social comparison, as a consequence, can generate both a early adolescence and early adulthood. With regard to psychotic
positive or a negative self-appraisal, affecting the way people, and non-psychotic mood disorders, social platforms such as
especially teenagers, perceive themselves and their quality of Facebook and Twitter represent an initial avenue to seek help
life. Evidence in literature suggests that PSMU and depressive by diagnosed youths (29) and a potential base to examine
symptoms might be mediated by social comparisons with others’ depressive symptoms and perceived social support from online
lives as they appear on their profiles (44, 47, 66), generating friends (80).
a sense of inferiority and feelings of worthlessness (74–78). As
a consequence, people showing downward social comparisons 2.4. Anxiety Disorders
are more likely to seek offline feedback for reassurance (66). Symptoms relating to anxiety often overlap with depression,
Social comparison is closely linked to self-esteem, which, in turn, especially in youths; just like depression, anxious manifestations
resents of the effect of individual cognitive appraisal, acting as a may result from a set of internal and external circumstances.
moderator in the processing of comparison. As a consequence, In social media, where the relational component is strong,
lower levels of self-esteem can represent a risk factor when anxiety can derive from a perception of being connected
making comparisons with others’ lives (47). These results appear inappropriately, from negative online peer-comparison, or from
to be more evident in girls, compared to boys, (44, 66) reduced emotion-regulation abilities, as online interaction can be
suggesting that intrinsic features of female identity development used as a surrogate for offline physical interaction (81). Targeted
can represent a vulnerability for a more negative self-appraisal, Facebook features, such as seeking online approval and support
especially when comparing or evaluating physical features or through the number of "likes," or only retaining the visibility
attractiveness (49, 54). Moreover, it is possible that online of posts and pictures that received lots of positive feedback
parasocial relationships may amplify distorted perceptions, due on one’s profile, can promote or elicit non-adaptive behaviors
to the filtered and selective nature of the information shared, (i.e., excessive social comparison and rumination) and increase
principally when evaluating profiles of users that do not belong anxiety-related traits, such as socially prescribed perfectionism,
to a close or offline network (44). aggravating pre-existing symptoms in youths diagnosed with an
anxiety disorder (82). Facebook can also be used by teenagers
2.3.4. Controversial Results in the Association as a pastime when feeling bored: a 3-year study found that
Between Depressive Symptoms and Social Media usage of Facebook in order to alleviate boredom at stage 1
Usage (17 years old) was correlated with increased levels of anxiety
Amid the research investigating the connection between social at a following stage (19 years old), indicating that the anxiety
media usage and depressive symptoms, a few studies reported no might be a secondary product of the problematic use of social
evidence linking social media sites and depression. A recent study media developed over the two time-points (61). This could reflect
investigated the relationships between reasons for Facebook use the fact that a 3-year window frame can encompass different
and psychological and mental health outcomes for a 3-year stages of a teenager’s life, especially when approaching emerging
period in late adolescents, aged from 17 to 19 years. According to adulthood. As the high school period is over, fewer amounts
their results, none of the possible motivations, which were social of structured time, coupled with less monitoring behavior by
connection, boredom, and information seeking, were correlated parents and teachers and greater accessibility to smartphones or
to depression at any stage of the experimental procedure (61). other electronic devices, can result in an increase in problematic
As for the short-term consequences of negative experiences on usage of social media and, as a consequence, underlying anxiety-
Facebook, online peer victimization is not predictive of increased related mechanisms (61). The type and the reiteration of a set
depressive symptoms after 6 months (79). In addition, Fardouly of behaviors that Facebook users could engage in (e.g., posting
and colleagues did not find differences between users and non- a photo/comment/status update, “liking" behavior, or using the
users of the most popular social media platforms (Youtube, instant message) can be linked with levels of general anxiety.
Instagram, and Snapchat) among Australian preadolescents in This might be explained by the need to keep worries related to
terms of depressive symptoms. Taken together, these results that driving the person to frequently check a previous posting
suggest that low mood derived from social media usage might behavior (46). With regards to Instagram, which is more focused
be explained through different factors, such as worry about on visual contents, one study reported a direct association
how youths appear on their preferred social networks sites between Instagram usage with general anxiety in boys, while
and their tendency to compare their own image to someone in girls this link was mediated by body image dissatisfaction,
else’s image (60). Finally, a longitudinal study by Szwedo and leading to different adverse outcomes in the two groups (58).
colleagues investigated the preference for Facebook and/or This difference between genders suggests that females might be
MySpace communication in a cohort of adolescents in relation more prone to engage in social comparison, especially when
to depressive symptoms, assessing the sample at the age of it involves physical appearance. This might be because their

perception of their ideal body image as being thin is affected by it might trigger addictive behaviors and aggravate symptoms of
their excessive exposure to attractive celebrity and peer images on anxiety. This combination of behavioral and cognitive patterns,
Instagram. Moreover, it underlines once again the importance of in the context of social media usage, appears to be mediated by
considering the possible concurrent mechanisms that contribute nomophobia, which is described as the fear of not being able
to the development of psychological issues. to use the mobile phone. Evidence in literature reports a direct
association among levels of anxiety, addictive behavior toward
2.4.1. Online Social Anxiety social media (41) and nomophobia, with a negative impact on
Social anxiety is described by the enduring preoccupation of academic performances (51).
being judged negatively by others during a social performance
or social circumstances (65). The worry of receiving unfavorable 2.5. Feeding, Eating Disorders, and Body
feedback is even stronger during adolescence, when the identity Dissatisfaction
of the self is developing. Online activity on social media can Adolescence is a temporal frame during which physical changes
be very attractive, especially for young people with such fears, and identity development occur, and teenagers acquire a greater
as it is possible to share information or content in a more awareness of the body, both their own and those of their
controllable environment. Although this allows people with peers (49). Posting pictures on social media is one of the most
social anxiety issues to overcome, even partially, the fear of being common practices among young people, especially self-photos
exposed to public judgment, it can lead to the development (commonly known as “selfies”) (89). Exposing and being exposed
of a problematic usage of social media platforms. With regard massively to pictures of body might lead to negative outcomes,
to Facebook, a longitudinal study by Szwedo and colleagues such as body image dissatisfaction, defined as “the discrepancy
found that at 13 years of age (Time 1), social anxiety does between identification of one’s own figure (actual) and the figure
not explain preference for virtual communications, and at 20 chosen as the desirable self-image” (90), or alterations in nutrition
years of age (Time 2), it was positively correlated with a habits, to the extent of the development of EDs. With regard to
predilection for online relations, especially for those expressing Instagram, body image dissatisfaction mediates the relationship
increased levels of maternal behavior undermining autonomy between PSMU and internalizing symptoms differently in males
at Time 1 (23). Levels of social anxiety in social media young and females, with the latter showing a stronger indirect effect
users have been shown to be positively correlated with online (58). Evidence from a study involving Singaporean girls showed
behavioral dimensions such as the attitude of comparing one’s that selfie practice on Instagram (browsing and editing) and
appearance with other people’s pictures on YouTube, Instagram, body esteem are mediated by appearance comparison operated
and Snapchat (60). As a consequence, the approach toward by peers’ groups with a negative association, while posting
social media can be conflicting: the person desires at the same self photos and body esteem are directly correlated (49). With
time to be recognized as interesting and “liked,” but would regard to Facebook, Tiggemann and colleagues investigated
also like to avoid being judged negatively or ridiculed. The social media exposure and body image concerns in girls, finding
awareness of these mechanisms might intensify pre-existing that time spent on the online platform was strongly correlated
symptoms of social anxiety, leading to non-adaptive patterns of to body surveillance and the ideal of a thin body shape (26).
behavior (82). An analysis of a Canadian sample of teenagers highlights that
more frequent and prolonged usage of social media services is
2.4.2. Fear of Missing Out and Nomophobia: The associated with body dissatisfaction, with a trend to perceive
Urge to Be Constantly Online oneself overweight in both boys and girls (36). Recent findings
The more people share their lives on their online profiles, the from a study by Fardouly and colleagues indicate that more
more they are at risk of being afraid of missing updates and frequent appearance comparisons with others on social media
feeling the urge to check their profiles for feedback (16, 83). and considering them to be more attractive than oneself is
This specific phenomenon has been labeled “fear of missing negatively correlated with body image satisfaction and positively
out" (FoMO), defining the pervasive anxiety experienced by linked with eating-related disorders in both male and female
a user when thinking that other people might be enjoying teenagers (60). Evidence from a sample of Italian adolescents
gratifying experiences in their physical absence, pushing him/her highlights the role played by appearance control beliefs and
to be connected constantly to check upon updates about these body image control in photos, as these dimensions could be
experiences, hence fostering the addictive behavior circuit (16, configured as predictors of problematic usage of social media
84–86). FoMO has been shown to be associated with the severity and negative mental health outcomes (59). Overall, the findings
of Facebook usage through a process that is likely to be activated indicate a higher vulnerability for girls to develop a negative
by users as a way to temporarily compensate or regulate negative image of their own body. This risk can be compounded
affect and anxious manifestations (87). Specific social needs may by misleading and harmful content that can be found on
underlie FoMO and reasons for social media usage, like the desire social media.
to be popular, or at least not unpopular in the eyes of peers and
the need for social affiliation, especially during adolescence when 2.5.1. Presentation of Eating Disorders on Social
peers acquire greater value compared to the family (88). To this Media Platforms
purpose, online interaction can represent a constantly available In recent years, groups supporting anorexia nervosa in several
means of gratification but, at the same time, an attractive risk as ways (endorsement and promotion of dysfunctional eating

behavior, maintenance of the disorder, and interference with of college students. The preference for the virtual environment as
recovery) have been spreading across social media platforms. The a platform to share alcohol-related experiences has been studied
dynamics of the Proana Movement, which promotes behaviors by Moreno and colleagues, who report that students owning a
relating to anorexia nervosa, have been examined using Twitter, profile on both Facebook and Twitter tended to post more alcohol
finding that adhering people and/or promoters were almost references on Facebook compared to Twitter (34), as they were
totally teenage girls (31). In the midst of the factors mediating entertaining more social connections on the former site. Online
the risk to develop body dissatisfaction or EDs, one study social networks often include connections with offline friends;
focused on teenagers’ offline social environment, finding that a therefore, the exposure to a friend’s drinking pictures or posts can
positive mother-adolescent relationship can exert a protective be associated with higher alcohol consumption (28, 30). Risky
function against the adverse effects of social media usage on body alcohol behavior can differ according to the country; a cross-
perception (50). An alarming factor is determined by the support cultural study examined the relationship between daily usage
of pro-EDs in online networks. As popular platforms started of popular social media platforms and alcohol consumption
blocking pro-ED related terms, users supporting dangerous among youths in the United States, Spain, Finland, and South
eating habits have begun altering the hashtags, bringing forward Korea. In the targeted countries, the different platforms were
their approval toward endangering conducts. On the other correlated with greater hazardous alcohol usage as follows:
hand, it is not unusual that people rehabilitating from an ED Facebook and Instagram in Spain, Finland, and South Korea,
seek support during their journey to recovery by sharing their YouTube in South Korea, and Twitter in Spain (55). These
testimony through textual posts or visual media (i.e., pictures, results suggest that specific social media sites might play an
video, and gif). This dual nature of online communication attractive or inspiring role in risky alcohol consumption but,
represents a great challenge for research, as the analysis focused on the other hand, they could also turn out to contribute
uniquely on hashtags may be misleading (91). Moreover, people greatly to online-based interventions. According to a study on
supporting ED behaviors often alter the terms in hashtags or post nicotine, alcohol, and marijuana consumption in high school,
them in comments in order to overcome social media censorship being friends on Facebook with one’s own parents and not hiding
policy, with a possible risk to expose more fragile or sensitive contents can represent a protective factor against substance use
people to explicit content. (37). Parental inclusion on social media interactions, without
undermining autonomy and privacy of youths, can depict
2.6. Alcohol Use/Abuse and Addiction an important element in substance use prevention targeted
Adolescence is the stage of life where people gain more toward youths.
independence and make new experiences in their social
environment, where peer influence might encourage and provide 2.7. Self-Harm and Suicidal Ideation
opportunities to come into contact with alcohol, potentially Amid the psychological issues potentially occurring in young
leading to the development of an addictive behavior toward people, self-harm is a primary concern, with harmful behaviors
the substance. As the social environment is now composed lying on a continuum between non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI)
of two realities, online and offline, it is crucial to understand and suicidal intention (40). Social media can influence self-injury
the contribution of social media in fostering, maintaining, or tendencies negatively, through fostering conducts, contagion, or
conveying contents related to substances. Studies on drinking competitions (94), but they can also represent the first foothold
behavior among teenagers and social media use highlight that when support is needed. A study based on the analysis of
online platforms like Facebook might represent a helpful tool to MySpace profiles indicates that teenagers utilize personal virtual
detect problematic alcohol use (25, 33, 34, 92, 93), or advertise space to share their suicidal ideation and behaviors directly or
for healthy behavior in settings such as popular alcohol-related by reporting desperation, hopelessness, and despair (95). From
events and parties (24). A higher number of alcohol-related the interviews with adolescents recently collected by Jacob and
posts has been shown to be linked to greater drinking conduct colleagues about self-harm behaviors, it emerges that Tumblr
and approval from friends, although heavier consumers seem is the preferred platform to share self-injuring content, like
to tend to post less over time compared to light drinkers (56). pictures, in an anonymous way, with the consequent risk to
A longitudinal study revealed that in the Facebook profiles normalize such harmful behaviors (40). Looking into the motives
of individuals identified as dependent alcohol users, alcohol that push young people to share self-injury related content such
references increased and half of those identified referenced as their own wounds on Instagram, there are mostly social
intoxication or problematic drinking after 1 year (25), while purposes, like the need to belong to a group where the person
another longitudinal study indicated that alcohol references at can feel understood (62). Another reason might be the need to
a first stage can predict binge drinking later in time (27). With self-disclose in an environment that can guarantee anonymity.
regard to alcohol-related attitudes, binge drinkers appear to be These reasons are reported to be valid both for the first NSSI
more prone to use social media excessively (42). Moreover, posts post and for the general NSSI ones. Beyond self-oriented motives,
containing references to alcohol predict the number of weekly another aim is to raise awareness about the topic in order to
substance consumption (93), the risk of developing an addiction, help other people (62). Although results concerning Instagram
and alcohol cravings (92). In order to predict drinking conduct, do not report any risk for acute suicidality (96), photos of self-
Marczinski and colleagues have developed the Alcohol-Related injury practices might play a reinforcement role as they are
Facebook Activity (ARFA) questionnaire (33) based on a sample often posted (45) and frequently concealed behind ambiguous

hashtags (97). In fact, as users often resort to the use of hashtags secure navigation and utilization of the site. Furthermore, they
to track the shared contents and to find images or discussions founded the Twitter Trust and Safety Council that works in
related to specific topics, those regarding self-harming behaviors partnership with several institutions and organizations in order
can contain non-related words (i.e., “blithe” for self-cutting to direct users to the appropriate service in case of abuse (see
pictures) or be constantly changed, in order to make them easily Twitter Safety Partner). With regard to Instagram, which has
accessible only to a restricted community (98). Social media- been owned by Facebook since 2012, the platform presents
related suicidal behavior is a topic of increasing interest and the community guidelines and another section where parents
critical importance that has garnered the attention of newspapers can find more information about the accessibility and visibility
and newscasts all over the world, concerning popular and of their children by other users. Moreover, an online form
unpopular people (see Channel News Asia for a recent episode). is available for reporting self-injury material, hate comments,
Although researchers attempted to study the extent of social abusive or inappropriate content, and profiles belonging to
media on suicidal behaviors in-depth, complexities derive from teens younger than 13 years old, which is the requirement
legal and privacy issues, as well as from the indirect association to own a profile (see Instagram Privacy and Safety Center
between the usage on web-based platforms and the suicide page). The same subscription criteria are applied to YouTube,
itself (99). although videos posted by other users are accessible even without
owning a profile. Because of this, it is possible for parents
2.8. Cyberbullying to set restrictions in order to avoid potentially dangerous or
Suicidal ideation can also derive from the non-adaptive usage of improper material. In addition, together with the site policies,
online communication by others, as in the case of cyberbullying. informative material about harmful behaviors such as self-injury,
Cyberbullying can be defined as the intentional use of suicide, harassment, and cyberbullying is provided (see YouTube
information and communication technologies such as electronic Community Guidelines). So far, statistics about the efficacy
mail, smartphone, short message services, and social media of these safety measures have not being available. Generally,
platforms, carried out repeatedly by a group or an individual, targeted services for prevention have been made known on the
to support deliberate, repeated, and hostile behaviors against most popular online platforms by providing users with links to
a victim who cannot easily defend him- or herself (100, 101). websites, hotlines, and information about how to detect warning
Cyberbullying constitutes a possible worrisome phenomenon, signs of suicide. Web communities focused on suicide prevention
given its devastating, occasionally even fatal, consequences on have been founded, giving their members the opportunity to
a person’s life. Recent statistics point out that cyberbullying share their own direct or indirect experience in an anonymous
is prevalent on platforms based on visual content, such as way and to support each other, without the constraints of physical
Instagram (42%), Facebook (37%), and Snapchat (31%) (see the boundaries (99).
article by Petrov C. on statistics about cyberbullying, February 28,
2019). As the contents are shared and spread quickly online, the 2.9. Neurodevelopmental Disorders
victim can experience, besides a lack of control, a series of highly Neurodevelopmental disorders are characterized by altered
negative psychological consequences, such as social anxiety functioning of the neurological system and brain, affecting
(102), depression, and suicidal ideation and attempt, especially cognitive functions and social behavior. Although social media
when bullying behavior perpetuates across time (103, 104). An interfere with offline interaction by reducing the investment of
investigation on social media usage and youths’ mental health time and resources in them while offering a more immediate
revealed that cyberbullying appears to mediate this relation alternative to satisfy social needs, they can also simplify the
occurring in a set of negative outcomes, such as sleep problems engagement in social contacts. This feature might be suitable,
and anxiety, more than the frequency of exposure to social for instance, for youths with autism spectrum disorders, as they
media itself, with girls being more exposed to these effects (10). can have difficulties in decoding complex social information
However, social media started adding certain features including (105, 106). As adolescence is a crucial developmental stage
the ability to report inappropriate content, comments, and to where interactions with peers occur both online and offline, it
block users in order to stem violent and inappropriate behaviors. is of pivotal relevance to understand the impact of social media
platforms on teenagers with neurodevelopmental disorders. With
2.8.1. Safety Measures Adopted by Social Media regard to ASD, evidence shows a positive association between
Sites Facebook usage and friendship quality, moderated by anxiety
Initially, the different platforms did not take responsibility for levels, suggesting that online platforms might act as a means
single users’ online behaviors. However, the growing prevalence to improve friendship quality (105). For this purpose, Gwynette
of cyberbullying in recent years has gained increased relevance, and colleagues explored Facebook’s therapeutic potential as a
resulting in the implementation of several measures aimed at tool to improve social skills in adolescents with ASD. Their
both children and parents. For instance, in 2013, Facebook web-based intervention, according to the authors, could have
launched a safety section on its site, providing information the potential to facilitate interventions, leading to higher
on policies, tools to increase profile protection, and relevant engagement with peers through the virtual environment (106).
resources and contacts to access in the case of cyber abuse (see In the context of neurodevelopmental disorders, Asperger
Facebook Safety page). Likewise, in 2015, Twitter activated a syndrome is characterized by significant difficulties in social
safety center for parents and teens with guidelines for a more interaction and non-verbal communication; as a consequence,

they could be more vulnerable to cyberbullying victimization recalled parental bonding, a recent exploration found that people
on online applications. Findings in the literature suggest who are genetically more sensitive to environmental factors,
that, although adolescents with Asperger syndrome use social represented by oxytocin receptor polymorphisms, with a history
media less than their peers, the percentage and frequency of of perceived high maternal overprotection tend to show a
cyberbullying are similar (107). Another neurodevelopmental higher social desirability index on Instagram (114). This index,
condition is attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which describes the ratio between the number of following and
which is defined by persistent inattention, hyperactivity, and followed profiles, could be used for future studies to unveil some
sometimes impulsivity. These features, combined with online- tendencies underlying user behavior on Instagram.
based platforms, might lead to addictive social media behaviors,
with further consequences on mental health, productivity, and
academic scores (48). Studies analyzing the correlation between
4. SOCIAL MEDIA USAGE AND NEURAL
ADHD traits and social media found that a large number of MECHANISMS
adolescents with ADHD own more than one Facebook account,
Evidence deriving from the neuroscientific field reveals a
showed greater overuse compared to their counterparts (39),
link between online social behaviors and regulation of neural
and ADHD symptoms are positively associated with Facebook
mechanisms. A functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
addictive use (48). Furthermore, teenagers with more marked
study conducted by Meshi and colleagues reports that social
ADHD traits were more likely to develop problematic usage of
media engagement is linked to activity in the ventral striatum
Internet-based services and less likely to remit from problematic
(vSTR) and adjoining structures of the nucleus accumbens (115).
Internet usage (108).
More precisely, the authors found an association between levels
of activation of these areas and in response to social feedback
3. GENE-BY-ENVIRONMENT identified that were relevant to participants’ social reputation
CONTRIBUTION TO UNDERSTAND (a surrogate for “likes” on Facebook). Another study describes
greater recruitment of the vSTR in relation to more popular
BEHAVIOR ON SOCIAL MEDIA shared pictures compared to less socially endorsed ones (116).
The hypothesis that genetic features influence behavior and As for structural evidence on gray matter volume and social
social interactions has been corroborated in several studies [for media habits, the striatal region was found to be linked to
a review, see (109)], and so is the notion that human behavior daily smartphone checking (117) and heavy social media usage
and psychological traits are modulated by the interaction between (118). Recent evidence also suggests the involvement of the
genetic variation and environmental factors (21). Due to the right lateral orbitofrontal cortex, linking a decreased volume in
intrinsic interactional nature of social media platforms, it is that area with an excessive usage of social media sites (119).
important to deepen the exploration of concurrent factors With regard to impulse control, reduced gray matter volume
that could explain underlying mechanisms related to online in the anterior cingulate cortex was found in people with high
interaction adopting integrated methodologies widely used tendencies in developing an addictive attitude toward instant
for offline social behavior, that is, the gene-by-environment messaging services (120) and “multitasking" users, suggesting
interaction framework. Few studies report results about genetic that social media usage is highly involved in the control of
contribution in Internet-related usage. Two studies on Turkish inhibitory mechanisms (121). Another relevant study by Moisala
twins on communication and social media reported that and colleagues on media multitasking showed increased activity
genetic and environmental effects were equally influential on in the right side of the prefrontal cortex while participants were
problematic Internet usage especially in male twin-pairs (110). subjected to a cognitive task; this result was explained by the
Another twin study highlighted the impact of genetics on mobile authors as a reflection of mental struggle in recruiting resources
phone use (111). These results have been corroborated by a in executive control (122). With regard to social cognition in
more recent investigation by York, who focused specifically adolescence, fMRI studies found that online rejection by peers or
on social media use (e.g., contact friends and contact family) other users elicits an increased activity in the medial prefrontal
even after controlling for demographic factors (112). A recent cortex, which is strongly associated with offline rejection (20),
study by Deryakulu and Ursavaş examines the extent to which and elicits neural responses in the dorsal anterior cingulate
nomophobia can be explained by genetic and environmental cortex, the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex, and the anterior
factors, revealing that the dimensions which were more insula, which are areas generally linked to “social pain” (20, 123)
explained by genes were “losing connectedness” and “giving up and depression (124). The immediate and long-term effects of
convenience,” while environmental factors were more related frequent and prolonged social media usage on neural structures
to the fear of “not being able to communicate” and “not and activity have yet to be elucidated.
being able to access” (113). Familiar context represents a factor
of great interest in shaping social behavior, especially at the 5. CONCLUSION
developmental stage, and perception of parental warmth or
intrusiveness can influence social media usage in adolescents. In just one decade, individuals’ lives and their social behavior
With regard to the genetic contribution within the frame of have been tremendously changed by the phenomenon of social

media. Emerging technologies and platforms provide users with communities based on common interests, and to involve users’
a wide range of activities, leisure, and the possibility to interact talents or attitudes with so-called “challenges." Although TikTok
with friends, families, or strangers. Although different patterns of had gained terrific popularity in the course of the last year,
usage are moderated by a set of individual features concerning no studies regarding the potential outcomes deriving from a
genetic, environment, temperament, and personal needs, it is problematic usage are available. As social media sites are quickly
undeniable that online social media have become an integrated developing, research appears to struggle in keeping pace with
part of people’s daily lives. This leads to the necessity, in not only the new online functionalities but also with ways of
research fields linked to human behavior, to understand if, interactions among users that, in turn, might alter parameters
how, and to what extent these platforms are modifying our in longitudinal studies, like the amount of time spent online.
brain mechanisms, interactions, and the concept of well-being. This is partially due to the fact that effects can be explored
During developmental stages, such as adolescence and early in terms of both a short and long term, each with different
adulthood, several changes occur not only with regard to neural consequences. Moreover, the social media platforms resent of
functions but also in social patterns, as young people have the users’ preferences and mass tendencies, and what is new
increasing opportunity to test themselves as individuals in more and trendy today might swiftly lose people’s interest (130).
autonomous social interactions. As for social media, the most Since keeping track of how communication technologies evolve
popular platforms require users to be at least 13 years old to across the years can be a precious resource on developmental
own a profile and have access to the services. Although this limit trajectories, it becomes of great importance for researchers to
is easily bypassed, it is difficult to have a clear overview of the build and rely on constantly updated evidence. The creation
sociodemographic information of young users and of different and rise of new technologies has resulted in new behaviors and,
patterns of usage or effects of social media in early adolescence consequently, new names for these behaviors. Neologisms like
(10–14), middle adolescence (15–17), and young adulthood (18– “nomophobia,” “selfie,” “phubbing,” “FoMO,” and “vaguebooking”
21), as the early adolescence population should not be able to have appeared for some years, defining specific behaviors or
access and be engaged in virtual interactions on such platforms. state of minds, that need further analysis, as they represent new,
This issue rebounds in a lack of studies considering this unexplored facets of human behavior. Research in psychological
distinction, representing a further challenge to future research. fields would also benefit from the exploration of specific types
Lots of efforts have been invested in creating new tools for of interaction, such as the creation of multiple accounts, the
assessing people’s attitudes toward social media usage, such as fruition of live streaming video services, and behaviors like un-
the creation and validation of new scales (84, 125–129) and to tagging people from posts or pictures or unfollowing/unfriending
interpret results within a fitting theoretical frame. Social media people in order to better understand the effects of mechanisms
provide unprecedented opportunities to trace online activity related to virtual social inclusion or exclusion. Although social
and to keep track of interaction dynamics at different stages. media allows for greater ease of recruitment and testing of
This allows researchers to overcome issues related to self-report a greater number of participants in more efficient ways—
questionnaires and to benefit from leveraging real-time data sometimes comparable to laboratory testing sessions (131)—a
over time more easily. Specifically, the increasing utilization of lack of knowledge still persists regarding the involvement of
hashtags might help in detecting and monitoring targeted topics specific brain regions or genetic susceptibility in developing
or risky behaviors, despite the risk of misappropriate use of words a certain social media-related disorder. In addition, only a
(for instance, sometimes people refer to “anxiety" or “depression" few studies adopted a longitudinal design, while most of the
when perceiving alterations in preoccupation or mood but with evidence is still based on a cross-sectional methodology that does
these not being of clinical interest or diagnosed. For sure, not fully allow researchers to study in detail the direction of
the use of hashtags is a powerful tool to build communities the association between social media usage and psychological
and support people’s journey to recover, to witness, to join a well-being. Furthermore, the mental health community should
cause, or to increase awareness around a specific topic related commit to find a solution in considering social media-related
to mental health. As the number of social media applications issues as being separate from other forms of problematic online
increases, with each having its own specific features, there is behaviors or usage. As there is no separated diagnosis, social
a need to separate problematic behaviors or effects according media concerns are often included or subsumed within the
to the platforms. In fact, since the advent of social networks Internet addiction frame, leading to an incorrect framing of the
sites, multiple platforms have succeeded one another, gaining problem, especially with regard to the social connotation that
immediate popularity. Some of them are not used anymore, such primarily describes and defines these kinds of services. New
as Google+, or had a drastic loss of users, like MySpace. Lately, evidence in these fields would be of great support for practitioners
a new social network site named TikTok, formerly known as in a twofold way: on the one hand, information shared on
Musical.ly, has risen especially among the youth, changing to social media sites and patterns of usage of new technologies
some extent the way social media are used. From the simple could be implemented in clinical work for both a more complete
sharing of text, music, or pictures, social media has rapidly assessment, and, on the other hand, it would be possible to
evolved, becoming more dynamic and providing the possibility profile more user-based interventions merging both online and
to get immediate and abundant feedback, to join wide online offline strategies.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS FUNDING

IC, GE, and BL conceived the paper. IC performed the search, This study was supported by the Nanyang
interpreted the literature, and wrote the paper. GE, MN, and BL Assistant Professor 2015 Start-up Grants program
reviewed and edited the paper. GE submitted the paper. All the funded by Nanyang Technological University
authors reviewed the final version of the paper before submission. (to GE).
REFERENCES 19. Paulus MP, Squeglia LM, Bagot K, Jacobus J, Kuplicki R, Breslin FJ, et al.
Screen media activity and brain structure in youth: evidence for diverse
1. Greenfield P, Yan Z. Children, adolescents, and the Internet: a new structural correlation networks from the ABCD study. Neuroimage. (2019)
field of inquiry in developmental psychology. Dev Psychol. (2006) 42:391. 185:140–53. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.10.040
doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.42.3.391 20. Crone EA, Konijn EA. Media use and brain development during adolescence.
2. Lloyd A. Social media, help or hindrance: what role does social media play in Nat Commun. (2018) 9:588. doi: 10.1530/ey.15.7.4
young people’s mental health. Psychiatr Danub. (2014) 26(Suppl. 1):340–6. 21. Cataldo I, Azhari A, Lepri B, Esposito G. Oxytocin receptors (OXTR) and
3. Radovic A, Gmelin T, Stein BD, Miller E. Depressed adolescents’ early parental care: an interaction that modulates psychiatric disorders. Res
positive and negative use of social media. J Adolesc. (2017) 55:5–15. Dev Disabil. (2018) 82:27–38. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2017.10.007
doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.12.002 22. Feldman R, Monakhov M, Pratt M, Ebstein RP. Oxytocin pathway
4. Lieberman A, Schroeder J. Two social lives: how differences between online genes: evolutionary ancient system impacting on human affiliation,
and offline interaction influence social outcomes. Curr Opin Psychol. (2020) sociality, and psychopathology. Biol Psychiatry. (2016) 79:174–84.
31:16–21. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.06.022 doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.08.008
5. Khan S, Gagné M, Yang L, Shapka J. Exploring the relationship between 23. Szwedo DE, Mikami AY, Allen JP. Qualities of peer relations on social
adolescents’ self-concept and their offline and online social worlds. Comput networking websites: predictions from negative mother–teen interactions. J
Hum Behav. (2016) 55:940–5. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2015.09.046 Res Adolesc. (2011) 21:595–607. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00692.x
6. Warburton S. Digital identity and social media. Hershey, PA: IGI Global 24. Moreno MA, Kacvinsky L, Pumper M, Wachowski L, Whitehill JM.
(2012). Associations between social media displays and event-specific alcohol
7. Sa’ed HZ, Sweileh WM, Awang R, Al-Jabi SW. Global trends in research consumption by college students. WMJ. (2013) 112:251.
related to social media in psychology: mapping and bibliometric analysis. Int 25. Pumper MA, Moreno MA. Identifying high-risk alcohol users in first-year
J Ment Health Syst. (2018) 12:4. doi: 10.1186/s13033-018-0182-6 college students: attitude, intention, and Facebook. J Alcohol Drug Depend.
8. Bányai F, Zsila Á, Király O, Maraz A, Elekes Z, Griffiths MD, et al. (2013) 1:1000128. doi: 10.4172/2329-6488.1000128
Problematic social media use: results from a large-scale nationally 26. Tiggemann M, Slater A. NetGirls: the Internet, Facebook, and body
representative adolescent sample. PLoS ONE. (2017) 12:e0169839. image concern in adolescent girls. Int J Eat Disord. (2013) 46:630–3.
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0169839 doi: 10.1002/eat.22141
9. Twenge JM. More time on technology, less happiness? Associations between 27. D’Angelo J, Kerr B, Moreno MA. Facebook displays as predictors of binge
digital-media use and psychological well-being. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. (2019). drinking: from the virtual to the visceral. Bull Sci Technol Soc. (2014)
28:372–9. doi: 10.1177/0963721419838244 34:159–69. doi: 10.1177/0270467615584044
10. Viner RM, Aswathikutty-Gireesh A, Stiglic N, Hudson LD, Goddings 28. Huang GC, Unger JB, Soto D, Fujimoto K, Pentz MA, Jordan-Marsh M,
AL, Ward JL, et al. Roles of cyberbullying, sleep, and physical activity et al. Peer influences: the impact of online and offline friendship networks
in mediating the effects of social media use on mental health and on adolescent smoking and alcohol use. J Adolesc Health. (2014) 54:508–14.
wellbeing among young people in England: a secondary analysis of doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.07.001
longitudinal data. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. (2019) 3:685–96. 29. Birnbaum ML, Rizvi AF, Correll CU, Kane JM, Confino J. Role of social
doi: 10.1016/S2352-4642(19)30186-5 media and the I nternet in pathways to care for adolescents and young adults
11. Tran BX, Hinh ND, Nguyen LH, Le BN, Nong VM, Thuc VTM, et al. A study with psychotic disorders and non-psychotic mood disorders. Early Interv
on the influence of internet addiction and online interpersonal influences on Psychiatry. (2017) 11:290–5. doi: 10.1111/eip.12237
health-related quality of life in young Vietnamese. BMC Public Health. (2017) 30. Nesi J, Rothenberg WA, Hussong AM, Jackson KM. Friends’ alcohol-
17:138. doi: 10.1186/s12889-016-3983-z related social networking site activity predicts escalations in adolescent
12. Kuss DJ, Griffiths MD. Excessive online social networking: can adolescents drinking: mediation by peer norms. J Adolesc Health. (2017) 60:641–7.
become addicted to Facebook? Educ Health. (2011) 29:63–6. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.01.009
13. Valkenburg PM, Peter J. Adolescents’ identity experiments on the Internet: 31. Bert F, Gualano MR, Camussi E, Siliquini R. Risks and threats of social media
consequences for social competence and self-concept unity. Commun Res. websites: twitter and the Proana movement. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw.
(2008) 35:208–31. doi: 10.1177/0093650207313164 (2016) 19:233–8. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2015.0553
14. Kirschner PA, Karpinski AC. Facebook R and academic performance. 32. Frison E, Eggermont S. Exploring the relationships between
Comput Hum Behav. (2010) 26:1237–45. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.024 different types of Facebook use, perceived online social support, and
15. Reinecke L, Meier A, Beutel ME, Schemer C, Stark B, Wölfling K, et al. The adolescents’ depressed mood. Soc Sci Comput Rev. (2016) 34:153–71.
relationship between trait procrastination, internet use, and psychological doi: 10.1177/0894439314567449
functioning: results from a community sample of German adolescents. Front 33. Marczinski CA, Hertzenberg H, Goddard P, Maloney SF, Stamates
Psychol. (2018) 9:913. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00913 AL, O’Connor K. Alcohol-related Facebook activity predicts alcohol
16. Hussain Z, Griffiths MD. Problematic social networking site use and use patterns in college students. Addict Res Theor. (2016) 24:398–405.
comorbid psychiatric disorders: a systematic review of recent large-scale doi: 10.3109/16066359.2016.1146709
studies. Front Psychiatry. (2018) 9:686. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00686 34. Moreno MA, Arseniev-Koehler A, Litt D, Christakis D. Evaluating college
17. Keles B, McCrae N, Grealish A. A systematic review: the influence of social students’ displayed alcohol references on facebook and twitter. J Adolesc
media on depression, anxiety and psychological distress in adolescents. Int J Health. (2016) 58:527–32. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.01.005
Adolesc Youth. (2020) 25:79–93. doi: 10.1080/02673843.2019.1590851 35. Naeemi S, Tamam E. The relationship between emotional dependence on
18. Abi-Jaoude E, Naylor KT, Pignatiello A. Smartphones, social media use and facebook and psychological well-being in adolescents aged 13–16. Child Indic
youth mental health. CMAJ. (2020) 192:E136–41. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.190434 Res. (2017) 10:1095–106. doi: 10.1007/s12187-016-9438-3

36. Sampasa-Kanyinga H, Chaput JP. Use of social networking sites and 56. Steers MLN, Neighbors C, Wickham RE, Petit WE, Kerr B, Moreno
alcohol consumption among adolescents. Public Health. (2016) 139:88–95. MA. My friends, I’m# SOTALLYTOBER: A longitudinal examination
doi: 10.1016/j.puhe.2016.05.005 of college students’ drinking, friends’ approval of drinking, and
37. Abar CC, Farnett S, Mendola K, Koban K, Sarra S. Relationships between Facebook alcohol-related posts. Digit Health. (2019) 5:2055207619845449.
parent–child social media interactions and health behaviors. J Subst Use. doi: 10.1177/2055207619845449
(2018) 23:335–7. doi: 10.1080/14659891.2017.1410586 57. Vannucci A, Ohannessian CM. Social media use subgroups differentially
38. Frison E, Eggermont S. Browsing, posting, and liking on Instagram: the predict psychosocial well-being during early adolescence. J Youth Adolesc.
reciprocal relationships between different types of Instagram use and (2019) 48:1469–93. doi: 10.1007/s10964-019-01060-9
adolescents’ depressed mood. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. (2017) 20:603–9. 58. Yurdagül C, Kircaburun K, Emirtekin E, Wang P, Griffiths MD.
doi: 10.1089/cyber.2017.0156 Psychopathological consequences related to problematic instagram use
39. Gul H, Yurumez Solmaz E, Gul A, Oner O. Facebook overuse and among adolescents: the mediating role of body image dissatisfaction
addiction among Turkish adolescents: are ADHD and ADHD-related and moderating role of gender. Int J Ment Health Addict. (2019) 1–13.
problems risk factors? Psychiatry Clin Psychopharmacol. (2018) 28:80–90. doi: 10.1007/s11469-019-00071-8
doi: 10.1080/24750573.2017.1383706 59. Boursier V, Gioia F, Griffiths MD. Objectified body consciousness,
40. Jacob N, Evans R, Scourfield J. The influence of online images on self-harm: body image control in photos, and problematic social networking:
a qualitative study of young people aged 16–24. J Adolesc. (2017) 60:140–7. the role of appearance control beliefs. Front Psychol. (2020) 11:147.
doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.08.001 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00147
41. Pontes HM. Investigating the differential effects of social networking site 60. Fardouly J, Magson NR, Rapee RM, Johnco CJ, Oar EL. The use of social
addiction and Internet gaming disorder on psychological health. J Behav media by Australian preadolescents and its links with mental health. J Clin
Addict. (2017) 6:601–10. doi: 10.1556/2006.6.2017.075 Psychol. (2020) 76:1304–26. doi: 10.1002/jclp.22936
42. Spilkova J, Chomynova P, Csemy L. Predictors of excessive use of social 61. Stockdale LA, Coyne SM. Bored and online: reasons for using social media,
media and excessive online gaming in Czech teenagers. J Behav Addict. problematic social networking site use, and behavioral outcomes across
(2017) 6:611–9. doi: 10.1556/2006.6.2017.064 the transition from adolescence to emerging adulthood. J Adolesc. (2020)
43. Van Rooij AJ, Ferguson CJ, Van de Mheen D, Schoenmakers TM. Time to 79:173–83. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.01.010
abandon Internet Addiction? Predicting problematic Internet, game, and 62. Brown RC, Fischer T, Goldwich DA, Plener PL. “I just finally wanted
social media use from psychosocial well-being and application use. Clin to belong somewhere”-–Qualitative analysis of experiences with posting
Neuropsychiatry. (2017) 14:113–21. pictures of self-injury on instagram. Front Psychiatry. (2020) 11:274.
44. Weinstein E. Adolescents’ differential responses to social media browsing: doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00274
exploring causes and consequences for intervention. Comput Hum Behav. 63. Danaux X, Gandy D. FontAwesome. (2016). Available online at: http://
(2017) 76:396–405. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2017.07.038 mirror.kumi.systems/ctan/fonts/fontawesome/doc/fontawesome.pdf
45. Brown RC, Fischer T, Goldwich AD, Keller F, Young R, Plener PL. # 64. Lenhard W, Lenhard A. Calculation of Effect Sizes. Dettelbach (2016).
cutting: non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) on Instagram. Psychol Med. (2018) 65. American Psychiatric Pub. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
48:337–46. doi: 10.1017/S0033291717001751 Disorders (DSM-5 ). R Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Pub (2013).
46. Muzaffar N, Brito EB, Fogel J, Fagan D, Kumar K, Verma R. The association 66. Nesi J, Prinstein MJ. Using social media for social comparison and
of adolescent Facebook behaviours with symptoms of social anxiety, feedback-seeking: gender and popularity moderate associations with
generalized anxiety, and depression. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. depressive symptoms. J Abnorm Child Psychol. (2015) 43:1427–38.
(2018) 27:252. doi: 10.1007/s10802-015-0020-0
47. Niu GF, Luo YJ, Sun XJ, Zhou ZK, Yu F, Yang SL, et al. Qzone use and 67. Twenge JM, Cooper AB, Joiner TE, Duffy ME, Binau SG. Age, period, and
depression among Chinese adolescents: a moderated mediation model. J cohort trends in mood disorder indicators and suicide-related outcomes
Affect Disord. (2018) 231:58–62. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2018.01.013 in a nationally representative dataset, 2005–2017. J Abnorm Psychol. (2019)
48. Settanni M, Marengo D, Fabris MA, Longobardi C. The interplay between 128:185–99. doi: 10.1037/abn0000410
ADHD symptoms and time perspective in addictive social media use: a 68. Aalbers G, McNally RJ, Heeren A, Wit SD, Fried EI. Social media and
study on adolescent Facebook users. Child Youth Serv Rev. (2018) 89:165–70. depression symptoms: a network perspective. J Exp Psychol Gen. (2018)
doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.04.031 148:1454–62. doi: 10.1037/xge0000528
49. Chang L, Li P, Loh RSM, Chua THH. A study of Singapore adolescent 69. Brooks S, Longstreet P. Social networking’s peril: cognitive absorption,
girls’ selfie practices, peer appearance comparisons, and body esteem on social networking usage, and depression. Cyberpsychology. (2015) 9:21–39.
Instagram. Body Image. (2019) 29:90–9. doi: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.03.005 doi: 10.5817/CP2015-4-5
50. de Vries DA, Vossen HGM, van der Kolk-van der Boom P. Social 70. Tobin SJ, Vanman EJ, Verreynne M, Saeri AK. Threats to belonging
media and body dissatisfaction: investigating the attenuating role of on Facebook: lurking and ostracism. Soc Influence. (2015) 10:31–42.
positive parent–Adolescent relationships. J Youth Adolesc. (2019) 48:527–36. doi: 10.1080/15534510.2014.893924
doi: 10.1007/s10964-018-0956-9 71. Kross E, Verduyn P, Demiralp E, Park J, Lee DS, Lin N, et al. Facebook use
51. Louragli I, Ahami A, Khadmaoui A, Aboussaleh Y, Lamrani AC. Behavioral predicts declines in subjective well-being in young adults. PLoS ONE. (2013)
analysis of adolescent’s students addicted to facebook and its impact on 8:e69841. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0069841
performance and mental health. Acta Neuropsychol. (2019) 17:427–39. 72. Ehrenreich SE, Underwood MK. Adolescents’ internalizing symptoms
doi: 10.5604/01.3001.0013.6550 as predictors of the content of their Facebook communication and
52. Negriff S. Depressive symptoms predict characteristics of responses received from peers. Transl Issues Psychol Sci. (2016) 2:227.
online social networks. J Adolesc Health. (2019) 65:101–6. doi: 10.1037/tps0000077
doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.01.026 73. Harter S. The Construction of the Self: Developmental and Sociocultural
53. Przepiorka A, Blachnio A. The role of Facebook intrusion, depression, and Foundations. New York, NY: Guilford Publications (2015).
future time perspective in sleep problems among adolescents. J Res Adolesc. 74. Chou HTG, Edge N. “They are happier and having better lives than I am”
(2019) 30:559–69. doi: 10.1111/jora.12543 : the impact of using Facebook on perceptions of others’ lives. Cyberpsychol
54. Raudsepp L, Kais K. Longitudinal associations between problematic social Behav Soc Netw. (2012) 15:117–21. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2011.0324
media use and depressive symptoms in adolescent girls. Prev Med Rep. (2019) 75. Davila J, Hershenberg R, Feinstein BA, Gorman K, Bhatia V, Starr LR.
15:100925. doi: 10.1016/j.pmedr.2019.100925 Frequency and quality of social networking among young adults: associations
55. Savolainen I, Oksanen A, Kaakinen M, Sirola A, Miller BL, Paek HJ, with depressive symptoms, rumination, and corumination. Psychol Popul
et al. The Association between social media use and hazardous alcohol Media Cult. (2012) 1:72. doi: 10.1037/a0027512
use among youths: a four-country study. Alcohol Alcohol. (2020) 55:86–95. 76. Steers MLN, Wickham RE, Acitelli LK. Seeing everyone else’s
doi: 10.1093/alcalc/agz088 highlight reels: how Facebook usage is linked to depressive symptoms.

J Soc Clin Psychol. (2014) 33:701–31. doi: 10.1521/jscp.2014.33. 95. Cash SJ, Thelwall M, Peck SN, Ferrell JZ, Bridge JA. Adolescent suicide
8.701 statements on MySpace. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. (2013) 16:166–74.
77. Appel H, Gerlach AL, Crusius J. The interplay between Facebook use, doi: 10.1089/cyber.2012.0098
social comparison, envy, and depression. Curr Opin Psychol. (2016) 9:44–9. 96. Brown RC, Bendig E, Fischer T, Goldwich AD, Baumeister H, Plener PL. Can
doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.10.006 acute suicidality be predicted by Instagram data? Results from qualitative
78. Bollen J, Gonçalves B, van de Leemput I, Ruan G. The happiness and quantitative language analyses. PLoS ONE. (2019) 14:e0220623.
paradox: your friends are happier than you. EPJ Data Sci. (2017) 6:4. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0220623
doi: 10.1140/epjds/s13688-017-0100-1 97. Miguel EM, Chou T, Golik A, Cornacchio D, Sanchez AL, DeSerisy
79. Frison E, Subrahmanyam K, Eggermont S. The short-term longitudinal M, et al. Examining the scope and patterns of deliberate self-injurious
and reciprocal relations between peer victimization on Facebook cutting content in popular social media. Depress Anxiety. (2017) 34:786–93.
and adolescents’ well-being. J Youth Adolesc. (2016) 45:1755–71. doi: 10.1002/da.22668
doi: 10.1007/s10964-016-0436-z 98. Moreno MA, Ton A, Selkie E, Evans Y. Secret society 123: understanding
80. McCloskey W, Iwanicki S, Lauterbach D, Giammittorio DM, Maxwell K. Are the language of self-harm on Instagram. J Adolesc Health. (2016) 58:78–84.
Facebook “friends” helpful? Development of a Facebook-based measure of doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.09.015
social support and examination of relationships among depression, quality 99. Luxton DD, June JD, Fairall JM. Social media and suicide: a
of life, and social support. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. (2015) 18:499–505. public health perspective. Am J Public Health. (2012) 102:195–200.
doi: 10.1089/cyber.2014.0538 doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2011.300608
81. Hoge E, Bickham D, Cantor J. Digital media, anxiety, and 100. Pettalia JL, Levin E, Dickinson J. Cyberbullying: eliciting harm
depression in children. Pediatrics. (2017) 140(Suppl. 2):S76–80. without consequence. Comput Hum. Behav. (2013) 29:2758–65.
doi: 10.1542/peds.2016-1758G doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2013.07.020
82. Calancie O, Ewing L, Narducci LD, Horgan S, Khalid-Khan S. Exploring 101. Barlett CP, Gentile DA, Chng G, Li D, Chamberlin K. Social media use and
how social networking sites impact youth with anxiety: a qualitative study cyberbullying perpetration: a longitudinal analysis. Violence Gender. (2018)
of Facebook stressors among adolescents with an anxiety disorder diagnosis. 5:191–7. doi: 10.1089/vio.2017.0047
Cyberpsychology. (2017) 11. doi: 10.5817/CP2017-4-2 102. Shakir, T., Bhandari, N., Andrews, A., Zmitrovich, A., McCracken,
83. Oberst U, Wegmann E, Stodt B, Brand M, Chamarro A. Negative C., Gadomski, J., et al. (2019). Do our adolescents know they are
consequences from heavy social networking in adolescents: the cyberbullying victims? J. Infant Child Adolesc. Psychother. 18, 93–101.
mediating role of fear of missing out. J Adolesc. (2017) 55:51–60. doi: 10.1080/15289168.2018.1565004
doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.12.008 103. Chatzakou D, Leontiadis I, Blackburn J, De Cristofaro E, Stringhini G, Vakali
84. Przybylski AK, Murayama K, DeHaan CR, Gladwell V. Motivational, A, et al. Detecting cyberbullying and cyberaggression in social media. arXiv
emotional, and behavioral correlates of fear of missing out. Comput Hum preprint arXiv:190708873 (2019). doi: 10.1145/3343484
Behav. (2013) 29:1841–8. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2013.02.014 104. Plemmons G, Hall M, Doupnik S, Gay J, Brown C, Browning W, et al.
85. Andreassen CS. Online social network site addiction: a comprehensive Hospitalization for suicide ideation or attempt: 2008–2015. Pediatrics. (2018)
review. Curr Addict Rep. (2015) 2:175–84. doi: 10.1007/s40429-015-0056-9 141:e20172426. doi: 10.1542/peds.2017-2426
86. Dhir A, Yossatorn Y, Kaur P, Chen S. Online social media fatigue and 105. van Schalkwyk GI, Marin CE, Ortiz M, Rolison M, Qayyum Z, McPartland
psychological wellbeing—A study of compulsive use, fear of missing out, JC, et al. Social media use, friendship quality, and the moderating role of
fatigue, anxiety and depression. Int J Inform Manage. (2018) 40:141–52. anxiety in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord.
doi: 10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2018.01.012 (2017) 47:2805–13. doi: 10.1007/s10803-017-3201-6
87. Dempsey AE, O’Brien KD, Tiamiyu MF, Elhai JD. Fear of missing 106. Gwynette MF, Morriss D, Warren N, Truelove J, Warthen J, Ross CP, et al.
out (FoMO) and rumination mediate relations between social anxiety Social skills training for adolescents with autism spectrum disorder using
and problematic Facebook use. Addict Behav Rep. (2019) 9:100150. facebook (project rex connect): a survey study. JMIR Ment Health. (2017)
doi: 10.1016/j.abrep.2018.100150 4:e4. doi: 10.2196/mental.6605
88. Beyens I, Frison E, Eggermont S. “I don’t want to miss a thing”: Adolescents’ 107. Iglesias OB, Sanchez LEG, Rodríguez MÁA. Do young people with Asperger
fear of missing out and its relationship to adolescents’ social needs, Facebook syndrome or intellectual disability use social media and are they cyberbullied
use, and Facebook related stress. Comput Hum Behav. (2016) 64:1–8. or cyberbullies in the same way as their peers? Psicothema. (2019) 31:30–7.
doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.083 108. Choi BY, Huh S, Kim DJ, Suh SW, Lee SK, Potenza MN. Transitions in
89. McLean SA, Jarman HK, Rodgers RF. How do “selfies” impact adolescents’ problematic internet use: a one-year longitudinal study of boys. Psychiatry
well-being and body confidence? A narrative review. Psychol Res Behav Invest. (2019) 16:433–42. doi: 10.30773/pi.2019.04.02.1
Manage. (2019) 12:513. doi: 10.2147/PRBM.S177834 109. Ebstein RP, Israel S, Chew SH, Zhong S, Knafo A. Genetics of human
90. Forrest KY, Stuhldreher WL. Patterns and correlates of body image social behavior. Neuron. (2010) 65:831–44. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2010.
dissatisfaction and distortion among college students. Am J Health Stud. 02.020
(2007) 22:18–25. 110. Deryakulu D, Ursavaş ÖF. Genetic and environmental influences on
91. Pater JA, Haimson OL, Andalibi N, Mynatt ED. “Hunger Hurts but Starving problematic Internet use: a twin study. Comput Hum Behav. (2014) 39:331–8.
Works” Characterizing the Presentation of Eating Disorders Online. In: doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2014.07.038
Proceedings of the 19th ACM Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative 111. Miller G, Zhu G, Wright MJ, Hansell NK, Martin NG. The heritability
Work & Social Computing. San Francisco, CA (2016). p. 1185–200. and genetic correlates of mobile phone use: a twin study of consumer
92. Curtis BL, Lookatch SJ, Ramo DE, McKay JR, Feinn RS, Kranzler HR. Meta- behavior. Twin Res Hum Genet. (2012) 15:97–106. doi: 10.1375/twin.
analysis of the association of alcohol-related social media use with alcohol 15.1.97
consumption and alcohol-related problems in adolescents and young adults. 112. York C. A regression approach to testing genetic influence on
Alcohol Clin Exp Res. (2018) 42:978–86. doi: 10.1111/acer.13642 communication behavior: social media use as an example. Comput
93. Westgate EC, Neighbors C, Heppner H, Jahn S, Lindgren KP. “I will take Hum Behav. (2017) 73:100–9. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2017.03.029
a shot for every ‘like’I get on this status”: posting alcohol-related Facebook 113. Deryakulu D, Ursavaş ÖF. Genetic and environmental sources of
content is linked to drinking outcomes. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. (2014) 75:390– nomophobia: a small-scale Turkish Twin study. Addicta. (2019) 6:147–62.
8. doi: 10.15288/jsad.2014.75.390 doi: 10.15805/addicta.2019.6.1.0028
94. Marchant A, Hawton K, Stewart A, Montgomery P, Singaravelu V, Lloyd K, 114. Bonassi A, Cataldo I, Gabrieli G, Foo JN, Lepri B, Esposito G. Oxytocin
et al. A systematic review of the relationship between internet use, self-harm Receptor Gene polymorphism and early parental bonding interact in shaping
and suicidal behaviour in young people: the good, the bad and the unknown. Instagram social behaviour. PsyArXiv. (2019). Available online at: psyarxiv.
PLoS ONE. (2017) 12:e0181722. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0181722 com/n6mgv.

115. Meshi D, Morawetz C, Heekeren HR. Nucleus accumbens response to gains 125. Andreassen CS, Torsheim T, Brunborg GS, Pallesen S. Development
in reputation for the self relative to gains for others predicts social media use. of a Facebook addiction scale. Psychol Rep. (2012) 110:501–17.
Front Hum Neurosci. (2013) 7:439. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00439 doi: 10.2466/02.09.18.PR0.110.2.501-517
116. Sherman LE, Payton AA, Hernandez LM, Greenfield PM, Dapretto M. 126. Van den Eijnden R, Lemmens J, Valkenburg P. The social media disorder
The power of the like in adolescence: effects of peer influence on neural scale: validity and psychometric properties. J Behav Addict. (2016) 5:13.
and behavioral responses to social media. Psychol Sci. (2016) 27:1027–35. doi: 10.1037/t53816-000
doi: 10.1177/0956797616645673 127. Nick EA, Cole DA, Cho SJ, Smith DK, Carter TG, Zelkowitz RL. The Online
117. Montag C, Markowetz A, Blaszkiewicz K, Andone I, Lachmann B, Social Support Scale: measure development and validation. Psychol Assess.
Sariyska R, et al. Facebook usage on smartphones and gray matter (2018) 30:1127. doi: 10.1037/pas0000558
volume of the nucleus accumbens. Behav Brain Res. (2017) 329:221–8. 128. Kwon M, Kim DJ, Cho H, Yang S. The smartphone addiction scale:
doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.04.035 development and validation of a short version for adolescents.
118. He Q, Turel O, Brevers D, Bechara A. Excess social media use in PLoS ONE. (2013) 8:e83558. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.00
normal populations is associated with amygdala-striatal but not with 83558
prefrontal morphology. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging. (2017) 269:31–5. 129. Landoll RR, La Greca AM, Lai BS. Aversive Peer Experiences on
doi: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2017.09.003 Social Networking Sites: development of the Social Networking-Peer
119. Lee D, Namkoong K, Lee J, Lee BO, Jung YC. Lateral orbitofrontal gray Experiences Questionnaire (SN-PEQ). J Res Adolesc. (2013) 23:695–705.
matter abnormalities in subjects with problematic smartphone use. J Behav doi: 10.1111/jora.12022
Addict. (2019) 8:404–11. doi: 10.1556/2006.8.2019.50 130. Anderson KE. Getting acquainted with social networks and apps: it is time
120. Montag C, Zhao Z, Sindermann C, Xu L, Fu M, Li J, et al. to talk about TikTok. Library Hi Tech News. (2020).
Internet Communication Disorder and the structure of the human 131. Casler K, Bickel L, Hackett E. Separate but equal? A comparison of
brain: initial insights on WeChat addiction. Sci Rep. (2018) 8:2155. participants and data gathered via Amazon’s MTurk, social media, and
doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-19904-y face-to-face behavioral testing. Comput Hum Behav. (2013) 29:2156–60.
121. Loh KK, Kanai R. Higher media multi-tasking activity is associated with doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2013.05.009
smaller gray-matter density in the anterior cingulate cortex. PLoS ONE.
(2014) 9:e106698. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0106698 Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
122. Moisala M, Salmela V, Hietajärvi L, Salo E, Carlson S, Salonen O, et al. absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a
Media multitasking is associated with distractibility and increased prefrontal potential conflict of interest.
activity in adolescents and young adults. Neuroimage. (2016) 134:113–21.
doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.04.011 Copyright © 2021 Cataldo, Lepri, Neoh and Esposito. This is an open-access article
123. Bayer JB, O’Donnell MB, Cascio CN, Falk EB. Brain sensitivity to distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY).
exclusion is associated with core network closure. Sci Rep. (2018) 8:16037. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the
doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-33624-3 original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original
124. Pandya M, Altinay M, Malone DA, Anand A. Where in the publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice.
brain is depression? Curr Psychiatry Rep. (2012) 14:634–42. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these
doi: 10.1007/s11920-012-0322-7 terms.

Social Media Usage and Development of Psychiatric Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Social Media Usage and Development of Psychiatric Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Social Media Usage and Development of Psychiatric Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

published: 13 January 2021

Social Media Usage and

Frontiers in Psychiatry | www.frontiersin.org 1 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 508595

Frontiers in Psychiatry | www.frontiersin.org 2 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 508595

Frontiers in Psychiatry | www.frontiersin.org 3 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 508595

Frontiers in Psychiatry | www.frontiersin.org 4 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 508595

TABLE 1 | List of the studies included in the review.

n Article Age N Social media Disorder/symptoms Findings ES

Frontiers in Psychiatry | www.frontiersin.org 5 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 508595

Frontiers in Psychiatry | www.frontiersin.org 6 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 508595

Frontiers in Psychiatry | www.frontiersin.org 7 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 508595

Frontiers in Psychiatry | www.frontiersin.org 8 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 508595

Frontiers in Psychiatry | www.frontiersin.org 9 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 508595

Frontiers in Psychiatry | www.frontiersin.org 10 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 508595

Frontiers in Psychiatry | www.frontiersin.org 11 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 508595

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS FUNDING

Frontiers in Psychiatry | www.frontiersin.org 12 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 508595

Frontiers in Psychiatry | www.frontiersin.org 13 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 508595

Frontiers in Psychiatry | www.frontiersin.org 14 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 508595

Frontiers in Psychiatry | www.frontiersin.org 15 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 508595

You might also like