Aquatic Invaders of the Pacific Northwest;

Carassius auratus auratus (Common Goldfish)

Martin Safer

Fish 423

Autumn 2014

(top: http://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2012/11/the-great-goldfish-invasion-how-an-exotic-carp-took-
over-america/264420/
Bottom: http://christymcdonald.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/goldfish.jpg)
Diagnostic Information:
Common Name: Common Goldfish
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Cypriniformes
Family: Cyprinidae
Genus: Carassius
Species: C. auratus
Subspecies: C. auratus auratus

Identification:
Goldfish can vary greatly in size, body
shape, fin configuration and coloration due to
intensive selective breeding. Most often in the
wild, they have forward facing mouths with
pharyngeal teeth, a v-shaped caudal fin. It
possesses a long dorsal fin with 15 to 21 rays
and a hard serrate spine at the origin of the
dorsal and anal fins.

Figure 2: A common goldfish, C. auratus auratus in a

typical aquarium, top
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldfish#mediaviewer/
File:Goldfish3.jpg). The bottom picture depicts an
alleged common carp (Cyprinus carpio) goldfish
hybrid. Top picture is from wikipedia, bottom is from
Figure 1: This diagram can be used to identify body tnfish.org, courtesy of Melton Hill Negus
structures mentioned throughout this paper. Although (http://www.tnfish.org/PhotoGalleryFish_TWRA/Fis
it is a drawing of a fancy goldfish, the body structures hPhotoGallery_TWRA/images/HybridCommonCarp
are the same for the common goldfish. Photo GoldfishMeltonHillNegus_jpg.jpg).
courtesy of Solid Gold, with Jennifer Lynx
(http://www.solidgoldfish.com/2013/02/goldfish- They are often a deep orange color, making
them a popular choice for aquariums, although
external-anatomy.html). in captivity, they can be a myriad of colors
including silver, black, white, grey, red, and
even a rare blue. If a goldfish in the wild is
anything other than bronze/gold/orange, they
could easily have originated directly from a local
hobbyist's aquarium, as after a few generations,
the goldfish will revert back to its wild type.
They produce a thick slime coat, which they use ancestors until then. Goldfish may reach sexual
as a primary defense against pathogens. Goldfish maturity within the year, in time for the next
tend to average 12” inches in length, although year’s mating season, although their fecundity
they have been known to exceed this. Different will continue to increase as they become larger.
sources claim maximum recorded sizes
anywhere from 19 inches to 23 inches with a
maximum weight of 9.9 pounds. During their Feeding Habits
mating season, males will produce white pimple Newly hatched fry will remain near the
like tubercles on their operculum. Overall, bottom of the water column before they are free
female goldfish tend to be a bit smaller and swimming. During this time they are absorbing
rounder than male goldfish, who tend to be the remainder of their yolk-sac. Once free
longer and pointier. C. auratus usually have swimming, fry will forage for food in the form
fewer than 31 scales along the lateral line (Nico of microorganisms such as nematodes, plankton,
2014). Goldfish are opportunistic feeders, and protozoans. As they become larger, they can
meaning they will eat just about anything that begin to consume larger items, such as small
can fit in their mouth, from smaller fish and insects and pieces of plant matter. Goldfish also
insects, to plant matter, to fruit that falls into seem to enjoy digging in substrate for food. This
their habitat. behavior can increase turbidity of the substrate is
fine. As stated before, goldfish are very
Life History and Basic ecology opportunistic omnivorous feeders, and will
consume just about anything that can fit into
Life cycle their mouths.
Goldfish are long lived fish with a Goldfish, like many other fish, rely on
reported expectancy of 5-10 years in captivity, ambient water temperature to stabilize their own
given proper care, although the oldest recorded internal temperature. As a result, goldfish have
goldfish was 43 years. This is often shorter in faster metabolic processes in warmer waters and
both the wild and captivity due to predation, less slower metabolic processes in cooler waters.
than ideal conditions, or improper care. Simply put, they will eat more and grow more in
Temperature fluctuations mimicking the warmer seasons than in the colder seasons.
that of spring will trigger spawning behavior in Goldfish can even go into a hibernation in the
goldfish. This can be observed by white, pimple- winter, allowing them to survive sub-freezing
like, breeding tubercles on the males’ temperatures and go a substantial time without
operculum, and aggressive chasing of the eating.
female. After the female has tired out, she will
release her eggs. She may release hundreds of Reproductive Strategies
eggs, with some sources claiming thousands. Before looking in detail at the
Like all cyprinids, goldfish eggs are sticky and reproductive patterns of goldfish, it is useful to
will adhere to substrate and plants. After the know how to sex them. Goldfish are very
eggs are attached, the male will release milt over difficult to sex before they are mature. Some
the eggs, fertilizing them. The eggs will then techniques to remember when trying to sex a
hatch in 2-5 days. goldfish include looking for breeding tubercles.
Upon hatching the goldfish fry are very The white tubercles that appear during the
vulnerable to predation at a mere 5 mm in breeding season on the rays on the pectoral fins
length, so they grow rapidly for the first few as well as the operculum are strong indicators of
weeks of their lives. For their first few days, a male. In rare cases a female can develop
goldfish absorb the remainder of their yolk-sac, tubercles, but it is very uncommon. Another way
during which time they are not free swimming, to sex goldfish is to examine their vents. Males
meaning they struggle to swim and will rest on will usually have a concave vent, while females
the substrate or in vegetation. It may take over a often have a convex vent, you should be able to
year before their true coloration sets in, see the female vent protruding from a side
maintaining the metallic brown of their wild profile. The easiest but least reliable way to sex
goldfish is their body shape. Females typically goldfish do not do well with wildly fluctuating
have rounder deeper body shapes, and when pH. If the pH is too low, goldfish will begin to
viewed from the top, may have an asymmetrical show some of the following symptoms:
abdomen. anorexia, excess slime, lethargy, blood streaking
When temperatures begin to rise in the in fins, and death. If the pH becomes too high,
spring, females will release pheromones into the these symptoms may be noticed: excess slime,
water which encourage milt production in males gasping at the surface, and death.
and the formation of tubercles. Water hardness refers to the amount of
dissolved minerals in the water column.
Goldfish are not particular about water hardness
parameters and they will do fine in hard or soft
water. However, just as with pH, they don’t do
well in fluctuating water quality parameters, so a
stable pH and hardness are ideal for goldfish
health.
The temperature of the water a goldfish
lives in has a direct effect on the fish’s
metabolism. Warmer water increases metabolic
rate while cooler water lowers metabolic rate.
Figure 3: Breeding tubercles on operculum of male
Goldfish do best in temperatures between 20 and
22 degrees Celsius (roughly 68 - 72 degrees
goldfish. Fahrenheit). Just as with other parameters they
(http://aqualandpetsplus.com/Live%20Food,%20Gol can survive more extreme temperatures. It is not
uncommon for goldfish to survive in a pond that
dfish.htm)
has frozen over for a week. During this time, the
goldfish’s metabolic rate is so low that they do
The exact purpose of the tubercles are unknown, not eat or move, they can be considered
however some studies of related fish suggest that hibernating during this time. On the flip side,
they are indicators of health and dominance, so goldfish can survive temperatures over 30
females can select a good mate. The males will degrees Celsius (approaching 90 degrees
start to chase the female around. They can be Fahrenheit), although not for very long (Nico
both relentless and aggressive in their chase, 2014). They are more tolerant of cooler water
nudging the female’s abdomen to try and get her than warmer water.
to release her eggs. This behavior may persist Goldfish, while freshwater fish, can
for a week until the eggs are finally released. tolerate low levels of salinity if acclimated
Once in the water column, the eggs will adhere properly. One study, done over 72 hours
to plants and substrate. At this point the male indicates that goldfish can acclimate to salinity
will release his milt, fertilizing the eggs. levels up to and including 10ppt with little or no
Although the female may release up to 1000 adverse effects on their health. The study also
eggs, only a small fraction of them will survive saw that higher salinity levels of 15ppt-20ppt
to adulthood. caused significant adverse effects on health and
even death in some cases (Schofield 2006). To
Environmental Optima and Tolerance give some context, the ocean has a salinity of
Goldfish are considered to be extremely 35ppt. This is significant for the goldfish’s
hardy fish, able to survive the abuse of many potential invasive range, although more studies
novice aquarium hobbyists. While they may need to be done to evaluate long term effects of
survive in extremely harsh conditions, they will salt exposure.
thrive in their ideal conditions. Goldfish seem to
enjoy a mildly alkaline pH of 7.2-7.6. They will Biotic Associations
do just fine in pH well outside of this range, as Because goldfish are primarily
long as it remains stable. As with most fish, introduced through the aquarium trade and
subsequent release, there are a plethora of
potential pathogenic invaders and diseases that
must be considered. One of the most common
and deadly diseases in aquariums is freshwater
ich. It is cause by the ectoparasite protozoan
Ichthyopthirius multifiliis. It forms white
nodules across the body of a fish, looking much
like the breeding tubercles, but more randomly
located. Each nodule is an encysted parasite. If
uncontrolled, ich has a 100% mortality rate in
fish. Ich has three main stages of life, the
feeding stage in which the trophozoite forms a Figure 5: A black moor (fancy) goldfish with anchor
nodule on a fish and begins feeding. The tomont,
in which the trophozoite falls off the fish and worms.
adheres to the substrate, preparing to divide. (http://thedailydish.wordpress.com/2009/10/15/when-
And finally, after dividing via binary up to 10 bad-things-happen-to-anchor-worms-good-fish-
times, infective theronts are produced. This
entire life cycle can take anywhere from 1 to 8 survive/)
weeks depending on water temperature, with
temperatures around 25 degrees Celsius (77 Goldfish can often host a variety of
degrees Fahrenheit) being ideal. other pathogens as well, including velvet and
some fungal diseases. Unfortunately, the
goldfish is often kept in very poor conditions
before sold to consumers. This weakens the
fish’s immune system and increases the
likelihood that the fish is infected with 1 or more
pathogens. In addition, the goldfish is
considered the beginner fish for aquarium
hobbyists. They are quite often kept in very poor
conditions their entire life, so on the occasion
that a goldfish is released from a home
aquarium, they are likely harboring a
Figure 4: A black moor (fancy) goldfish with ich smorgasbord of pathogenic diseases.
disease. Current Geographic Distribution
(http://www.about-goldfish.com/ich-disease.html)
Distribution in the PNW and the United States
Common goldfish are widely distributed
A common parasite found on goldfish is
throughout the Unites States, largely due to their
Lernaea Sp., a genus of copepod crustaceans
popularity in the aquarium hobby. In the case of
commonly known as anchor worms. They mate
aquariums, goldfish release is most likely
during their last free-swimming stage of
intentional, with the aquarist unaware of the
development, after which the female burrows
consequences of their actions. Goldfish are also
into the flesh of a fish assuming a wormlike
very popular pond fish. In some cases, goldfish
form, often partially hanging from the fish's
may escape a pond near a body of water during
body. Anchor worms can cause irritation and
very heavy floods, although this is less likely
stress in fish, as well as breathing difficulties
than release from aquariums (Courtenay et al.
and general lethargy.
1984). They concluded that goldfish has been
documented in the wild in all states except
Alaska. They claimed the species as established
in 16 of the lower 48 states, including
California, Delaware, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Goldfish has been recorded from
Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Florida, Maine, Utah, Vermont, and West
Massachusetts, Michigan, Nebraska, Nevada, Virginia, however, there is no available data
New Hampshire, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, indicating the presence of established
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, populations. Countryman (1975) listed it as
South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, "naturalized" in Vermont, which suggests the
Washington, and Wisconsin. They also listed it presence of reproducing populations.
as possibly established in 17 additional states: Figure 6 shows the overall distribution
Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, as of today of wild goldfish in the United States.
Connecticut, Kansas, Louisiana, Minnesota, Each subsequent map zooms in closer to the
Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, New Jersey, University of Washington.
New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota,
Oregon, and Wyoming.

Map 1: This map, courtesy of USGS, indicates the number of recorded wild goldfish across the USA. The highest
numbers of recorded specimens are in the Northeast of the country.
Map 2: This map, courtesy of USGS, is a highlight of the Pacific Northwest. It does not show the number of
recorded specimens but instead indicates if a population is established. The different shapes indicate level of
certainty, with circles being confirmed. Red indicates an established population.

Map 3: This map, courtesy of USGS, is a super close up on Seattle, specifically right near the University of
Washington. It clearly shows 1 confirmed established population in Union Bay, with 2 approximate established
populations in Lake Union and Lake Washington.
According to USGS, goldfish populations have been established in Lake Union and Lake Washington since around
1936.
History of Invasiveness

According to Courtenay and Stauffer Now, most goldfish you find in

(1990), goldfish may have been first released in aquariums weren’t born there. They were most
the United States as early as the late 1600s. They likely bred by a breeder or came from an
suggest that these early introductions were a aquaculture facility and shipped off to a local
result of intentional releases by settlers wanting distributor. They may spend weeks or even
to improve the local fish fauna. During the late months in the care of the distributor, often in
1800s, the U.S. Fish Commission raised goldfish cramped aquariums with poor conditions. All of
and was responsible for distributing it across the this is very stressful and the weaker fish may
country for the purpose of “meeting the demand die. Eventually a novice aquarist will come
for fish for aquaria, fountains, and ornamental along and decide to adopt five of those sad
lakes” (McDonald 1886, 1893). In the early looking goldfish. Most likely of those five, very
1900s goldfish were introduced to Wisconsin via few survive.
a fish exchange program with the Nebraska Fish These bottlenecks impart a very high
Commission, according to Johnson and Becker selecting force on goldfish for only the very best
(1980). Shipments of goldfish were being made survivors. The poor care of goldfish in many
to San Francisco as early as 1867. More recent large distributor facilities, coupled with the
introductions of goldfish in the United States goldfish’s stigma as the ultimate beginner fish
were likely the result of escapes from hatcheries make the selection on goldfish significantly
and ponds, escapes and releases of baitfish, and higher than most other common aquarium fish.
aquarium releases (Knapp 1953; Courtenay and
Hensley 1979; Courtenay et al. 1984; Pflieger
1997).

Invasion Process

Pathways, vectors and routes of introduction

For the most part, goldfish are

introduced by either misinformed or uninformed Figure 9: Overstocked goldfish tank from China,
aquarium hobbyists. Many people get goldfish
where many goldfish are bred to be shipped into the
as gifts, or they win them at the fair. At this
point they are excited for their new fishy friend, United States
and they try to love them and give them the right (http://www.aquarticles.com/images/China%201c/p1
home. Those that succeed will go on to notice
6%20Goldfish.jpg)
that their once little friend is not so small
anymore. Recall that goldfish, given the proper
care, can reach sizes of 12”. Many find that they Besides intentional release from
longer have the space for their beloved pet, some aquariums, goldfish may also escape from
people may decide to move and can’t bring it breeding facilities. Many breeding facilities are
with them. Others may just not like their near bodies of water with acceptable parameters
goldfish anymore. Whatever the case, it comes for the husbandry of goldfish (so that they can
down to a decision on the hobbyist’s part. Do utilize this water as a resource). However,
they murder their pet that they cared for and during the heavy rains this body of water may
loved for all those years, do they find it a happy overflow and flood the facility. In the case of a
new home, or do they release it into the wild, flood, goldfish may escape into the wild. Some
from whence it allegedly came? For many, they individuals may also stock goldfish as a feeder
can’t bring themselves to euthanize their pet, fish in small lakes.
and they can’t find a suitable home, so they opt Another method by which goldfish are
for the release of their pet. unintentionally introduced to bodies of water is
through their use as bait fish. Since goldfish are goldfish, and many sources claim they tend to
many sizes, cheap, and colorful, they make for dig up plants in aquaria. If that behavior persists
decent baitfish, or at least they would if they in the wild, then they may pose a threat to
didn’t establish so easily. In any case, some shallow rooted plants. Through experiments, and
states have laws in place which prohibit the use observations Richardson et al. (1995) found that
of goldfish as bait. the goldfish is a benthic herbivore whose
behavior often results in visible increases in
Factors Influencing Establishment and Spread turbidity and decreases in aquatic vegetation.
However, Laird and Page (1996) claimed that
The goldfish has many attributes that goldfish in Illinois appear unable to compete
make it an outstanding specimen for with native fish, and can only establish in
establishment. First and foremost is the severely disturbed areas. According to Moyle
goldfish’s high range of environmental (1976) large populations of this species can
tolerance, giving it a very large portion of the greatly disturb sport fish habitats.
globe that it could establish in. The goldfish can Goldfish may also play a role as a food
handle temperatures from below freezing to over source for local predators. However, studies
30 degrees Celsius. It can survive salinities from have suggested that goldfish may contain
0 ppt up to 10 ppt (Schofield 2006). It can thiaminase, an enzyme which breaks down
tolerate a pH range of 6.2 to 8.5. In addition to thiamin. Thiamin, better known as vitamin B1,
its wide range of tolerances, the goldfish also is a colorless and water soluble chemical that
has a very wide ranging diet. Since they are helps to convert carbohydrates into glucose
opportunistic omnivorous fish they will, for the (Anglesea and Jackson 1985). It is particularly
most part, eat anything that can fit into their important for the correct functioning of the
mouths, including but not limited to smaller fish, nervous system. A lack of Vitamin B1 is called a
plant matter, decaying matter, and insects. These Thiamine Deficiency Syndrome. Many
fish can also live for a multitude of years, up to predatory invertebrates such as eels are very
30 years, although this is quite rare. Their prone to Thiamine Deficiency Syndrome, so in
(relatively) long life means that they will have consuming goldfish (which contain thiaminase),
many chances to breed and establish in new they are actually at a serious risk.
territories. Goldfish, however, are easily The offspring of salmon from the Baltic
predated upon, since they are not known for Sea, which apparently feed mostly on thiaminase
being particularly fast. rich herring and relatively little food that
contains high levels of Vitamin B1, were found
Potential Ecological and Economic Impacts to suffer from a condition called Reproduction
Disorder M74 (Wistbacka et al. 2002). This was
In the aquarium trade, it is well known later identified as being simply one particular
that goldfish are very messy fish. What this form of Thiamine Deficiency Syndrome. The
means is that goldfish produce a eggs produced by adult salmon were provided
disproportionate amount of waste compared to with very little thiamin, and the fry that emerged
their total mass. If a large population of goldfish almost all died soon after hatching. Comparable
establishes in a small body of water, the waste problems have been found among salmonids in
products (ammonia) should be monitored for the Great Lakes of North America, and this has
stability. This is a non-issue in larger bodies of been hypothesized to be related to a diet
water. The main threat that goldfish really pose containing a large proportion of alewives,
is that of competition. another type of thiaminase rich fish. Considering
As previously stated, goldfish are highly that Goldfish are also a thiaminase rich food, if a
opportunistic omnivorous feeders, and they eat a predatory fish in the pacific northwest, such as
lot. They may provide enough pressure on a salmon, were to become dependent on a large,
small food source to have adverse effects on established invasive goldfish population, we
local fauna. In addition to competing for food, a may end up with a similar problem. Fortunately,
digging behavior has also been noted in in most cases, goldfish remain in relatively small
populations across North America, especially in mimeograph (revised version, October
the Pacific Northwest, so their relative threat 1975).
remains low. Courtenay, W.R., Jr., and D.A. Hensley.
1979. Survey of introduced non-native
fishes. Phase I Report. Introduced exotic
Management strategies and control methods fishes in North America: status 1979.
Report Submitted to National Fishery
Most of the management strategies for Research Laboratory, U.S. Fish and
goldfish across North America are related to use Wildlife Service, Gainesville, FL.
as baitfish, that is, they strictly prohibit their use
as baitfish. However, there are few strategies in Courtenay, W.R., Jr., D.A. Hensley, J.N.
place currently. In Ney York and Pennsylvania, Taylor, and J.A. McCann. 1984.
it is illegal to use or possess goldfish as baitfish. Distribution of exotic fishes in the
In Minnesota, goldfish are a regulated invasive continental United States. 41-77 in W.R.
species, making introduction of the species Courtenay, Jr., and J.R. Stauffer, Jr.,
without a permit illegal. In Wisconsin, goldfish eds. Distribution, biology and
are a restricted invasive species. management of exotic fishes. Johns
As of yet, there is no known biological Hopkins University Press, Baltimore,
control for goldfish. Physical removal, however, MD.
is an option, especially in small ponds (Morgan
et al 2005). Yamamoto et al. (2006) claims that Deutsch, H.F. & Hasler, A.D. (1943):
physical lowering the water level has a Distribution of a Vitamin B1 destructive
significant negative impact on cyprinid enzyme in fish.- Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol.
spawning abilities. In Lake Biwa, in japan, Med. 53: 63-65.
cyprinid eggs were noticeably reduced when
water levels were lowered by 30 cm. Even a 10 Johnson, M., and G.C. Becker. 1980.
cm reduction can significantly reduce spawning Annotated list of the fishes of
areas preferred by cyprinids (Yamamoto et al. Wisconsin. Papers of the Wisconsin
2006). Clearwater et al (2008) claims that liming Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
could be a potential control method for goldfish. 58:265-300.

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