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Deaf and multilingual: A practical guide for teaching

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 Deaf and Multilingual

by Judith Mole, Hilary McColl and Mireille Vale

Direct Learn Services Ltd.

 Published by Direct Learn Services Ltd., The Limes, Norbury,
Shropshire, United Kingdom

www.directlearn.co.uk

© Direct Learn Services Ltd. 2005

First published in 2005. This edition published 2008.

This book is subject to copyright laws. No reproduction or

transmission, in part or in whole, is permitted without the written
permission of the publishers. Any unauthorised copying,
reproduction, transmission, or distribution of this book is strictly
prohibited.

ISBN 978-1-905938-03-2

2
Table of contents
Foreword ............................................................................... 6

Acknowledgements............................................................... 7

Notes on terminology and abbreviations............................ 8

Introduction: Why learn languages?................................ 11

PART ONE: UNDERSTANDING DEAFNESS AND ITS

IMPACT ON LEARNING ................................................ 14
Audiological Equipment ................................................... 16
Communication .................................................................. 19
How communication is affected by deafness.................... 19
Communication strategies used by deaf people................ 20
Making the most of residual hearing ................................ 21
Lip-reading........................................................................ 21
Sign language.................................................................... 23
Strategies for communicating with deaf learners.............. 26
The role of support staff .................................................... 28
Note-takers........................................................................ 30
Electronic note-takers (Speech-to-text reporters) ............. 31
Sign language interpreters (SLIs) ..................................... 31
Lip-speakers...................................................................... 32
Cued Speech...................................................................... 33
Working with support staff: aspects of good practice ...... 33
PART TWO: TEACHING A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
TO DEAF LEARNERS ..................................................... 35
3
 The place of foreign languages in the curricula................ 35
Mainstreaming .................................................................. 37
The language learning environment: challenges and
opportunities ..................................................................... 39
Affective issues................................................................. 43
Technological assistance................................................... 44
Communication modes ..................................................... 44
The ‘four modes’ (listening, speaking, reading, writing) . 46
Listening ........................................................................... 46
Speaking............................................................................ 49
Reading ............................................................................. 50
Writing .............................................................................. 50
Language teaching approaches and their impact on deaf
learners.............................................................................. 51
Multi-sensory learning ...................................................... 53
Communicative approaches, including use of the target
language for classroom management................................ 56
Teaching grammar ............................................................ 56
Co-operative and peer learning......................................... 58
Information Communications Technology (ICT ) and
Individualised learning...................................................... 59
Teaching styles and use of course books .......................... 60
Course planning.................................................................. 61
A note on differentiation................................................... 61
Advance planning ............................................................. 64
Lesson delivery ................................................................. 71
The planning grid.............................................................. 76
Case Study: A language teacher's perspective ................ 78

4
PART THREE: THE ROLE OF SUPPORT WORKERS
IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSES........................... 99
Initial considerations....................................................... 100
Some problems that may arise ........................................ 105
Support strategies for foreign language learning.......... 110
Patterns of language support........................................... 110
Lip-speaking ................................................................... 111
Cued speech .................................................................... 113
Note-taking ..................................................................... 114
Electronic notes and captioning ...................................... 117
Flash cards ...................................................................... 119
Interpreting...................................................................... 120
Fingerspelling ................................................................. 123
Other professionals ......................................................... 125
General tips ..................................................................... 126
PART FOUR: PRACTICAL SOLUTIONS TO
SPECIFIC SITUATIONS................................................ 127
Listening ......................................................................... 127
Speaking.......................................................................... 134
Writing ............................................................................ 141
Reading ........................................................................... 143
General teaching situations ............................................. 144
Assessments and tests ..................................................... 148
The matrix....................................................................... 150
About the authors............................................................. 151

References ......................................................................... 153

Glossary............................................................................. 156
5
 Foreword

T his book is about deaf people learning spoken/written foreign

languages. To date there has been a dearth of information on
this subject, and in that vacuum there has been a tendency to think
that deaf learners should be steered away from foreign language
learning. This book hopes to go some way towards filling the gap
and correcting that impression.

The book is written primarily for those teaching and supporting

deaf learners attending standard foreign language learning classes.
It may also be of interest to deaf learners themselves, their parents,
and those professionals who are involved in making decisions
about curriculum content for deaf learners.

Although the authors all have a background in the English

speaking world, and the book is written in English, we have tried
hard not to assume that English will always be the medium of
instruction for those teachers, learners and support workers who
will use this book. We have used abbreviations which we believe
will make it possible for this book to be used in any linguistic
context, including teaching the local oral language as if it were a
6
second language to learners whose first language is sign language.
However, inevitably, many examples have been taken from the
contexts we have worked in and the languages in which we have
taught and supported learners. We have not attempted to address
the issue of deaf learners either learning foreign sign languages or
learning the signed language of their country as a second language.

Don’t be put off by the size of the book. As far as foreign language
teachers are concerned, we have assumed no previous knowledge
or experience of deafness. Deaf learners, like all learners, come
with a wide range of strengths and weaknesses, and we want this
book to be as comprehensive as possible. Not all of it will apply to
you or to your particular deaf learner. We hope you will be able to
navigate easily to those parts of the book which are relevant to
your situation.

Acknowledgements

T his book had its origins in a paper, workshop and discussions

on the topic of deaf people learning foreign languages which
were featured in the course of two international Supporting Deaf
People online conferences in 2004 and 2005. These conferences
included delegates from twenty-three countries and there were
7
many contributions from deaf people, teachers and support workers
on the topic. The authors would like to thank the delegates who
participated in the discussions which contributed many of the ideas
and strategies described in this book. We would also like to thank
all the contributors of case studies who allowed us to build up a
picture of current practice and describe real strategies for support
and learning inclusion.

We would also like to thank Andrew Hearn, Jess Clover, Claire

Özel and her students, and all the teachers, learners and support
workers who have shared their experiences and knowledge with us.

Notes on terminology and abbreviations

T he terminology used by and about deaf people varies greatly.

Everyone feels sensitive about how they are described by
others and some deaf people will feel strongly about it, whereas
others (typically those deafened in later life) will not want attention
drawn to their hearing loss and will see themselves as 'hearing'.

A few terms occasionally used about deaf people have now

become unacceptable, for example, the term 'deaf and dumb' is
now seen as offensive and should be avoided at all costs.
8
Readers may see the terms 'deaf', 'Deaf' or 'd/Deaf'. These terms are
now commonly used and mean the following:

• 'deaf' denotes the medical condition of hearing loss.

• 'Deaf' is the political and social term for belonging to the
Deaf community. It is capitalised in the same way that
Somali, Muslim or French is written with a capital letter.
• 'd/Deaf' is used to mean both people who do not consider
themselves culturally deaf and do not belong to the Deaf
community, and those who do.

The best way to ascertain which words are appropriate to use is to

ask the deaf learners themselves. For the purpose of this book, we
have used the word ‘deaf’ to include people with any form or
degree of deafness and from any background.

Languages

Though this book is written in English we have tried hard not to be

Anglo-centric. We have used the abbreviation L1 to stand for the
‘source language’ which is also usually the ‘home language’ of
most members of the class. We also use this for referring to the
9
language of instruction. For many learners, but perhaps not for all,
this will also be their mother tongue. L2 denotes the foreign
language or target language being learned. Similarly, the sign
language normally used by a deaf learner is referred to as SL.

Personnel

The word ‘teacher’ has been used for simplicity, but also, of
course, refers to tutors, lecturers, instructors, etc. Also for the sake
of simplicity, all the people who work to support deaf people in
their learning are referred to as ‘support staff’ or ‘support workers’
or, occasionally, as SW.

All other abbreviations are explained in the text.

10
 Introduction: Why learn languages?

Why would deaf people want to learn a foreign language?

W hen asked why they chose to learn foreign languages some

deaf people gave the following reasons:

"In my schooldays I wanted to learn Russian and French. These

were available at my school but these classes were denied to me
based on the grounds that there was no support worker that could
handle either of these subjects. My first language is sign language
and we need to dispel the myths that d/Deaf people (both children
and adults) need English in order to learn other languages! I'm now
studying Latin."

"I have always been fascinated with learning languages. I am

profoundly deaf with deaf parents - I am bilingual in English and
BSL. I have learnt French and French Sign Language (LSF). I
learnt this in France. I did try to go to a French class in the UK and
was given a sign language interpreter but it didn't work as the
interpreter didn't have a working knowledge of French. Although I
tried to use lip-reading to learn French, this isn't easy. You have to
11
be a good lip-reader and the lip-speaker has to get the
pronunciation absolutely right. This isn't easy for a non-native
speaker. I do still have problems in lip-reading French hearing
people speaking English because their lip patterns are not familiar
to me. I would rather them speak in French - there's more of a
chance of understanding them that way!"

"Children can learn two languages when used in the area where
they grow up. Why should this be different for Deaf children?"

"I am learning languages because I love languages as vehicles to

convey ideas. An innate code which two parties can use to bring
concepts out in the open. The more I learn, the less I take any
language I use for granted. Also, with English being the lingua
franca, we are disadvantaged with not having a greater onus to
learn additional tongues at primary school level. Latin was taken
up more for the etymological benefits of most European languages
- I'd like to see if the hypothesis that learning Latin will accelerate
learning of any other languages afterwards is true! (My brain also
enjoys a good work-out!) And new avenues for variety of ways of
expression open up like never before."

"Because it was part of my course."

12
However, other reasons why deaf people might want to learn
foreign languages could be:

• They have an interest in other countries and communities.

• Their family may be bilingual and they wish to learn the
language of their community.
• They wish to travel or work abroad.
• They have relatives or friends in other countries.
• They feel that it might teach them about their own
language and culture.
• They want to meet other people socially.

In other words, for exactly the same reasons that hearing people
might want to undertake foreign language study.

13
 PART ONE: UNDERSTANDING DEAFNESS AND ITS IMPACT
ON LEARNING

What it means to be deaf

D eafness is a condition affecting not only the volume of

hearing but also the frequency. Often a person can hear in
certain situations (for example, when there is no background noise
or if the speaker's voice is low pitched), but not in others. There are
broadly two types of deafness - conductive and perceptive hearing
loss. Conductive hearing loss generally refers to condition where
there is damage to, or a blockage of sound through, the hearing
organs. Damage or blockage can influence the way sound is
conducted and frequently affects the volume of sound received.

Perceptive hearing loss affects how the brain interprets the sounds
it hears. This type of deafness is often linked to frequency of
sound, rather than just volume. This is an important distinction -
volume can be increased with sound augmentation and a decrease
of background noise (see the section on hearing aids for more
explanation), but a problem with perceiving different frequencies
can cause more fundamental difficulties in understanding speech.
14
Most common with a perceptive hearing loss is the inability to hear
high frequency sounds. Low frequency hearing loss is less
common. However, a person who cannot perceive high frequency

sounds may have problems hearing English speech sounds like /Ʒ/,

/s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /θ/, /ð/, /tʃ/. For a deaf learner trying to study English,
this can cause problems. For example, failure to detect the ‘s’ at the
end of an English noun is likely to result in failure to understand
the intended plural.

The lowest frequency consonants are those produced by the letters

/ŋ/, /m/, /n/, /b/, /d/, /l/; which means that some deaf people with
low frequency hearing loss may not be able to hear many of the
consonants most commonly used in Western European languages.

Another aspect of the frequency at which people speak which can

cause problems is that children's voices are usually more highly
pitched than adults’, so the deaf learner may be able to hear a
teacher more or less easily than their peers.

It is important to remember that deafness is a spectrum and that the

onset of deafness, the educational and parental background,

15
audiological equipment preferences and language choice all
contribute to determining the learner’s preferred learning style.

Audiological Equipment

Deaf people can use a number of audiological assistive devices.

Exactly which equipment a deaf person uses depends largely on the
level of deafness and personal preference. Some commonly used
assistive devices are described below, together with some of the
issues arising from their use.

Hearing aids are probably the most commonly used assistive

listening devices. However, they do not restore 'normal' hearing in
the way glasses can restore normal vision. They can increase the
volume of sound (all sound), but cannot fully compensate for loss
of frequency. New digital hearing aids can be tuned to amplify
sounds at certain frequencies, while depressing others, although
they still cannot compensate for the full range of frequencies lost.

Because hearing aids amplify all sound, it can be difficult for a

learner to locate where a noise is coming from and therefore to
concentrate on one voice or on a tape recording.

16
Many deaf people use hearing aids even if they are profoundly deaf
and cannot use the aids to understand speech. They like to be able
to hear some noises and get feedback from their surroundings.

Radio aids (also often called ‘phonic ear’) can be used by deaf
people with some residual hearing. They can be used alone or in
combination with a hearing aid. They are usually made up of a
receiver and a microphone transmitter, which transmits what is
being said directly to the deaf person. This means that any
distracting background noise is eliminated, allowing the learner to
concentrate on one voice only. However, this means that learners
will not be able to hear other sounds, for example, other students.
Radio aids were formerly big and bulky and were strapped to
children's chests with a harness. Although they are small and
discrete today, many older deaf people do not like using them,
because they were forced to do so when younger.

Radio aids can also be used with additional equipment, for

example with a conference microphone. However, the conference
microphone often degrades the quality of the sound, as it is
designed to pick up a number of voices.

17
Radio aids work over a great distance and through walls. If a
teacher leaves the room and does not want to be heard, the
equipment should be turned off.

Direct input devices can be used to connect hearing aids directly

to other audio equipment. For example, it is possible to connect
hearing aids to a personal CD player, personal tape player,
video/TV and computer.

Cochlear implants are electronic devices which are surgically

inserted into the skull behind the ear. They use an external speech
processor which picks up sound and transmits this to a microphone
which is magnetically attached to the head. The processor
translates the sound into electrical signals. These signals are then
processed and the cochlea (part of the inner ear) interprets them as
sound. At first these sounds may not be intelligible, and the deaf
person has to undergo a period of rehabilitation during which
he/she learns to interpret the new sounds he/she is now hearing.

It should not be assumed, however, that a learner who has had a

cochlear implant will now be able to cope in the same way as a
hearing learner. While this may be true, the results of implantation

18
are variable, and in any case do not compensate for any previous
language delay a learner may have experienced. The needs of
learners with implants therefore should be assessed as carefully as
those of other deaf learners.

Communication

How communication is affected by deafness

S ome deaf people become deaf before the time when speech is
usually acquired. In this case, speech may need to be taught.
Teaching speech mechanically means that deaf children learn to
produce the sounds needed for their national spoken language.
Kyle and Woll (1985) state that "deaf children's spoken language
[ ] is worked at and learned sound by sound, syllable by syllable,
often at the expense of disruption of natural communication flow.
The more deaf the child, the harder this work becomes and the less
related to normal language development."

In adulthood, some deaf people choose not to speak, especially if

they consider sign language their preferred communication mode.
People who have developed a hearing loss later, or who have a

19
mild to moderate hearing loss, will usually use speech as their
preferred communication method, and will have speaking skills
equivalent to those of a hearing person. However, some deaf
people, depending on the severity of their hearing loss, can develop
problems with speech. They may not be able to regulate the
volume of their speech, especially when wearing additional
audiological equipment like a radio aid or direct input devices, or,
because their own voice is not heard by themselves. This can lead
to lack of confidence in public speaking or, in the case of learners,
to a reluctance to speak out in class.

Communication strategies used by deaf people

Deaf people use a variety of communication methods. The vast

majority of people with a hearing loss will use their national
spoken language as their first language. Many profoundly deaf
people will use sign language (SL), and/or lip-reading. The
communication methods deaf people choose depends mostly on the
timing of the onset of their deafness (see above), and whether they
were educated in a signing, oral or bilingual school. Most deaf
people use a variety of communication methods, often
simultaneously. No communication method used by deaf people is

20
inherently better or more effective than another – it depends on the
individual and the precise nature of their hearing loss.

Making the most of residual hearing

Residual hearing is the useful hearing which remains after hearing

loss. Depending on the degree and onset of loss and which
frequencies have been lost, a person will have more or less useful
residual hearing. If the degree of hearing loss is severe or profound
from an early age, then the amount of residual hearing may be less
useful, as the person has not had the opportunity to learn to
interpret sounds. Similarly, a person who has a relatively mild
hearing loss will have a great deal of useful residual hearing and
will be in a position to use audiological equipment to augment and
increase their use of this remaining hearing. Having some residual
hearing also makes lip-reading much easier.
The choice to use any residual hearing rests with the deaf person,
as only they will know how useful any hearing they have is to them
personally.

Lip-reading

Lip-reading or speech reading, means following the lip patterns,

facial expressions and body language of a speaker in order to
21
follow what is being said. There are many myths about the
reliability and effectiveness of lip-reading; however, many
phonemes are not actually lip-readable and it is estimated that only
about 30% - 35% of English (Bauman, 2000) and 30% of German
(Volkers, date unknown) speech sounds are lip-readable. For
example, plosives (/p/, /b/, etc.), laterals (e.g. /l/) and trills (e.g. /r/)
are easily lip-readable whereas some fricatives (e.g. /s/, /z/) are not.

Once there is a flow of speech, accents and dialects can

significantly influence the success of lip-reading. For example, the
name 'London' looks very different when said by a person from
New York, from Glasgow or from London itself. Similarly, a
person from southern Spain has a different pronunciation of the
same words from those from northern Spain or South America.
These differences can sound less obvious than they look.

Many words look very similar too and misunderstandings can

occur. For example, the following English words all look identical
on the lips, though they sound different:

please - meat - meet - beans - peas

Much of lip-reading is guess work, based on the context, facial

22
expression and gesture. It is most effective when used with some
residual hearing.

Sign language

Sign language is the generic term for hundreds of national and

regional visual languages. Each country has its own national sign
language, for example, British Sign Language (BSL), American
Sign Language (ASL), German Sign Language (DGS), French
Sign Language (LSF) or Dutch Sign Language (NGT). However
within countries there are also regional variations, for example,
Scottish Sign Language (SSL) uses many signs which are different
from BSL or Catalan Sign Language (LSC) which is very different
from Spanish Sign Language (LSE). Within these regions there are
also local dialects, with variations on how numbers and common
words are signed. There is no natural international sign language,
other than an artificially created language called Gestuno which is
not widely used.

Sign languages have traditionally evolved over centuries and have

their own distinct grammar and syntax. They are not collections of
gestures nor do they mirror their spoken language equivalents; they
are fully functioning languages in their own right. They are visual-

23
spatial languages and are three dimensional, rather than linear.
Most sign languages are not grammatically linked in any way to
their national spoken language. For example, typical English word
order is SVO (subject-verb-object), but BSL uses OSV (object-
subject-verb) or TC (topic-comment) syntax.

One of the features of sign languages is that they borrow from their
national spoken languages in the form of fingerspelling.
(Fingerspelling is using a manual alphabet to spell proper names,
places, new concepts, etc.) These manual alphabets are therefore
not international either, and different countries use different
fingerspelling systems. For example, BSL uses a two-handed
fingerspelling system, whilst ASL uses a one-handed system.

Although some linguistic work has been undertaken to study and

analyse sign languages, they are not taught widely in schools. Deaf
children rarely have the opportunity to study the grammar and
24
syntax of their language as hearing children do for their native
spoken languages.

There are no widely used written versions of sign languages (with

the exception of systems such as SignWriter), so some native sign
language users, especially those who are not bilingual, may write
their native spoken language in an idiosyncratic way. Note that
teachers and assessors are expected to take this into account when
grading deaf students’ work so that, for example, in a
comprehension task, marks are awarded for proof of understanding
the source material and the deaf student is not penalised for errors
in expression.

Other common differences between some spoken and signed

languages are:

• SLs do not have a passive voice.

• There are no articles.
• SL verbs are not inflected for tense, but do have inflections
for aspect.
• Because SLs are visual languages, verbs are directional i.e.
'phoning' and 'being phoned' are signed differently.

25
 Similarly, the word ‘walk’ is signed differently if one or a
number of persons are walking.
• In common with some spoken languages not belonging to
the European family, SLs employ a system of ‘classifiers’
to indicate features such as the size, shape or usage of the
object.

Strategies for communicating with deaf learners

Here are some tips for ensuring good communication:

• Wait until you know you have the deaf learner’s attention
before you start to speak.
• In groups, deaf learners do not always know who is
speaking and when they look around, they may have
missed the first part of a contribution. Discretely pointing
at the learner who is speaking can help. Similarly, pointing
whilst calling out the name of the learner whose
contribution you are inviting is helpful.
• All deaf people use lip-reading, observation of facial
expressions and body language, therefore it is important
not to cover your mouth or face. Avoid walking up and
down in front of a class. If there is a light behind you, e.g.

26
 a window or lamp, your face will be in silhouette and the
deaf learners will not be able to see your face easily. Make
sure the classroom is well lit. Inadequate lighting will
make communication more difficult for the deaf learner.
• The deaf learner may not be able to lip-read what you are
saying so you may have to say it a different way.
• Lip-reading is most easily done if you speak clearly,
without exaggerating your lip patterns, at a normal pace.
• Learners may be able to hear some peers better than others,
depending on the volume they speak at and how much they
enunciate.
• If there is a lot of background noise, this can make
listening more difficult. If there is too much background
noise in the place where you are teaching, then try to
minimise this. For example, when not using a projector or
tape recorder, switch them off so that the fan stops making
noise.
• When asking students to open their books, pause for a
second, as the class may make a lot of noise opening bags,
getting out their text books and opening them.
• Hearing aids amplify all sounds, so the teacher’s voice
may be at the same volume as other incidental noises.

27
 Hearing aid wearers cannot select which noises they wish
to listen to like hearing people can.
• If you are using audiological equipment, be discrete about
it. Check that it is working by looking at the student and
waiting for them to give you a nod or thumbs up.
• If the learner is using a radio aid, then they will only hear
the person using the microphone. So unless the
microphone is passed around they will not hear their peers.
Another strategy is for the teacher to repeat any
contributions from others.
• When making last minute announcements at the end of the
class, make sure to write them down as learners are likely
to be making a lot of noise packing up their belongings
after the class too.

The role of support staff

T he ‘human aids’ who help deaf people to communicate are

often referred to in educational circles as ‘support staff’. The
term ‘support staff’ is used very broadly here to refer to staff other
than the foreign language teacher and foreign language assistants
who are supporting the deaf or hearing impaired learner. They
28
could have a direct function in the classroom or an indirect support
role in terms of advising teachers.

Examples of job titles of specialist personnel are note-taker,

electronic note-taker, lip-speaker, sign language interpreter,
communication support worker, learning needs assistant, classroom
assistant for deaf student(s), teacher of the deaf, speech and
language therapist, audiologist and there are many more.

The roles and functions of these members of staff may be different

from their job titles, for example a teacher of the deaf could act as
a lip-speaker or note-taker in the classroom; there may be no
specialist audiologist but the teacher of the deaf may take on that
role; some interpreters may also lip-speak or note-take for part of
the time.

The job of a support worker is to assist you in including the deaf

learner in the classroom learning environment. An effective
working relationship and good team work can overcome most
communication barriers. Deaf people use different types of support
workers. Below are brief descriptions of their roles and functions.
More information on working with support workers and what

29
teachers should consider prior to their first meeting with their
support co-worker can be found in subsequent chapters.

Note-takers

Professional note-takers aim to write down everything that is being

said in the classroom – like subtitles on the TV. They also aim to
note informal information like jokes, stress, emphasis and
contributions from other learners. Some deaf learners use notes as
their main method of accessing information given in class.
However, it is not possible to follow the rapid flow of speech
whilst hand writing, as the delivery of spoken language is too fast.
In order to note the majority of what is said the note-taker has to
develop and agree strategies with the learner.

In the foreign language classroom the note-taker will have to note

and give access to any instructions given in L1 but may also be
required to note instructions given in the L2. A good working
knowledge of the L2 is therefore advisable, if not essential.

Teachers can effectively work with note-takers by providing

handouts, copies of notes and particularly lists of new vocabulary
to be introduced in the class in advance of so they can annotate

30
these and therefore increase the amount of information learners can
get.

Electronic note-takers (Speech-to-text reporters)

Like manual note-takers, electronic note-takers aim to note all that

it said, verbatim, for the deaf learner to read from a screen. There
are a number of speech-to-text systems which electronic note-
takers use.

It is useful for electronic note-takers to have a list of any new

vocabulary to be introduced in advance of the class, so they can
program keyboard shortcuts into their computer package.

Sign language interpreters (SLIs)

Interpreters undertake simultaneous translation from a spoken

language into a signed language and vice versa. SLIs usually only
work from one language into another, but in a foreign language
classroom they are required to work in three languages: SL, L1 and
L2. They need to translate the L1 instructions into SL, the
responses of the learner from SL into L1 and support the learner in

31
their acquisition of L2. Teachers should bear in mind the following
when working with a SLI:

• Most sign languages have a different grammatical structure

to their national spoken language, so an interpreter will
have to wait until a sentence is finished before starting to
interpret.
• It is useful for interpreters if teachers speak at a normal
pace.
• All interpreting is tiring and interpreters who work on their
own for long periods will need breaks.
• There are few trained interpreters and even fewer who are
fluent in three languages.
• There are several other sign systems used in educational
contexts, but the exact one agreed upon by learner and
support worker need not concern the classroom teacher.

Lip-speakers

Lip-speakers repeat everything that is said, clearly and silently.

Lip-speakers are aware of which sounds are invisible and which
words are difficult to lip-read, and they assist deaf people by
clarifying these using finger spelling and some gestures.
32
If the lip-speaker is skilled in the L2, then they may lip-speak in
both languages. However, their accent in L2 may be different from
that of the teacher. This may require acknowledgment and
accommodation during assessment.

Cued Speech

Cued Speech is a method of illustrating speech sounds, using hand

shapes. Different hand shapes are used to supplement lip-reading,
to show each consonant and vowel shape. Because cueing makes
speech sounds visible, there are cueing systems for different
languages and accents.

Working with support staff: aspects of good practice

• In class, always speak to the deaf learner, not their support

worker.
• Each type of support worker will require different seating
arrangements. For example, a note-taker will have to sit
next to the deaf learner, whilst an interpreter will need to

33
 face them. Allow the support worker to seat themselves
and make allowances for their space requirements in the
classroom. This may include making space for laptops in
the case of electronic note-taking.
• When confirming understanding, allow a little time lag for
interpreting or noting, so the deaf students' understanding
can be ascertained too.
• Assist the support worker practically by repeating what
other students say to clarify difficult to understand accents
and correcting mistakes.
• All support work is tiring, and when working for long
stretches, support workers may need a break. These can be
built into the lesson plan, by giving exercises which
learners undertake on their own.
• It is essential to take a team approach with a support
worker and to discuss strategies for supporting deaf
learners with them. After a few sessions ask for feedback
from the support worker and the learner as to how your
team approach is working for all concerned.

34
 PART TWO: TEACHING A FOREIGN LANGUAGE TO DEAF
LEARNERS

The place of foreign languages in the curricula

E ntitlement of all citizens to language learning opportunities is

now established in many parts of the world. In spite of this,
even where foreign languages are seen as an important, even
compulsory, part of school curricula, deaf learners do not always
have the opportunity to take part in such classes. Educators are
sometimes tempted to assume that, since L1 is already creating
problems for deaf learners, there is little point in adding L2 to their
burden. This assumption takes no account of the evidence that deaf
learners can be successful language learners. (For example, of 51
deaf candidates presented for Scottish National Qualifications in
Modern Languages in 2005, only one was unsuccessful; almost
half of the others (23) obtained the top grade available at their
level.)

35
A recent survey of Scottish special schools and units in mainstream
schools (McColl et al., 2002) found that access to foreign language
learning for learners with additional support needs was variable.
Despite recognition of learners’ skills and their ability to benefit
from language learning programmes, access often depended on
other factors, such staff and parental attitudes, the availability of
appropriate staff and certificated curricula at appropriate levels.

Educational institutions have reacted to this situation in different

ways. In the UK, some special schools have excluded foreign
languages from the curriculum altogether, and in some mainstream
schools individual deaf learners have been withdrawn from foreign
language classes in order to allow time for individual support work
in other areas of the curriculum (Tucker and Powell,1991, p. 147).

Other institutions have chosen to introduce British Sign Language

as an alternative to a European spoken language (although McColl
et al. (2002) note that this opportunity has only rarely been
extended to hearing learners in the school). And in some
institutions offering bilingual programmes, the national spoken
language may be taught as a second language with the national
sign language being used as the language of instruction (see e.g.

36
Strong, 1988 for ASL and English, and Bouvet, 1990 for LSF and
French).

Where alternative arrangements such as these are not set up, the
remaining option is for deaf learners to take part in mainstream
foreign language classes. This is also often the option taken by
students wishing to undertake foreign language classes beyond the
compulsory curriculum, for example at university or in adult
education. However, these classes do not expressly cater for deaf
students and the institution may therefore be required to make
reasonable adjustments and accommodations to facilitate access.

Mainstreaming

Where possible, in the case of mainstreaming, a specialist teacher

or teaching assistant is appointed to work alongside the foreign
language teacher, or the deaf learner is provided with such human
and/or technological help as may be required in order to ensure
access to the mainstream curriculum. In practice, however, human
resources are limited, especially where familiarity with a foreign
language is desirable. The deaf learner may well find him/herself
dependant for some or all of the time on the foreign language

37
teacher’s ability and willingness to make necessary adjustments to
the teaching process.

In the past, many teachers had low expectations for deaf learners,
seeing the subject as too challenging or too difficult for them, and
advising them to concentrate on other areas of the curriculum. But
we know that deaf people often do succeeded in learning one or
more foreign languages so none should be denied the right to high
quality, accessible language study. Davis, Smith and Moore (Date
unknown) state that in the foreign language classroom teachers
should "find a way to accommodate the student without lowering
your expectations".

Although in this book the term ‘deaf learner' has been used as an
umbrella term, in reality individual learners vary widely in terms of
their hearing loss, preferred language and previous educational
experience. Deaf learners are individuals with individual
preferences, talents and ambitions, and many of those with a
hearing loss will want to learn all the four communication skills:
reading, writing, listening and speaking. Some learners may choose
only to learn to read and write in a foreign language, but will
probably also want to learn to lip-read simple spoken language.
Generally, all learners should attempt all tasks set by a teacher and
38
enabling strategies should be sought in the first instance. Where a
deaf learner cannot undertake a task then an educationally
equivalent one should be offered so that they can progress at the
same pace as their hearing peers.

All this imposes considerable demands not only on the deaf learner
but also on the foreign language teacher. To date, little practical
advice for mainstream foreign language teachers has been
available. We hope the remainder of this chapter will go some way
towards rectifying that by indicating the kind of adjustments that
can be made by the teacher, and by advising on how best to make
use of whatever specialist expertise is available.

The language learning environment: challenges and opportunities

The language learning environment is a challenge to all concerned.

The first challenge may even be to persuade people that it is
possible for deaf students to learn in this environment. We should
first consider where the challenges and the opportunities will be.

39
Language is the focus as well as the medium

Challenges:

• Both form and meaning of foreign language

vocabulary/structure may present difficulties.
• The deaf learner’s first language may not be shared with
the rest of the class.
• Even where L1 (the language of instruction) is the deaf
learner’s first language, it may have been imperfectly
acquired/learned and so may provide only a shaky
foundation for foreign language learning.

Opportunities:

• All learners start at same level and will make mistakes in

pronunciation etc., which can be encouraging for deaf
learners.
• Learning the structure of a new language and being
explicitly taught vocabulary can have benefits for the
acquisition of L1 too. This allows for a discussion on
cultural and linguistic diversity in a less charged
environment.
40
Technology is widely used

Challenge:

• Resources are not always designed inclusively and rely on

ability to hear.

Opportunity:

• New amplification equipment, new ways of making speech

visible, subtitling and the spread of DVDs, electronic note-
taking and interactive web/computer-based activities can
all be used to support the deaf learner.

Emphasis on collaborative activities

Challenge:

• Ensuring that other learners can be understood. Deaf

people often have a different view of the world and
learning activities can assume a background knowledge
that deaf learners may not have because their access to

41
 other curriculum subjects, the mainstream media or
incidental information, has been restricted.

Opportunity:

• Foreign language learning involves learning with, from

and about other people; this can expose deaf learners to
new ideas and perspectives, perhaps for the first time.

Layout of the language classroom can be different from other

classrooms

Challenge:

• Language lab-type environments, whether old-fashioned

sitting in rows with built-in tape decks or newer computer-
based labs, can create visual barriers for deaf students.
Acoustics may have been considered as part of the
language lab design, but often aren’t. Using ordinary
classrooms as language rooms requires often restricts
sight-lines for deaf learners.

42
Opportunity:

• Good acoustics and visibility are important for all learners

and language teachers may be more aware the needs of all
students to facilitate this. All learners will benefit from
seeing each other. Improving sound and vision for deaf
learners will benefit all learners.

Affective issues

It is well known that the student’s motivation, self-confidence and

anxiety level can affect their language learning (see e.g. Richards
and Rodgers, 2001, p. 183). Deaf students’ previous educational
experiences may be a factor here. For example, if students have
previously been educated in small classes together with other deaf
students, they may be anxious about being the only deaf student in
a large class. Some students may not feel confident about using
their voice because they are worried they may not be understood.
Both teachers and support workers have a role in ensuring that the
student can take full part in classroom activities but is not
pressured.

Below are some of the barriers which may have to be overcome.

43
Technological assistance

Those learners who normally use hearing aids and are able to hear
sounds in the speech range may benefit from technical aids such as
radio aids or induction loops in the classroom. It is likely that many
students will not be able to rely on sound alone and other
adjustments will therefore need to be made to the layout of the
classroom and the position of the teacher to enable the student to
lip-read the teacher and other students.

Students who do not use hearing aids or who cannot hear speech
sounds will require any spoken message to be represented visually.
In this case, lip-patterns alone will be unlikely to provide sufficient
access. Support workers may therefore provide alternative visual
input in a number of ways.

Communication modes

The preferred language of the student affects the type of support

offered in two ways:

44
1. If students do not use sign language they will require the
spoken information to be presented in written form or
through a lip-speaker. Other students may choose to access
the spoken message through a signed or fingerspelled
form.

2. Foreign Language teachers sometimes make use of the

students’ first language to explain features of the second
language. Where English is L1, for example, this will be
the language through which features of L2 will be
explained. Depending on the L1 used, teachers may make
assumptions about the types of errors that students are
likely to make in L2. Deaf learners in the UK, for example,
may use British Sign Language as their first language, and
will therefore have a different profile from the other
learners in their class. The teacher may need to be made
aware of this and the support worker may need a good
knowledge of British Sign Language grammatical features.

45
The ‘four modes’ (listening, speaking, reading, writing)

Listening

(NOTE: In this section ‘listening’ is taken to mean all the ways of

absorbing information from speech, including hearing, lip-reading
and seeing speech interpreted through a support worker).

When listening to the foreign language, the deaf learner may have
problems if he/she cannot hear certain frequencies. For example,
not being able to hear a plural /s/ sound makes understanding
English more complicated. Similarly, a person with a low
frequency hearing loss will have more difficulty learning a
language which relies heavily on low frequency vowel sounds.
There is an added problem in that there are many endings which
sound and look the same. For example, in French there are
approximately 27 endings which sound more or less the same.
Some of these are: é, ée, és, ées, ai, ais, ait, aient, et, est, aille.

When lip-reading, the learner may have problems distinguishing

between important phonemes which look the same, but sound
different. Sometimes these phonemes can be the part of the word
which denotes the tense or conjugation. For example, the following
46
verb endings in Spanish, though they sound different, look nearly
identical on the lips:

infinitive we - form
-ar -amos
-er -emos
-ir -imos

Accents and dialects can cause confusion in deaf learners, because

they can affect lip patterns to such an extent. Traditionally, learners
were introduced to standard or 'high' forms of a language, e.g.
Hochdeutsch or received pronunciation, and this was useful for
deaf learners as these accents are those which often resemble the
written form of the language or are most represented in the media.
However, when using a communicative method of language
teaching, as is more usual nowadays, it is considered desirable to
introduce learners to a range of accents. If this is the case, it is
useful for deaf learners to be made aware of the accent or dialect
change.

Some other language features which can be problematic for some

deaf learners are:

47
• Paralinguistic features. For example, speaking in a
'breathy' or 'husky' way is a sign of respect in Japan, but
can be impossible to 'see' when lip-reading.
• Onomatopoeia. This is based on sound, so care should be
taken when assuming learners will be able to detect the
meaning of a word from its sound origin.
• Borrowed words. For example, the Spanish words 'jersey',
'suéter'. These are given a local pronunciation despite
having a similar written form to their English origins, and
therefore look very different on the lips.
• Prosodic features. E.g. shouting, question-rise, intonation
can also be difficult to see or hear.
• Accents (e.g. í, é). These can be difficult to recognise and
reproduce. In Spanish, for example, they can change the
meaning of a word.
• Homographs (the same spelling of a word, but with
different meanings) and homophones (words which sound
the same but are spelt differently).

48
Speaking

Some deaf people choose not to use their voice and may only want
to learn to read, write and listen/lip-read the foreign language.
Where this is the case, teachers should respect the choice of the
deaf person and enable them to concentrate on their aims and
develop an enabling curriculum which assesses the knowledge and
skills of the learner fairly.

Where deaf learners do want to learn to speak the language, it is

important that they do so effectively. In order to develop effective
pronunciation they may need some additional time with a language
assistant, the tutor, support worker, a teacher of the deaf or a
speech and language therapist. Practical arrangements to make this
possible may need to be discussed with the educational
organisation, support service provider or funding body.

Some issues to bear in mind:

• Some deaf learners will be less confident when speaking in

front of peers. Be sensitive with any learners who feels this
way and discuss this with the learner in advance.

49
 • Group chants may be difficult for deaf learners who may
not know if their time keeping is the same as other
students'. Hearing aids may be rendered useless during
these chants due to the noise level they create.
• Tone languages, like Chinese, can be difficult for deaf
learners. They may find it difficult to monitor their
pronunciation of tones and therefore inadvertently make
mistakes in L2.
• Prosodic features, e.g. exclamation, question-rise or
intonation can also be difficult to accurately produce.

Reading

Written language is not like spoken language. It is more formal,

there are fewer redundancies, grammatical mistakes,
colloquialisms, etc. What deaf students see in conversations may
be difficult to link to what they read. It is worth informing or
discussing with learners the type of written material being studied.

Writing

Although there are fewer issues for deaf learners with reading and
writing than with listening or speaking, there may, in some cases
be the following issues:
50
 • Because learners cannot tell from watching, (or listening
to) stress, they may not be able to place accents (e.g. í, é)
correctly.
• Similarly, hearing where punctuation should be placed can
be difficult. For example, in Spanish and French, questions
can be formed without question tags, simply by using
question-rise.
• Dictation can be difficult for deaf learners until they have
become accustomed to, and confident in, working with
speech sounds of L2.
• Translating from one language to the other can be more
laborious if the learner needs to work through a third
language (i.e. sign language).

Language teaching approaches and their impact on deaf learners

Language learning is generally thought of as consisting of four

main skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. When
considering the needs of deaf learners it is useful to divide these
into oral/aural (speaking and listening) and visual skills (reading
and writing). In theory, at least, the visual skills should be easier

51
for the deaf learner to acquire than the oral/aural skills, but whether
this proves true in practice will depend on the context in which the
skills are acquired. It will still be necessary, for example, even
when engaged in working with texts, for the learner to receive
teaching and instructions orally from the teacher, to discuss content
and to answer questions.

The prime rule for supporting deaf learners in any of the four
skills, as well as in vocabulary or grammar work, is to find ways of
making the language visible in order to compensate for
audiological difficulties. In a sense, this is what sign language
does, but not all learners use sign language and even where they
do, it has its limitations as far as learning spoken languages are
concerned. Fortunately there are many other ways of ‘capturing’
language and making it visible; many of the strategies referred to
throughout this book are about doing just that.

This chapter deals with broader approaches commonly used in

language learning and shows how adding a visual dimension to
teaching and learning activities can benefit not only your deaf
learner but other members of the class as well.

52
Multi-sensory learning

Much is made these days of learning styles and the importance of

matching activities to individual learners’ preferred styles. It might
be considered counter-productive, however, if not impossible, to
differentiate tasks to such an extent that every learner could work
all the time in their preferred style. We all need to be able to learn
effectively in many different ways; thus, an exposure to a range of
stimuli helps to develop learners who can respond flexibly to the
learning inherent in any context.

The way we acquire learning is through our senses: eyes, ears,

mouth, nose, sense of touch and being touched; and through hand
or body movements (as when we practise a practical skill). The
more of our senses that can be brought to bear on a learning task,
the more effectively we are likely to learn it and the more likely we
are to be able to recall the information when we need it.

Traditionally, language learning has tended to be text based and to

make most use of the aural and oral sensory channels, exactly the
channels where the deaf learner is likely to experience impaired
reception. For deaf learners, as well as for other ‘visual’ learners,

53
adding a picture or graphic element or a kinetic activity to illustrate
the point being made can enhance learning significantly.

Examples:

• When a new word or expression is introduced, write it on the

board, preferably in both languages.
• If possible, point to an object or a picture of the object; carry
out or mime an action.
• Produce a graph or diagram to illustrate a grammar point; write
examples on the board.
• When giving instructions, write the important information on
the board (e.g. page and exercise numbers, date due, etc.).
• Use dice, cards, games of all sorts to add a kinetic element to
learning.
• Consider using colour to make points stand out more readily. A
common use of colour in language learning is to use blue for
masculine nouns and red for feminine ones, perhaps green for
neuter, but there are many other ways of using colour to
highlight specific language patterns. For example, foreign
language vocabulary can be written in black, then how it is said
in red and the meaning in blue.

54
In short, what ever the activity is, ask yourself what senses are
employed and see if there is a way to enhance the task by involving
other senses too.

Phonetics and phonetic transcription each provide a way of

capturing sound in writing. An early introduction to the phonetic
system of the language being learned will benefit all learners. For
those learners familiar with the International Phonetic Alphabet,
there will be even more benefits as the sounds peculiar to the
language being learned can be indicated with greater precision. It is
worth finding out if your learner already has experience with this
and building on it.

Intonation and rhythm are important aspects of speech. They can

be indicated manually as well as vocally, and again, many learners
will benefit, especially if they can be encouraged to mimic the
gestures as well as the sounds. You may be able to arrange access
to computer technology which can provide on screen graphic
representation of the frequencies of voiced input. This allows
teacher and learner to compare their speech output graphically.

55
Communicative approaches, including use of the target language for
classroom management

Traditional text-based approaches and formal grammar lessons can

often be easier for deaf learners to cope with than more active and
informal approaches, but the needs of other learners may dictate a
communicative approach. Provided strategies for making the
language as visible as possible are put in place, and provided you
are alert to expressions of puzzlement or incomprehension on the
part of the deaf learner, serious problems should not arise. Mime,
demonstrate, point, use facial expression, and expressive gesture to
illustrate and underpin the spoken language. A poster reminding
learners of frequent commands can provide a useful point of
reference.

Teaching grammar

As ever, the aim is to make language as visible as possible, so

write examples on the board, use coloured chalks or pens to
emphasise grammatical functions, use grids and frameworks to
show how language works. Make sure that materials you develop
for this purpose remain on view or are otherwise available for
future reference.

56
Some software packages support word animation which allows
comparisons of word order to be made in interesting and
comprehensible ways (e.g. Microsoft’s PowerPoint).

Where ‘hi-tech’ solutions are not available, cards and dice such as
those produced by MLG Publishing and other suppliers can help to
demonstrate and practise word order and verb endings – both can
be difficult for deaf learners to grasp, particularly learners whose
first language is sign language.

In researching this book, we heard of a learner whose first

language is BSL, learning German. His teacher illustrated
graphically for the class the difference between German and
English word order. This was so successful that the deaf
learner’s English improved as well as his German. He
explained to the teacher that it was the first time he had seen a
graphic explanation of word order in English.

57
Co-operative and peer learning

One foreign language teacher reported to us that when she started

to incorporate group work to her teaching, the deaf learner who had
up until then been coping well, stopped participating.

The more sources of sound there are in the classroom, the more
difficult it will be for the deaf learner to cope. So if you tend to go
in for paired speaking or group work, be aware that this will cause
additional problems for your deaf student and take steps to mitigate
these.

Strategies for helping this situation are dealt with in detail

elsewhere, but briefly, some, or all, of the following can help:

• Find a quiet spot nearby where the deaf learner’s pair/group

can work quietly.
• If the deaf learner agrees, provide ‘deaf awareness’ training for
the class or group, emphasising turn-taking, signalling who is
speaking, the need to address the deaf learner directly, etc.
• Conferencing technology might help, but training and practice
will be needed for the whole group.

58
Information Communications Technology (ICT ) and Individualised
learning

ICT provides solutions to many of the problems faced by learners

who have special educational needs, because:

• it is multi-sensory (pictures, text, sound, animation, etc);

• it puts them in control of their own learning;
• learning is active/interactive;
• chunks can be repeated or re-read as necessary;
• feedback and sometimes remediation is available without
delay;
• learners can learn at their own pace without fear of ridicule or
impatience;
• sound can be enhanced;
• some language labs have facilities for learners to compare their
own voice with that of the teacher, and some even have visual
displays of voice patterns for learners to mimic.

Further information from BECTA: How to use ICT to support deaf

learners
http://www.ictadvice.org.uk/index.php?section=tl&catcode=as_inc
_sup_03&rid=607
59
Teaching styles and use of course books

No two teachers teach in exactly the same way. It will have been
clear from the above notes that life for deaf learners of foreign
languages (and their support workers) is considerably easier if the
teacher uses a single course book in a regular and predictable
fashion, but this is not always the case. Some teachers prefer to
make ad hoc selections from a range of materials with a view to
providing interest and variety; some rely on their own ingenuity
and performance skills; others use a mixture of different styles in
response to learners’ preferences, needs and even moods!

So, if choice is available, place a deaf learner with a well-organised

member of staff who uses a course book in a systematic and
predictable way, provided, of course, that the teacher in question is
also sympathetic to the needs of the deaf learner.

Where a more active and informal mode is prevalent, make sure

the teacher understands the need for forward planning so that as
much advance information as possible can be provided for the
learners and his/her support worker.

60
 Course planning

A note on differentiation

D ifferentiating the curriculum to take account of the specific

learning needs of students in the class is a process most
teachers now take for granted, but what is meant by the term
‘differentiation’?

Depending on which manual you read or which guru you listen to,
there may be varying numbers of ways to do the job (the ‘ten
aspects’ or ‘the twelve dimensions’, etc.) Text books, particularly
at secondary level, may be claim to be ‘differentiated’ because they
offer three routes: the general class route intended for the majority
of learners; extension work for those who finish quickly or need
more of a challenge; and remedial material for those who need
more practice before moving on. None of these, of course, can take
account of the specific needs of all varieties of learner who may sit
in front of the teacher on a specific occasion, so looking first at the
desired outcome and then at the learner we are concerned about
can give a better clue about the input needed. Looked at from this
point of view, we might say that...

61
... effective differentiation is any measure which enables a learner
who was at risk of failing in a given task to complete it
successfully.

As far as possible, teachers aim to be pro-active; that is, to

anticipate the problems that might arise and to put in place
measures to circumvent them. Not all problems can be anticipated,
however, so the need for supplementary measures will almost
certainly occur, when it becomes apparent that a learner is still
struggling despite our best efforts. Intervention at the time may be
possible (e.g. by repeating a point, by providing help for a
particular learner, by attempting to clarify a point, by giving a little
more time, etc.) but sometimes one-to-one assistance may be
needed which is difficult for the teacher to provide in class. For
certain learners, and for deaf learners in particular, the need for
one-to-one remedial assistance can be anticipated, and should be
planned for as part of the differentiation process.

The process of differentiation, then, spans three main ‘time zones’:

62
Before each lesson:

• anticipating likely problems and putting in place measures

to circumvent them;
• planning teaching strategies which will maximise the
learner’s chances of success;
• anticipating that other problems are likely to arise which
cannot be planned for in advance, and putting in place
opportunities for recovering the situation.

During each lesson:

• implementing the planned teaching strategies;

• being alert to difficulties as they arise and responding to
them as needed within the limitations of the situation;
• taking note of the difficulties that arise which will need to
be dealt with later.

After each lesson (or block of lessons):

• providing regular opportunities for deaf learners on a one-

to-one basis to resolve issues which have arisen. These
‘tutorials’ should be with whoever is best placed to assist:
63
 the class teacher, the foreign language assistant, the
support worker or another member of the support team.

What does this mean for a deaf learner?

Not all of the following points will apply to the age and stage you
teach or to your style of teaching. If you have printed out this page,
we suggest that you read the following section with a highlighter
pen in your hand, marking off those that are relevant to you and
your deaf learner. You might also find it valuable to look at the
section on practical solutions to specific situations, which will
allow you to analyse any issues which deaf learners may have in
certain learning situations and exercises.

At the end of this section you will find a planning grid that you
might find useful for noting down important points emerging from
these discussions.

Advance planning

The more you can find out now, the more effective your planning
will be and the more likely it is that the deaf learner will be

64
successful in your class. Here are some steps you can take to pre-
empt possible difficulties.

1. The course book

Look out the course book you are planning to use and make sure
there is a copy for both learner and support worker. Also look out
for any teacher’s books that go with the course you are planning to
use. Though you may not use it any more, it is likely to contain
tape-scripts and other material which would be very useful to the
learner and her/his support worker.

2. Information about the learner’s deafness

Find out as much as possible about the deaf learner. Find out, for
example:

• how severe the deafness is;

• at what age the learner has become deaf, and whether this
has affected acquisition of first language (L1);
• whether the learner’s first language is a spoken or a signed
language;

65
 • how the learner normally communicates with the hearing
world;
• what personal technology the learner uses (hearing aids
etc.) and how effective this is;
• whether, in general, he/she finds men’s or women’s voices
easier to hear;
• what support is being suggested;
• if the learner has had previous experience of foreign
language learning.

3. The learner in person

If possible, arrange to meet the learner before the first lesson. This
meeting will allow you

• to form a rapport with the learner;

• to appreciate first hand the learner’s strengths and
difficulties in terms of personal communication;
• to find out the aims the deaf learner has in learning the
foreign language.
• to demonstrate your concern for the learner’s welfare and
progress in your class (s/he may be feeling apprehensive)
and to assure him/her that you will do all you can to help;
66
 • to find out if the learner has previous experience of foreign
language learning, and if so how it went; to discuss what
was good and what was bad about the arrangements as far
as the learner was concerned; to determine whether the
learner has a previous knowledge of phonetic transcription
which could be used to advantage;
• to provide a copy of the course book you will be using and,
if possible a copy of the teacher’s book. If learners have to
buy their own course books, show copies and make sure
the learner knows what to buy.
• to discuss what additional help can be provided and what
the learner should do to access it;
• to find out if the learner has any specific concerns which
you can talk over together.

4. Support

Find out who will be supporting the deaf learner and make an
arrangement to meet before the first class takes place. The support
worker will be very familiar with the types of problems faced by
deaf learners and how they can best be assisted, so this is an
opportunity to ask for advice and information. You and the support
worker will be acting as a team from now on, so your discussion is
67
the beginning of a working relationship. As well as covering any
points not previously answered, the discussion should cover the
following points:

• What strategies will the support worker use to help the

student to understand what is said L1?
• Does the support worker have any knowledge of L2?
• What strategies will the support worker use to help the
student to know what has been said in L2?
(Understanding what has been said is the responsibility of
the student.)
• What strategies, if any are needed, will the support worker
use to help the student to communicate orally in L1 and
L2?
• What other problems is the learner likely to face, and what
strategies could be used to mitigate the problems? For
more information see the Practical solutions to specific
situations chapter.
• Try to anticipate together what problems may arise in
connection with assessment activities. Organisations
responsible for formal examinations usually have special
arrangements that can be put in place to help candidates
with disabilities, but these need to be applied for well
68
 before the date of the examination. If this is difficult to
assess at present, make a note to review the situation when
you have a better idea of the problems likely to arise.
• Provide a copy of (or, at least, information about) any
course book you intend to use. And provide (or draw
attention to) the teacher’s book.
• What technology will be used to assist the deaf learner? If
new to you, is there an opportunity for you to familiarise
yourself with this before using it in class?
• How is the student likely to cope with whatever language
learning technology that will be used during the course
(e.g. Audio tapes, video/CD presentations, language lab,
AA or PALE systems)?
• How will the learner interact with other learners in the
class? Are there any measures that need to be taken (e.g.
‘deaf awareness’ training for the class as a whole – teacher
as well as learners)?
• What conditions will the support worker require in order to
work most effectively with the learner? Where will she/he
sit/stand? What limitations are there on the length of time
the support worker can work etc.
• Make firm and clear arrangements for the first lesson so
that you both know, as far as possible, what to expect.
69
 • Agree to meet after the first lesson in order to review
arrangements and to make whatever adjustments required
in the light of experience.

5. The learning environment

• Consider the rooms you will be teaching in. Are there

some that are acoustically better than others? Are any of
them fitted with a loop or other devices which might help?
Are any of them particularly noisy, perhaps overlooking a
busy road, or the canteen loading bay? Are any of them
carpeted, which would help to deaden sounds of furniture
and feet?
• Consider the staff who will be teaching the deaf learner.
Beards and moustaches obscure lip patterns, so a clean-
shaven teacher would be better. Who speaks most calmly
and clearly?
• Do you often get your learners to work in pairs or groups?
If so, see if there are any quiet areas nearby where you can
send your deaf learner and group to work.
• Can you provide a quiet room for the deaf learner to work
on listening tasks or assessments?

70
 • What are the implications of the above for timetabling and
room allocation? Are there steps you need to make now in
order to make sure that appropriate rooms are available
when you want them?

6. Teaching styles

Finally, give some thought to your normal teaching style and to the
way you normally handle your class. Which of the
teaching/learning activities are likely to be most difficult for your
deaf learner to cope with? What strategies can you put in place to
mitigate the effects of these? Sometimes quite small adjustments to
normal practice can make an immense difference to deaf learners’
chances of success, but change can be implemented more
comfortably if it is planned in advance.

Lesson delivery

Provide, for the learner and for the support worker, as much
information as you can about the content of the lesson. This will
allow the learner to come well prepared and able to concentrate on
the action and interaction for which no preparation is possible. You
might provide, for example:

71
 • lesson or lecture notes, including lesson plan if possible;
• texts and/or diagrams that will be encountered in the
course of the lesson;
• tapes or other resources that you plan to use;
• tape-scripts;
• details of workshops or other learning tasks;
• if there is a course book, what pages will be covered;
• vocabulary lists or other handouts.

Consider the activities you have planned for the lesson and try to
anticipate how your deaf learner will respond. Where problems
seem likely to occur you may be able to put in simple supports
which will make the task more meaningful to the deaf learner.

At the beginning of the lesson...

• If technology is in place to aid the deaf learner, make sure it is

switched on and working.
• Make sure that you, the deaf learner and support worker are
positioned as agreed. In particular, pay attention to sources of
light, including windows. Neither you nor the support worker
should have your backs to the light or your faces will be in

72
 shadow, depriving the learner of facial clues and making lip
reading difficult or impossible.

During the lesson

• Try always to remain within the deaf learner’s line of sight,

both so that you can be seen and heard as clearly as possible,
and so that you can watch for signs of incomprehension and
take the necessary steps to clarify or help.
• Speak clearly and steadily (not fast or slow).
• Where possible, use facial and other gestures to clarify
meaning.
• If you turn round to write on the board or other device, or if
you have to lower the lights to watch a presentation, make sure
that instructions are complete first. If you continue talking in
the dark or with your back to the learner, your points will be
lost. It will be as if your voice has been switched off.
• If other learners speak, try to provide some indication of who
is speaking so that the deaf learner has the best chance of
following the interaction (e.g. point or gesture towards the
speaker.) Try to keep the pace of the interaction steady; a
quick-fire question and answer session will be impossible for
the learner to follow. Repeating any learner contribution which
73
 is not clearly articulated is helpful for all learners, but
especially deaf learners.
• Don’t expect the deaf learner to listen and take notes at the
same time.
• If you set homework, make sure your deaf learner knows
exactly what to do and what is expected. Write down
references on the board.

At the end of the lesson...

Find out from the deaf learner and support worker if any specific
problems have arisen. In particular, find out what the learner wants
to cover in the one-to-one tutorial you have organised. Be prepared
to make adjustments in the light of feedback, provided that these
do not interfere with the work of other learners (though this is
unlikely).

Finally, a few more tips:

• Introduce language structures by drawing attention to

similarities, then point out the differences. E.g. English and
Spanish have the same word order, but adjective is after,
not before, the noun.
74
• Avoid excessive reliance on a dictionary.
• It is vital for deaf students to learn some grammar, as they
will be less able to pick it up from conversation and to
draw parallels to their own language. Make even less
assumptions as to what prior knowledge deaf learners
have.
• Make sure that instructions in L1 are not so complicated
that learner and support worker cannot understand them.
The support worker may be trying to draw parallels to the
grammar of a signed language, so thinking in three
languages simultaneously.
• Make sure there is reading material available at all levels
so learners can progress at their own pace. This is
particularly relevant if a deaf learner needs to substitute
listening tasks with reading tasks. Literature supported by
visuals is good, but it is useful to have these visuals to
match the age of the learner.
• Use class topics the learner is familiar with as they will
then be able to concentrate on the language, rather than
trying to work out what is happening. Use headings and
subheadings to guide learners as context is really helpful.
• If you know of good language learning strategies advise
the learners of these. For example, make them aware of
75
 annotating texts, flash cards with L2 on one side and L1
(or a picture) on the other.
• English-speaking deaf students are often taught Anglo-
Saxon words, rather than their Latinate equivalents, as
these are often perceived as easier. This makes learning
Romance language more difficult in comparison to their
hearing peers.

The planning grid

You may have already looked at the matrix at

http://www.judithmole.net/ForeignLanguageMatrix.doc which
summarises many of the points covered in this book. If not, it
would be a good idea to take a quick look at it now.

Unlike the matrix, which attempts to provide ideas to help all types
of learners in many different situations, the blank planning grid
provided at the end of the matrix will allow you to describe the
challenges which will face your particular learner and to record the
specific strategies you plan to adopt to help the learner to meet
those challenges. Use it firstly as a jotter to help you to collect the
information you need, and then as a tool to focus your discussions

76
with the learner, support worker and others, and finally as an action
plan.

The completed grid may also serve as:

• a record of decisions made;

• an individual education plan for the deaf learner in modern
languages;
• a formal or informal record of measures you have agreed
with others;
• a means of evaluating progress at interim points in the
course;
• a means of updating plans for future implementation;
• and you may well find other uses.

77
 Case Study: A language teacher's perspective

by Claire Özel, Disability Support Coordinator, Middle East

Technical University, Ankara, Turkey. http://engelsiz.metu.edu.tr

This article was first published by Humanising Language

Teaching online newsletter at
http://www.hltmag.co.uk/mar04/mart1.htm. Claire is the first
Disability Support Coordinator at a Turkish University and this
post and her appointment are the direct result of her work with
Emine. The following is a very personal account of a foreign
language teacher who was asked to work with a deaf learner for
the first time.

A common learner type is that of the ‘reasonably able but fairly

reluctant', one who has not chosen the experience but has no
choice in the matter: the language simply must be learnt. Analysis
of the frame of mind of such a learner is often reduced to ‘lack of
motivation'. This article considers the situation of such a learner
as reflected through experience with a hearing-impaired learner.
Contrasting the response of an impaired learner with that of
unimpaired peers highlights factors that might otherwise not
attract attention (Thomas, 2001). Observations are then seen to
have parallels in other situations. This account is a subjective
reflection on similarities between my own experience years ago
as a language learner and what I now see again in learners with
disabilities.

Two years ago I was asked before the start of the semester if I
would take on a deaf learner. I had had a number of experiences
with visually impaired learners but had no idea how I would
manage this virtual opposite. While I had developed strategies to
teach with minimal visual cues (Thomas, 2000), I would now
have to maximise visual input, perfect blackboard use and
remember never to talk while facing the board. Looking on the
bright side, I felt I would not do worse than other teachers and I
might learn something from the challenge. As I had guessed, she
was the silent one who crept up to me at break to attempt to
explain her situation to yet another new teacher. At least I was
open, but I was a foreigner, the first she had ever met. For the first
few weeks I took extensive notes about my observations, thoughts
and feelings. I had no one to turn to, no experts to consult, and no
texts to read. Emine and I simply had a go together, uncertain
how to respond to each other, how much to trust or to demand.
She knew what she could do and I had some idea of what she
should be able to do; or so we thought. Over the next four months
we were to readjust our expectations, break limits and surprise
ourselves as we discovered a path towards realistic options.

79
Unaware of the complexity of factors, the implications of details,
variations in mood or responses to events, I made assumptions,
some inappropriate, some too definite. Emine was not a
stereotype of ‘deafness'; she was a person with the richness of a
human character, who happens to be insensitive to certain
wavelengths. A number of my assumptions turned out to be based
on myths (see www.engelsiz.metu.edu.tr). Others originated from
the comments of colleagues, who summed up their 'special'
learner in a couple of words: “Fine”, “No problems”; a learner
was reduced to less than a sentence. Were these unsupported
colleagues more capable than me? Or were they hiding their lack
of confidence or competence behind a protective mask, denying
reality, not wanting to look at the details for fear of seeing
something they could not handle? I did not feel fine…

As I endeavored to see deeper than the immediately obvious and

to understand the position in the class of this learner with a
difference, I had a growing sense of ‘déja vu'. Attempting to
empathise with Emine, I found myself recalling my early
experiences of living in Turkey, specifically those relating to the
loneliness and occasional despair of one attempting to express
needs and opinions in another language. Emine herself
commented that she often feels she is among people speaking a

80
different language. I retrieved my 1991 notebook. Tackling the
beginnings of what has now become my everyday means of
communication, I had jotted down gut feelings and emotional
outbursts triggered by linguistic immersion; while the front of the
notebook recorded the language taught, the back still bristled with
emotion.

Thirteen years ago, I was the semi-aware subject; I am now more

experienced. More importantly, this time I was not directly the
prime subject; indirectly involved, I was less susceptible to the
emotional reactions that upset rational thinking. Emine's specific
situation has allowed me to identify a number of points which
may go unnoticed in a regular classroom but affect the learning
process. Where her situation has mirrored mine, she has shed
light on the challenges, the sensitivities and the needs of learners
in general. In the following text, extracts from my 1991 notes are
in italics to contrast with recent reflections based on my notes
while teaching Emine, both in terms of the situation of a learner
with disability and that of regular language learners, and also of
how I see my role as a teacher.

Meaning: Without language, no information is received, so I'm

vulnerable.

81
As an adult language learner 13 years ago, I was suddenly made
aware of how restricted language competence limited my options.
Likewise, Emine's communication, specifically her auditory
reception, is severely limited. By the time she lost her hearing at
the age of 10, she was fluent in her mother tongue: her linguistic
processing is not impaired. In my case, though I had access to the
sounds I could not process them. The end result is the same:
neither of us could access meaning or information.

As Emine's teacher, an early step was to create complementary

communication. I had become aware that her lack of confidence
stemmed partially from lack of certainty about what was going on
in the class. To resolve this, we agreed on a number of discreet
signals for communicating in class. This personalised sign
language was not only a means of communication but also
bonding and valuing of the individual. As her confidence grew, I
relaxed, but not before noting that the need for information
applied in both directions.

While Emine clearly needed access to the material taught, I

realised I had a more subtle need for feedback. As a teacher, I
need to know whether what I am presenting is reaching its target.
Without feedback from the learners in my class, I am liable to

82
making incorrect assumptions about their learning. Until teaching
Emine, I had not consciously valued learners' facial expressions
and postures, which reveal so much: the busy ‘processing' mind,
the confused, the ‘Aha!' satisfied, the bored… While working
with Emine, I was able to understand why the inscrutable few
were undermining my confidence, and thus affecting my
teaching.

The silent and the motionless were giving me no idea of whether I

had explained enough, not enough or too much. The passivity of
these marble statues drew energy from me as I scrutinised for
indicators and attempted to chisel beneath the mask. Huntington
(1987), a specialist working with the parents of young children
with disability, describes the concept of ‘readability', namely the
extent to which behaviours are clearly defined and produce
distinctive signals and cues. When a young child provides less
than average feedback about their feelings and needs, the parent is
less likely to be able to satisfy the child. In a similar manner, as a
teacher, I rely on feedback, verbal or otherwise, to be able to
satisfy the learners facing me. With this understanding, I am now
able to explain to such learners my need for them to let me know,
at least with a blink of the eyelids, that they have grasped the
point, so that I may move on.

83
Skills and strategies: I'm not aware of what to do.

Thirteen years ago I was aware of my desire to speak or at least to

communicate, of the inadequacy of the teaching, of my
helplessness, but without knowledge or guide I could go no
further. Learners go through stages of awareness, progressing
from lack of awareness, to awareness of lack of direction, on to
awareness of direction and finally awareness of goal: the classic
‘unconscious incompetent - conscious incompetent - conscious
competent - unconscious competent'. Thirteen years ago I was at
the second stage. Aware of not knowing what to do, I was
attempting to discover my own path, one most certainly
previously traveled by others.

As Emine's teacher, I was able to see her need to develop

compensatory strategies. The strategies Emine needed to learn
relate not only to learning skills directly related to language
acquisition, but also more general abilities that allow individuals
to function effectively in society. While working with disabilities
is a complex task, far beyond the remit of an unsupported
language teacher, the need for compensatory strategies so obvious
in learners with special needs may also be seen in the majority of
learners. How many of our regular learners come with a full range
84
of well-balanced learning skills? Wouldn't many benefit from a
course in learning skills?

In special education, skills that are incidentally learnt by most

children are scrutinised so that they can be explicitly taught, e.g.
to visually impaired children (Wolffe, 1999). At university level,
a number of institutions now offer services to learners with
disabilities to enable them to function effectively in a system
designed for the majority. In an ideal education system, broad and
flexible enough to address the needs of any learner, a counsellor
would assist each learner in analysing the skills they have
mastered and consider ways of improving or compensating for the
lesser-developed skills. In an ideal EFL situation, all learners
would be counselled in skills to be developed or compensated for.

The disinterested majority: Monolinguals - people who only know

their mother tongue - have no understanding of what I'm
experiencing.

The situation of a language learner is alien to monolinguals.

Likewise few non-disabled people are aware of the implications
of disability. How much do the majority need to know about
those who are different? How much does the minority need to

85
explain?

Language learning is not simply a logical process. Like all aspects

of learning, it is susceptible to the effects of the chemicals that
can flood through the blood stream at the flash of a threat or the
excitement of stimulation. These chemicals (cortisol, adrenalin
and others) modulate all experiences (Jensen, 1998). While the
logical learning process can be read about in books, for a fuller
understanding of the learning experience, a teacher needs to feel
the rush of excitement or the suddenly blank memory when under
threat, and recognise that performance fluctuations may be
beyond learner control. As language teachers, we've all been
requested to begin learning a foreign language, to experience a
little of our learners' fear, excitement, confusion and insecurity.

Empathy is based on experience not just on theory: it demands

getting into the person rather than simply observing the outside
with logic; it involves emotions. Simulation, even brief, can
generate a flow of emotions that can then be analysed. Although
Emine spoke in front of the class only once in four months, her
fifteen minute oral presentation about ‘Living with deafness” was
for many the most memorable time of that semester. Greater
empathy reduces the risk of jumping to conclusions based on the

86
visual shell, without consideration for what might be behind the
mask.

Process: Bilinguals, people fully conversant in both languages, do

not realise what information I have missed; they comprehend
automatically, without conscious thought of which language they
are using. All my Turkish language processes are a conscious
act: much more exhausting, without a reflex loop. All neural
signals have to go the long way round, via the thinking brain.

The human brain has the ability to handle multiple inputs by

processing these in parallel; however, at a given time, only one
thought can be ‘concentrated on' at a conscious level. Language
learning is biologically programmed for the early years (Obler,
1989). In terms of foreign language learning, the adult brain
struggles to connect brain cells that in younger children are
programmed to link automatically. Adults have lost the inborn
language learning mechanism and grammar production ability
that under-6s excel at and anyone in their early teens can still
handle adequately (Pinker, 1994).

Spoken communication, which in contrast to written language is

acquired effortlessly, is usually taken for granted until the process

87
breaks down (Sacks, 1989). In L1, hearing and listening do not
have to be taught; reading does. Oral communication is automatic
while reading is a conscious, labour-intensive process. Though
hearing-impaired people may compensate for lack of hearing by
lip-reading, this is no easy substitute. The situation of a lip-reader
may be partially understood if one considers what happens when
one watches a subtitled film.

1. Effort is needed to read the text. Reading requires more

effort than listening, eyes locked onto the text and brain
processing the symbols to extract meaning.

2. The text may not always be understood: too fast, or - white

letters on a pale background - difficult to read. Some
people can ‘let go' and ignore what they have missed, but
most of us are too used to being in control and knowing
what is going on. Irritation at missing some of the words
leads to anxious whispers to your neighbour for help -
just like learners in class.

3. There is input mismatch, the sound track of music, sounds

and tone of voice, contrasting with the robotic regularity
of the typescript of the subtitles. The mind has to struggle
to superimpose incompatible audio and visual input.
88
 4. One realises that in all of this one has missed those subtle
facial expressions, the meaningful glances that give the
uniqueness to the production and differentiate between a
mechanical plot and a quality film.

Thus a lip-reader has to focus on one point simply in order to get

a message that others can get ‘anywhere within ear shot'. In other
words, a lip-reader has to invest a lot more effort to extract
information that others gather effortlessly.

Likewise, some of us, whether unable to perceive sound or learn a

language, are forever dependent on more laborious processing for
what others do effortlessly via programmed neurological reflexes.
Thus, the adult language learner struggles to comprehend new
structures, to retrieve vocabulary, to construct sentences to
convey the meaning in the mind. While teachers tend to focus on
accuracy and level of complexity, many learners may be satisfied
when getting the meaning across. Other criteria become excess
demands not justified intrinsically, external expectations not
internalised other than as grades and scores. Too frequently, these
produce stress, which short-circuits the thinking process.

Awareness: People forget I do not understand: I look ‘normal' .

89
While something ‘normal' is familiar, about which assumptions
can be made, the unknown, on the other hand, is less predictable
and demands more mental effort. Survival instincts developed
over eons have led us to judge - or prejudge - a situation.
Indicators such as body language and tone of voice are used to
distinguish friend from foe. However, the impact is short-term;
mental focus then moves on to newer stimuli, earlier ones
becoming familiar. The mind habituates and takes less notice of
‘known' elements, even though they may be masks hiding a
different reality.

In 1991, though I was obviously a foreigner, nothing in my

appearance indicated my level of linguistic competence.
Similarly, a confident lip-reader, with an unobtrusive hearing aid
and no knowledge of sign language, looks 'normal'. Emine
confuses those around her 'She can't be deaf - she doesn't use sign
language'. As Emine's teacher, I maintained my awareness during
the semester. A rapid cost-benefit analysis reveals that the extra
effort invested brings a number of benefits: increased learner
confidence and competence, and for the teacher knowledge, skills
and satisfaction. While a degree of professional obligation
demands that a teacher interact with each and every learner
entrusted to her, classmates are under no such obligation. Fellow
90
classmates often forgot about Emine's situation and had to be
reminded how to interact. Though my demand for a minimum
level of respect in the class provided extrinsic need for basic
awareness, only those intrinsically motivated got involved. Only
the self-motivated went beyond the basics: those learners with
sufficiently developed interpersonal intelligence to grasp that they
too could have a role (Gardner, 1993). Others were too distant.

Sifting through noise: Language learners in the early stages have

to sift through a lot of 'noise' for little or no meaning: great effort
with little return.

With my elementary Turkish vocabulary, I had built up a limited

repertoire of known words. I could handle everyday "air and
water" conversations. But when the subject deepened, I could
only recognise some of the words. The rest were at best neutral, a
burden of dead wood. But the wood could be thorny or poisonous.
Formal language, for example, bristling with obscure structures
and rarefied lexical items would be perceived as threatening,
causing the brain to release more noxious chemicals.
Adult language learners often have to come to terms with the fact
that they no longer have the full control they are accustomed to.
Many learners often have difficulty in admitting they can get

91
some partial meaning out of a reading or listening. Too used to
the effortlessness of L1 and spoilt by the ease with which they
glean information, they are now working with limits. This is
particularly true of anyone learning ‘live' in the country, exposed
to a random selection of material at all levels, not ‘designed with
the learner in mind'. What goes through the mind of such a learner
may have its parallels in someone hard of hearing, whose hearing
aid picks up only a limited percentage of what is being said.
Unfortunately, what is perceived has no relationship to need for
meaning but rather airwaves, nerves and physical transmission.
While the language learner is scanning for recognition within a
limited memory store, those with impaired hearing grasp for
anything that might make sense. While my original use of the
word ‘noise' was metaphorical, referring to the meaningless
sounds of unknown words, anyone using a hearing aid finds that
all sounds are amplified indiscriminately. Emine has full exposure
to all sounds, unfiltered by the mechanism that allows the hearing
to focus on sounds coming from a particular source. Whispering
learners, a humming OHP and traffic noise are all amplified as
much as the teacher's voice. Sorting among sounds is another
demand for effort and thus a source of stress.

Guess-stress : I try to guess to fill gaps.

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Gaps in meaning, vocabulary, syntax, relationships or intensity:
some can be guessed easily and safely, but not all. Inaccurate
guesses may be approximately correct or simply wrong, 'off
target'. This margin of error, occasionally resulting in major
misunderstandings, creates stress.

What happens when someone can understand 70% of a

conversation, whether as a lip-reader or an intermediate level
language learner? One gets the general outline, the gist; but the
specifics often get blurred and confused or just ignored.
Intermediate learners are fine in a general conversation, on
familiar topics. Repetition and paraphrase give a second chance to
seize key items, allowing gaps to be filled. One complements
with alternative strategies, or decides that what is missing is not
so important. Subconsciously, however, the learner is aware of
weaknesses. All appears fine on the surface until the weaknesses
are pushed to their limits. Once the mind notices a mistake and
confidence is damaged, recovery from emotional bruising may
take time. One relief is that with practice one does get better at
guessing. For lip-reading, this is true up to a point: certain sounds
produced with identical lip movements (e.g. b and p) cannot be
distinguished.

93
Courage: How can I join in?

It is all too fast! How do you jump onto a moving train? A foreign
language learner struggles to produce a sentence. The
conversation moves on; the contribution may no longer be
relevant, or if based on misunderstood input, inappropriate. The
others, interrupted and distracted from their flow get irritated and
the outsider is again pushed away. It takes courage to dive back
in.

I later learnt to claim my right for patience and understanding in

group discussions. I have a stronger understanding of the valuable
perception of someone with a difference. If my view, a different
one, an outsider's perspective, is wanted, there is a price: I need a
little more time, without interruptions, scorn or impatience. And
so do others who are different. Most learners, people attempting
new situations, need safe opportunities. While the occasional dare
devil can jump into anything, other types of learners, the
watchers, the thinkers, the planners need some degree of
confidence that they will succeed. They may need to be explicitly
made aware of the need and taught appropriate strategies.

Crowds: Especially in a crowd...

94
The common reaction in crowds is striking: both the language
learner and those with hearing impairment suffer
disproportionately when facing more than one interlocutor. We
lose the security of the known single source; while the language
learner loses control of the pace of the conversation as native
speakers get carried away and forget to speak in simple structures,
hearing-impaired people are confronted with unpredictable
changes of speaker, with some speaking simultaneously - no one
can read two pairs of lips at one time.

An active EFL classroom is a specific type of crowd. In what is

now considered to be a ‘lively classroom', minimal teacher talk
and multiple input from constantly changing sources minimises
predictability to enhance class stimulation. However, to hearing-
impaired people, buffeted in all directions, such classes are over-
stimulating.

Exhaustion: Eventually, I turn off mentally.

With minimal Turkish, after struggling to follow a conversation, I

would find my mind drifting: the level was too high. Like a
climber out of breath on too steep a slope, I would take a mental
rest. I had also noted this switching off with blind learners, at

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times too exhausted by daily challenges for any extra effort. A
task was not necessarily something that they could not do, but it
was simply too much, either in quantity or too intense in quality.
To maintain motivation, stimulation must be at the correct level.
If too high, as with the learner among natives or a deaf learner in
a non-adapted environment, the brain grinds to a halt.

Exclusion: I am conscious of being left out excluded from

situations, discussions, decisions; this can later build up into
resentment.

I was pushed back into pre-speech childhood; adults occasionally

deigned to communicate in my language, when THEY chose, or
if I demanded attention.
However, unlike young children, adults are used to being actively
involved. The sense of deprivation and loss of such a fundamental
ability leave one lonely amid friends, forcing a new
consciousness to arise amidst strong feelings: feeling excluded
from the group, ‘disabled', disempowered, demoted, forgotten, no
longer counting and even dehumanised. While those who lose
sight or hearing after early childhood have certain advantages in
understanding concepts that others who were born deaf or blind
can only imagine, they do have to come to terms with a sense of
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loss which, unlike that of a language learner, is usually
irreversible (Sacks, 1989). The exclusion I experienced 13 years
ago primed me to understand a little of what Emine might be
going through.

In conclusion, besides the practicalities of providing suitable

language activities, a teacher needs to be aware of the
psychological conditions essential for effective learning. Learners
need to be able to explore and reflect on the experience. Entering
new territory, the unknown, implies facing threats and risks, and
making mistakes. A competent adult is expected to be able to
handle such challenges, but no longer has the agility and
psychological readiness of childhood.

As language teachers, we are expecting adults to use a part of the

brain has essentially stopped functioning. Not only do learners
come ill equipped intellectually but many are not prepared
emotionally for the perceived threats and emotions which can
block the learning process. The operations of the mind are not
visible: mind reading is not yet on the curriculum.

To make a big difference to a learner in need, a teacher does not

have to be an expert: observe and listen without assuming. Probe
beneath the surface; it may be a mask. Work with the learner, who
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will be used to their own learning processes, though perhaps not
be aware of how to improve them. Share the challenge and be
humble enough to say” I don't know”. You may be the first to
notice.

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 PART THREE: THE ROLE OF SUPPORT WORKERS IN
FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSES

T his section is aimed at staff who have experience in

supporting deaf learners in other situations but may not
have worked in a foreign language classroom.
Use this section if you are in a support role yourself, or if you are
a teacher or foreign language assistant who wants to know how to
work with the wider team supporting the deaf learner.

It will start with a short overview of the types of support roles that
exist and that may be used in the classroom or beyond. If you
have not already done so, it will be useful for you to read Part
Two: Teaching foreign language to deaf learners. This will help
you to learn more about the domain you will be working in.

Many support workers have never worked in a foreign language

class and unless they are familiar with the target language would
not consider doing so. However, many support workers (note-
takers, interpreters and lip-speakers, etc.), some with and some
without prior skills in the foreign language, do work in this
domain and do so successfully despite initial scepticism.
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Initial considerations

Supporting a deaf learner in a foreign language class does require

more personal preparation and a more flexible approach to the
job, but it can be immensely rewarding, especially if the deaf
learner has a high degree of motivation to succeed.

The first assumption of many support workers is that in order to

effectively work with the learner they will have to be fluent in the
L2. Whilst knowledge of the foreign language is undoubtedly
useful, it is not essential. The level of fluency required from the
support worker will depend largely on two factors:

1. The level of study the learner is undertaking. If the learners

is undertaking a beginners class then everyone in the class is
starting from the same point. However if the learner is
undertaking advanced language study then they may be held back
by the support worker’s unfamiliarity with the language basics.

2. How different the language is to the support worker's

known languages. If the support worker knows, for example, a
Romance language like French, then supporting a learner in
Spanish or Italian will be far less difficult, as there are many

100
similarities between these languages. Conversely, supporting a
learner in intermediate Chinese will be almost impossible for a
person with only knowledge of, say, English and BSL. However,
complete unfamiliarity with a language can be overcome with
preparation time and a good working relationship with the
teacher.

Before accepting an assignment to support a deaf learner it is

useful to clarify what role and tasks you as the support worker
will be expected to undertake, and then to assess your own skills
and level of confidence to decide if you wish to undertake the
work. It is useful not only to speak to the deaf learner, but also to
the person who has assessed the learner’s support needs.

Before working with a learner in a foreign language class, it

might be worth noting the peculiarities of this setting. More
details of this can be read in the preceding sections. Other issues
to bear in mind are:

• A language class is usually not delivered in a didactic

teaching style - there is normally more group work,
activities and games. It requires a far more flexible and
creative approach to supporting deaf learners.
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 • It is very important to find out the deaf learner’s
motivation to undertake the class and then to aid that
learning, not just to facilitate the teaching.
• You may need a great deal of preparation time - much
more so than for any other assignment.
• You will need more preparation materials than for most
other courses; for example, you will need a copy of the
learner's as well as the teacher's course book, audio tapes,
CDs or videos which accompany the course book, and a
good L1/L2 dictionary.
• There needs to be provision for ongoing contact with the
foreign language teacher and with other support staff.
• If you work freelance, you may need to consider charging
additional fees for extra working time.

First steps

Although the following advice applies to most educational

situations in which support staff might work, it is worth re-
iterating.

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Meet the teacher

When working in a foreign language class it is essential for you to

know the following:

• Level of study
• Curriculum content
• Teaching methodology
• Learner's course books used
• Which sections of the learner's course book will be
covered (maybe some chapters will be missed out)
• If possible, obtain copies of:
o the teacher's course book
o the audio tapes, CDs or videos which accompany
the course book.
o a weekly lesson plan, with target vocabulary,
grammar points, etc.
o the assessments the learners will have to
undertake.
• Ask to look at the room in which the lessons will be
taught.

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Meet the learner

• Review what you know about the learner – they may need
something different from you here.
• If you have never met the learner before, ask the support
service co-ordinator about any information they have.
• When you meet the learner, find out about their
communication preferences, previous language learning
experience, motivation and support strategy suggestions.
• Sit down together and plan your support strategy for the
first class.

Preparing yourself

• Examine your own skills – are you ready to go?

• Is there a fellow support worker whom you can ask about
their strategies, or whom you could observe?
• What will your role be?
• Examine the curriculum/programme – what are going to
be the difficulties? Look at the Practical solutions to
specific situations section for spotting potential barriers.

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Some problems that may arise

Try to anticipate some of the logistical problems that may

arise. Consider the following scenarios:

Time

• Effective support of deaf learners in MFL classes requires

more than the actual hours spent in the classroom.
• Language teachers may be under pressure to prepare for
classes and may not have sufficient time to meet with you
or the learner to discuss adjustments, or to arrange for
transcripts of audio tapes.
• You may have limited time for preparation or for
developing additional materials such as flash cards.
• The deaf learner may also be asked to complete work
outside of class time which relies on audio-visual
resources, in which case you may need to be available.

Personnel

• The availability of support workers with the appropriate

skills may be restricted.

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 • Many institutions do not employ their own support staff
but rely on a small pool of freelance staff. Within this
limited supply of support staff, there will be even fewer
people with skills in, say, Japanese or Russian.
• Even if such a person is available, they may hesitate to
provide support in an area for which they have not been
trained, and where their role has not been clearly defined.

Teaching methods

The way in which the class is taught will depend on the

underlying approach or method that the teacher is using. For
example, the teacher may stress specific activities, use certain
resources or may take a more or less active role in the classroom.
More information on different teaching methods can be seen in
Parts Two and Three.

Recently, one of the most influential teaching approaches has

been Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). This approach
is based on the view that language and communication are
interdependent and that the goal of language teaching is
communicative competence (Richards and Rogers, 2001, p. 155).
This approach has led to an emphasis on spoken rather than
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written language and a range of activities where the aim is for
learners to communicate effectively rather than to focus on form.
As a result, many learners who studied foreign languages were
not taught grammar. They therefore often only learned standard
phrases but were not able to create their own grammatical
sentences (Mitchell, 1994).

How does this situation affect the support of deaf learners

learning foreign languages? Firstly, we might want to consider
whether some methods are more appropriate for deaf learners
than others. Some questions we may want to ask are:

• Would deaf learners benefit from introducing the written

form before the spoken form?
• Is it more useful to teach grammar explicitly?
• In methods which stress correct pronunciation, how does
this affect deaf learners?
• Can deaf learners effectively learn language in
collaborative problem-solving activities or is it preferable
to take part in a teacher-led session?

The support strategies that can be used will depend on the

teaching method to some extent. For example, in collaborative
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activities when spoken language takes a central place, the use of
note-takers to provide immediate access may be less effective.
Support workers will find it much more difficult to work in
classes where there is no clear syllabus and the teacher leaves the
topic of discussion to the learners. An emphasis on group
discussions and role-plays places a stronger requirement on the
deaf learner to lip-read a variety of speakers and it may be more
difficult to organise the use of radio aids or loop systems.

Whilst the teaching method used is to some extent beyond the

control of the support worker, it is useful to discuss the
implications with the teacher and the learner before the start of
the programme so that the most effective type of support can be
chosen.

Learning activities

Whichever method or approach is used, there will be activities

involving the four skills of speaking, listening, reading and
writing.

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 • ‘Listening’ activities may require technical aids or will
need to be replaced with ‘reading’ or ‘observing’
activities for deaf learners.
• Some deaf learners may choose not to use their voice in
speaking activities. When the speaking exercise is a
group one, this has implications for both technical aids
and support workers.
• Reading and writing activities should not require further
adjustments (if carried out individually and without
spoken discussion), unless instructions for the activity are
given in L1. In this case language modification may be
appropriate for learners whose first language is sign
language.

Some activities which require specific support strategies are:

• working in groups and pairs

• dictation
• tape recordings and sound-based computer activities
• video and television programmes
• whole class speaking exercises (choral pronunciation)
• reading and writing (foreign alphabets).

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Having considered these factors, you now have to decide which
support strategies will be most effective. There is, unfortunately,
no one tried and tested approach which will work in all situations.
As support workers from different backgrounds have started to
work in foreign language classes, a variety of strategies have
evolved. Some may be more appropriate for certain situations or
with certain learners. Some may fall outside your own area of
expertise. All of them may have advantages and disadvantages.
We outline some of the most common strategies here so that you
can see what is possible. Our advice is to stay flexible and
consider what works best for you and the learner.

Support strategies for foreign language learning

Patterns of language support

T he terms ‘monolingual’ and ‘bilingual’ support worker do

not seem applicable to a situation which by definition
involves two or more languages. However, it may still be useful
to identify two main patterns of support. They differ in the way in
which L1 and L2 are represented.

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 1. Messages in both the target language and the language of
instruction are presented in the same way (e.g. lip-
speaking or note-taking).

2. Messages in the target language are presented visually but

messages in the language of instruction are interpreted
into sign language (e.g. fingerspelling, interpretation).

Let's look at the forms of support in more detail:

Lip-speaking

Lip-speaking allows deaf learners who access the lesson through

lip-reading to focus on one speaker rather than a variety of
speakers. This is both an advantage and a disadvantage. Whilst it
is less tiring and provides constant input, if the support worker is
not a native speaker of the foreign language then their lip-pattern
will be different from that of native speakers. If the language
teacher is willing to take time after each activity to repeat key
phrases and words whilst facing the learner, this will provide an
alternative model for the learner.

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Because lip-speaking only gives access to the form of the
message and not the content, it may be difficult for the learner to
follow explanations because they may not know when a message
is spoken in L2 and when in L1. The learner and the support
worker may have to agree a way to signal a change in the
language being spoken.

Without additional visual clues, learners will not be able to see

sounds that are not pronounced or that do not involve lip
movement. The phonology of the target language may therefore
be a factor determining how effective lip-speaking support will
be.

Lip-speaking (perhaps accompanied by fingerspelling) can be

used for activities that focus on the form of words only, such as
dictation or listening tests. In this case a transcript needs to be
provided for the support worker.

However, having learned techniques for lip-speaking L1, it may

be quite hard to lip-speak L2, especially if you are not familiar
with this language yourself.

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Cued speech

Cued speech can be a useful way to support deaf learners

accessing speech in L2. However, few deaf learners use cued
speech and there are few support workers who can cue. However,
to learn to cue does not require a great deal of time, although to
become proficient and fast requires practice and patience. If both
the learner and support worker are unable to cue, then this
strategy will require a lot of additional study time in preparation
for the class. There are cueing systems for over 50 languages and
dialects, so the appropriate foreign language cueing system can
also be learned.

With consistent, effective use, deaf learners who communicate

with cued speech develop the language base that enables them to
read at the same level and use similar reading strategies as if they
were hearing.

The benefits of cueing are:

• every phoneme is displayed visually

• the learner will have access to each word and speech

sound
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 • homophones and rhymes are clear

• any sounds which are not visible, but pronounced can be

indicated by cueing.

• cueing can be combined with interpreting, i.e. use cueing

for the L2 but interpret any L1 explanations/statements.

Some disadvantages are:

• Both support worker and learner will either have to be

proficient cued speech users, or invest in the time to learn
in advance of the class.
• The support worker will have to be confident in listening
to the foreign language to able to transliterate accurately.
• If the same cueing system is used for L1 and L2 then the
change needs to be indicated to the learner.

Note-taking

With all the available ways to support a deaf learner, note-taking

is probably the one system where it is most important that the
support worker is proficient in the target language. In order to be
able to listen to different accents in the foreign language, retain
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and note the information accurately (that is in terms of spelling,
syntax, intonation, etc.) relative fluency is important. If the
learner only requires a copy of what is written on the board whilst
they watch another support worker or lip-read, then the note-taker
does not necessarily have to have any knowledge of the target
language. Whatever the case, the type of support required should
be clarified in advance, in order for the note-taker to assess
whether or not they are indeed able and qualified to undertake the
support assignment.

Notes taken during the language class may serve as a record of

the lesson for the learner to take home and revise from. They may
also be used for live reference. In this case, electronic note-taking
may be more appropriate because the learner has immediate
access to the notes on their own laptop screen. However, where
the target language is written using a different alphabet, manual
note-taking will often be the only option.

A disadvantage of this form of support is that the written form

does not convey differences in sound or intonation. If the deaf
learner knows phonetic symbols, then these may be used to show
pronunciation. Another strategy is to include an L1 approximation
of the sounds of L2 in brackets or in a different colour. For
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example, by representing the Spanish word quisiera for a native
English speaker as ‘key-see-air-a’. This approach is sometimes
used in the introductory chapter of course books and it may be
useful to make a reference copy of the pages where sound
equivalents are described so that a consistent representation is
achieved. Intonation may then be shown by the use of rising and
falling lines above the words.

Listening activities may become additional reading exercises

through the use of a transcript.

Useful strategies for a note-taker to use are:

• Learning and using the phonetic alphabet to mark any

difficult pronunciation of new words.
• If the phonetic alphabet is not known to the note-taker or
learner, and the learner has sufficient knowledge of L2,
an L1 approximation can be used. Be aware though that
this is only an approximation and may lead to wrong
pronunciation, e.g. if the ‘r’ sound in the above example
is significantly different in the two languages.

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 • It is important to practise the characters or additional
letters and foreign alphabets, so that they can be produced
clearly at speed.
• Where to sit in class will depend on whether other
support is available and where the learner will be looking.
If an interpreter/lip-speaker is available or the learner can
lip-read or use a radio aid, then for the most part the notes
will only be used as a backup in class, but may be used as
a revision aid later.
• Annotations of teacher’s notes can be effective.
• Making flash cards before or after the lesson if possible.
It can be a good exercise for learners to look at their notes
and create or contribute to flash cards.

Electronic notes and captioning

As stated above, note-taking can be one of the most effective

ways of supporting a deaf learner in foreign language classes. As
with manual note-taking, relative fluency in the language is
necessary to effectively note the information given in a class.
When taking notes electronically, the following tips may be
useful:

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• keyboard options: from the start menu, go to ‘settings’
‘regional and language’ or ‘regional options’. From this
go to ‘input locales’ or ‘languages’ tab and ‘text services
and input languages’.
• Having selected a new keyboard layout, and keeping the
English keyboard layout, select keyboards from the menu
bar at the bottom of the screen. This allows quick
switching between different layouts. Touch typing in a
new layout is not immediately feasible, but for European
languages, the layout is usually sufficiently similar with
the addition of ‘odd’ characters.
• For languages with a very different writing system (e.g.
Chinese), it may not be worth investing the time to learn
the new keyboard layout. Instead, it is possible to
type/caption in English and write the specific
words/sentences in L2 on a piece of paper. Alternatively,
use a ‘tablet’ to write the symbols and save them into the
document (if the class allows sufficient time for this).
• The ‘auto correct’ function in a word processing
programme, the abbreviations feature of the electronic
note-taking software, or a captioning dictionary, can be
used to make certain L2 characters appear by typing their
equivalent name in L1, e.g. typing ‘mu’ to give μ or
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 typing ‘a-‘ for ā. In this way a good typing speed can be
maintained in L1 while including foreign alphabets and
diacritics.
• Contact other captionists who have gone through a
specific class or language, and ask for their captioning
dictionaries. Save your own because someone might well
need it later.
• Plugs are not usually a problem in language labs, but the
equipment may take up a learner’s workstation, so in
small classrooms it may be worth investing in a separate
portable table.
• Diagrams, drawings etc. may be hard to include, so
ensure you always have paper at hand.
• If you can set up different fonts for the two languages,
then that could be very helpful.

Flash cards

Another approach to providing live access through written

language involves a range of large cards on which the L2
vocabulary of the syllabus is written, using a separate card for
each topic (e.g. clothing, parts of the body, shopping). Each word
is laid out much like a dictionary entry: the L2 word, followed by

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an L1 approximation of the sound (as described above), the word
category (noun, verb, adjective) and any irregular inflections or
plural forms.

The advantage of using such cards as an aide memoir for both the
deaf learner and you are enormous. The cards are also re-useable
in future years. However, they require lengthy preparation time
and limited resources may prevent you from developing a stock
that covers the entire curriculum. Flash cards may also not fully
replace written notes because they focus on individual words and
have limited use in showing sentence structure.

Interpreting

Interpreters working in foreign languages have a particular

dilemma. Other forms of support, for example cued speech, lip-
speaking and note-taking are visual representations of the spoken
language being used, and so give the deaf learner access to the
L2, but a signed interpretation would be in a third language - the
learner’s native sign language, and so would not provide any
access to the form of L2, only to the meaning of the message.

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Indeed, if a learner uses a sign language interpreter, they will be
unable to understand the teacher when s/he is using L2. Therefore
interpreting the L2 content of a class may not be as effective a
support strategy as other forms of support.

The challenge of interpreting in foreign language classes is

similar to the challenges in two settings described by Harrington
(2001): interpreting poetry and interpreting in linguistics classes.
As with poetry, interpreters in foreign language classes need to
provide access to both the form of the message (e.g. intonation or
sound patterns) and the content. When L1 notation is used to
describe the sounds of L2, this may lead to a triple mismatch in
finding cultural, linguistic or grammatical equivalents. However,
there are also situations where the structure of sign language is
more closely related to the target language (L2) structure than to
L1. For example, topic markers in Japanese have a ready
equivalent in British Sign Language.

Signs may be used in the word order of the target language to

illustrate grammatical structures, for example when these are
explained by the teacher. However, in general it may be better to
separate form and content completely by representing the form

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(the target language) in written, spoken or fingerspelled form but
signing comments (in the language of instruction).

As we said earlier, the main difficulty with interpreting in foreign

language classes is that both the form and the meaning of the
words/sentences have to be accurately conveyed. Doing both at
the same time is not possible (but we should bear in mind that the
language learners themselves have to make the connection
between the new word and the old concept too). Strategies that
have been suggested by different interpreters are:

• If you know the foreign sign language of the country

whose foreign spoken language you are learning, then use
these signs. The benefit of this strategy is that there is a
cultural link with the foreign country and that the deaf
learner may be motivated because they may meet deaf
people from that country. However, it does not provide
access to the form of the spoken L2.
• Using either the learner’s own sign language or the
foreign sign language, some interpreters follow the
structure of the spoken L2 and use the lip pattern of L2
but using sign vocabulary. Again, this may be effective in
some situations but may be difficult to maintain. Do you
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 sign a sentence like ‘J’ai faim’ literally as ‘I have hunger’
or as ‘me hungry’?
• If you are using the same sign language for both L1 and
L2, you should decide on a way to keep the two structures
clearly separated so that the learner knows when you are
interpreting L1 comments and when you are reflecting L2
vocabulary.
• Use fingerspelling (or cueing). After a while this may be
abbreviated to initialised fingerspelling. This is tiring and
difficult to follow for long periods, but it is effective with
some learners and offers a good way of keeping the two
languages separate.
• If you voice what you are signing, this allows the teacher
to check that you are passing on the information
correctly, and is another safeguard if you are not fluent in
L2, but this may be distracting for other learners.

Fingerspelling

Fingerspelling may be used to supplement lip-speaking where

letters are indistinguishable from lip pattern alone. In addition,
fingerspelling the first letter of every word whilst lip-speaking is
a useful method. The main difficulty with this method is that

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some questions require the learner to write down the name of a
person or a place mentioned in the conversation. These names
will not have been covered in class and the learner has therefore
not seen the word before. Also, when the L2 uses a different
alphabet or a word begins with a letter which is not used in the
native alphabet then additional strategies, like agreeing additional
letter signs, may need to be adopted.

Technical aids

The use of technical aids is probably the best described type of

support, perhaps because it is in many ways a natural extension of
the resources already exploited in the language class. For
example, microphones and headphones are already used in a
language laboratory and can be adapted so that hearing aids can
be used with this equipment. Television programmes or videos in
foreign languages may already be subtitled for the benefit of all
learners. Extensive use has been made of computer technology to
supplement activities both within and outside the language
classroom (e.g. Laurillard and Marullo, 1993). The development
of software and hardware to suit the needs of deaf language
learners has been a very active area, where developments have
ranged from programmes that visually display intonation patterns
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(Elsendoorn and Coninx, 1991) to interactive resources which
allow users to access signed translations of written texts (e.g.
Stefansdottir, 1999).

In some ways, then, the language classroom is better suited to the

introduction of technical aids than other classes. However, this
reliance on technology may also have the opposite effect. For
example, language laboratories are set up so that learners cannot
see each other. Many activities, including assessments, will be
based on listening to audio records on tape or on computer. In this
case a live speaker reading from a transcript may need to be
substituted.

Other professionals

There are a number of other professionals who have an impact on

the deaf learner’s acquisition of languages. Where the educational
institution has the services of a teacher of the deaf, he/she will be
invaluable in assessing the support needs of the deaf learner,
suggesting support strategies and working one-to-one with the
learner. Speech and language therapists, audiologists and other
will also be able to assist in this.

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General tips

• If the language being taught uses a different alphabet or is

symbol based, check with the teacher if it can be
Romanised, so that you can read it out without having to
learn L2.
• For homework, which will be presented in the following
class, ask if the teacher has the answers or, in the case of
free writing, some sample answers which learners may
present.
• If the language uses additional letters (for example
German, Swedish or Spanish), agree with the learner how
you are going to show these.
• For listening comprehensions you may have to lip-speak
or read out loud for the learner. Prepare this well, so the
learner can re-listen to sections and your delivery is clear
and fluent.
• Ask the teacher in advance to repeat any unclear
contributions from hearing learners. Their accents may
differ widely and it will allow you to pass on correct
information.

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 PART FOUR: PRACTICAL SOLUTIONS TO SPECIFIC
SITUATIONS

T he following is a list of common teaching situations which

can cause particular difficulties for deaf learners. In each
case, we suggest strategies for minimising or compensating for
the difficulties encountered.

Listening

Listening exercises can offer particular challenges for deaf

learners. In certain cases, where it is not possible for deaf learners
to undertake listening comprehension exercises, a possible
alternative may be to ask the learner to undertake the exercise as a
reading comprehension, but with less time and with no dictionary
allowed.

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Listening comprehension - from tape

Pre-recorded speech or dialogue can be particularly difficult for

deaf learners, as the tape can be too quiet or muffled and the
learner is deprived of visual clues such as lip patterns, gestures
and facial expression. In a dialogue, depending on the frequency
and pitch of the voices on the recording, the learner may be able
to understand one voice less well than the other and therefore
have difficulty in following the conversational flow. If this is the
case, it may be useful for the learner to have a transcript of the
text and a support worker may be able to assist by following the
text with their finger.

For pre-recorded listening tasks, deaf learners may need a

separate room. This will allow them to sit close to the audio
player, and to re-play any sections they could not hear clearly. It
will also allow a support worker lip-speak the content so that they
can supplement their residual hearing with lip-reading.

Learners who use radioaids or direct input shoes into their hearing
aid will need to have a separate copy of the audio tape or CD to
be able to use with their audiological equipment.

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Listening to accents and dialects

As stated in the section on lip-reading, accents and dialects can

be a cause of confusion for deaf learners, because they can affect
lip patterns to such an extent. Traditionally, learners have been
introduced to standard or 'high' forms of a language, e.g.
Hochdeutsch or received pronunciation, and these accents are
used in dictionaries. However, many web sites are now available
which show pronunciation of different accents phonetically.

Similarly, different pronunciation can be tried out by inputting

text and having this read out in different accents. See the AT&T
lab for a demonstration:
http://www.research.att.com/projects/tts/demo.html

Listening comprehension - from teacher or foreign language

assistant

When undertaking a listening comprehension where the text is

spoken by the teacher or foreign language assistant, the learner is
able to use lip-reading as a backup to their residual hearing. The
teacher/foreign language assistant should enunciate clearly and
make sure their lips are not obscured by the book/paper they are
129
reading, or their hands. Unlike their hearing peers, the learner will
be unable to take notes whilst listening and this should be
remembered if learners are required to answer questions on the
content of the comprehension exercise.

Listening to other learners

Learners may find it harder to comprehend all the different

accents used by learners in the classroom. They may also use
different lip patterns and speak at differing volume and
frequencies. If a learner is using a radioaid, then it is useful for
the teacher to repeat the contribution, or provide a summary of
the contribution, for the deaf learner. With the agreement of the
deaf learner, a deaf awareness session may assist the group in
understanding the issues the deaf learner is facing.

Watching videos

Many language series programmes now contain subtitles. These

can benefit all learners, not just those who are deaf. If a teacher
decides to show off-air recordings from the television, it is
important to use a VCR that can record subtitles. These are
specialist video recorders which can be purchased from
130
equipment suppliers. With the advent of DVD players, however,
some of the specialist recorders are no longer marketed. Most
DVDs are subtitled in several languages, but not all; better to
make sure before you buy.

Be aware, however, that ‘foreign’ subtitles are intended for a

hearing audience and follow the whole script as far as possible,
whereas subtitles for deaf people are sometimes abridged to give
more time for reading. Subtitles for deaf people usually include
notification of off-screen noises (like a gun-shot, or a door
closing). Foreign language subtitles will lack these advantages, so
you may need to allow more time for pause and replay, or to add
explanations of your own. One solution here might be to allow
deaf learners to use the recording for independent study at their
own pace.

Modern computer programmes are available which can add

subtitles to existing materials. Alternatively, a separate transcript
can be typed. However, this is a very labour-intensive task – it
may take up to 2 hours to provide an accurate transcript of a 10
minute video or DVD. The transcriber will also need to have
sufficient knowledge of L2 to transcribe accurately.

131
When showing slides, videos or DVDs, rooms are usually
darkened to avoid glare. If the lights are dimmed too much then
deaf learners will not be able to lip-read you, or see their support
worker. If you want them to take in the information you are
showing, as well as what you are saying, you need to give them
extra (silent) time. Providing an angle poise lamp for support
workers means that you can turn off the main lights.

Language Lab & PALE systems

Language lab equipment may cause difficulties in the following

ways:

• Profoundly deaf learners with no residual hearing and

speech will have to be given an alternative task.
• Deaf learners may have difficulty in hearing the pre-
recorded information used in language labs. See section
on 'Listening Comprehension - from tape' for more
information.
• Deaf learners may have problems distinguishing between
the voice on the recording and the voice of the teacher
giving instruction over the audio system and this may
cause confusion.
132
• Headsets can interfere with hearing aids. Placing objects
over a hearing aid causes acoustic feedback in the form of
whistling, which can render the aids useless. However,
depending on the connection socket on the headphones, it
is sometimes possible to use direct input leads to connect
a hearing aid directly to the audio output.
• If the equipment is to be used to record responses, the
learner may not be able to hear their own voice. Also,
learners may not be able to regulate the volume of their
voice if using audiological equipment in conjunction with
a headset. If an LCD display is available learners can
learn the appropriate volume and pitch, and learners may
prefer to practise this alone, or with a support worker,
before using the equipment in class.
• If the equipment is to be used for paired speaking, then
the microphone may obscure lip patterns.
• If the learner uses a direct input lead they will not hear
any other background noise and will usually be looking at
the wall or a box. They will therefore need to be alerted
to instructions from the teacher.

133
Speaking

Communication games

Games are a popular way of reinforcing learning which make

learning fun. Some games are more suitable for deaf learners than
others. It is good for morale to choose a game in which all
learners can participate and which does not unnecessarily exclude
some learners. Any games where lots of people are talking at the
same time or, which are 'quick-fire' or which require learners to
listen and write at the same time (e.g. bingo), will be difficult for
deaf learners to follow.

Brainstorming

During brainstorming or quick-fire response exercises deaf

learners are particularly disadvantaged. It is nearly impossible to
follow who is speaking and the learner may have missed the first
part of a sentence before they have ascertained who is speaking.
Due to the time lag needed to interpret or note responses, their
support workers will be unable to give them full and timely
access. In these situations, good classroom management is
essential and an ordered brainstorm/response is easier for the deaf

134
learner to follow. When a learner cannot contribute on their turn,
allow them to say 'pass'.

Role-play

Depending on the level of their deafness, an exercises where the

learner is required to undertake spontaneous listening and talking
can cause problems for the learner. Even for advanced language
learners, there may be problems caused by misunderstanding lip-
patterns, or words may be misunderstood. Teachers will develop a
feel for the preferences and confidence of the learner when
required to speak in class. In cases where learners will have to
perform their role-plays in front of other learners it is preferable
to allow the pairs or groups to plan their role-play first, maybe by
writing it down and then rehearsing it. This way they can make
sure they can all see each others lips, organise prompt gestures if
necessary and check on any phrases they are unsure of.

Answering questions

Learners who rely on support workers to gain information often

need extra time to receive information due to the time lag caused
by translation/noting of the message. Because of this time lag
135
learners often miss out on participation in class as the opportunity
to make appropriately timed responses is lost. In this case it is
useful to write down questions on the board and number these so
you can indicate by pointing or by showing the number discretely
on your hand which one you want to have answered.

Asking questions

When deaf learners ask questions, allow them time to receive (lip-
read, hear or have interpreted/noted) your response. This may
take longer if mediated through a support worker. Allow the
learner time to consider your answer in order for them to ascertain
they have fully understood you and also give them time to follow
up with another questions should they need more information.

Paired dialogue

It is useful for learners to work with a number of peers throughout

a course. However, some classmates will be easier for the deaf
learner to understand than others. This may be due to the volume
or pitch of their voice, the clarity of their lip patterns, their
pronunciation, etc. While it might be appropriate to place a deaf
learner with another learner, they may have a preference to work
136
with certain learners over others. If you observe this, then allow
the learners to pair themselves off, so that the deaf learner has the
best chance of choosing a partner who is easy to understand.

Reading aloud

Check with the learner privately and before the course/lesson

starts whether or not they wish to read out loud in front of other
learners. Some deaf learners are not confident in their judgement
of the volume and clarity of their voice, whilst others speak
fluently. Depending on the individual learner, reading out loud
can be a perfectly acceptable, or conversely, a very stressful
experience.

Debating or discussing

When learners are required to group together and prepare

arguments for a debate or discussion it is helpful for all learners,
but particularly deaf learners, to have a representative of the
group note down the proposed arguments on flip chart paper,
rather than on their individual notepads.

137
When the debate takes place it is useful if learners can face each
other or sit in a circle, so that there are clear sightlines between all
participants. It is helpful if the learners can see the arguments
which have been previously written on the flip chat and if one of
the group can point out the argument currently being discussed.
Furthermore, it is helpful if people can indicate their intention to
speak, or if the teacher can discretely point to the learner currently
speaking. See also under Group Work for further information.

Pronunciation and intonation practice

Depending on the level of deafness, intonation practice may be

difficult or impossible for the learner. They may also need
additional time and input to perfect their pronunciation, using
flash cards, the phonetic alphabet or cued speech.

Giving an oral presentation

If a profoundly deaf learner does not use their voice they can still
give a presentation by, for example, using blank acetates and an
overhead projector to write down what they would otherwise say,
or by producing a written presentation in L2. In assessed

138
presentations the learner can demonstrate their research by
submitting the materials they used to prepare for the presentation.

Where a learner has good speech they may want to check the
level and clarity of their voice at the beginning of the
presentation. In that case, a quick 'thumbs up', or a gesture for
raising or lowering the voice, is very helpful.

Interviewing or being interviewed

Like asking and answering questions, learners may need a little

extra time to understand and then look away to note answers. It is
helpful if questions are noted down either on the board or
between the partners so that the deaf learner can use reading as a
backup if they cannot hear or lip-read the question. If learners are
interviewing peers, then the hearing learner may need to use
audiological equipment and this may need to be transferred from
the teacher to the partner.

Songs, rhymes, raps

Songs can be used for listening practice but the background music
can often render the lyrics incomprehensible for deaf learners and
139
in this case they will need a transcript to read whilst the tape is
playing. Whilst most deaf people enjoy music, they may prefer
types of music which suit their frequency loss or which cause
most vibrations. What are considered popular songs, chart toppers
or ditties may not be known to deaf learners. However, 'occasion'
songs, like 'Happy Birthday' or Christmas songs will usually be
known by learners and these often have equivalent translations in
L2. However, it is best not to assume that a profoundly deaf
learner will automatically recognise a well known melody when a
song is performed in another language.

Deaf learners may not recognise rhymes, particularly when a

language is not phonetic, and may miss the joke. Limericks etc.
can be tricky.

Working with puppets

When working with puppets, the hearing learners will be able to

watch the actions of the puppets and be able to concentrate on the
actions and story which they are conveying visually. Deaf
learners will not be able to do this. Many will not be able to watch
the puppets and your lips/their support worker. To alleviate any
frustration this may cause in the deaf learner, allow them to read
140
the story you are trying to show, or repeat the performance giving
all learners the chance to watch (and learn) twice.

Writing

Dictation

Dictation is impossible for a deaf learner to undertake alongside

their hearing peers, unless they can use audiological equipment
without having to rely on supplementing this with lip reading.
Any learner who needs to look at a support worker or to lip read
will not be able to look down to write and follow the dictation
simultaneously. If dictation is part of an assessed task then this
will have to be undertaken in another classroom separate from
fellow learners. This will allow time and opportunity for the deaf
learner to undertake the task consecutively, rather than
concurrently.

Creative writing, including poetry

Bear in mind learner may not know if something rhymes. If

poetry is to be used in the class, a support worker will require
additional preparation time to be able to ensure that they can

141
show the intonation and stress of the poem. It is also worth
discussing any metaphorical and idiomatic language within the
poem with the SW, so they can think how best to facilitate access
to this information for the deaf learner.

Answering questions in writing

Many hearing learners will keep their head down (or their eyes
closed) when listening to a tape recorder. They will also usually
make notes on what is being said, especially when given the
questions to be answered in advance. Unless they are using
audiological equipment, it is worth bearing in mind that deaf
learners cannot do this. If they look away from their lip-speaker
or your lips, then they will lose the next part of what is being said.
Deaf learners therefore have to rely on their memory to store all
the information they will need in order to answer questions, or
they will have to miss some of the information provided. To give
deaf learners an equal chance, add in breaks for them to make
notes.

142
Reading

Working in Pairs

Often dialogues are read in pairs. If a deaf learner is asked to be

one partner, they will have to look up to watch their partner read
and then look back down to read their part. A learner may find it
useful to follow the dialogue with their finger in order not to
loose their place in the text.

Reading out loud in chorus

Some deaf learners will find reading out aloud in chorus

impossible, as they will not be able to pace their delivery along
with their hearing peers, as they may not hear them and will be
looking at the source of the text. If a support worker is present,
they can follow the pace with their finger.

Self-directed reading

When undertaking self-directed reading it is useful for all

learners, but particularly deaf learners to know what the purpose
of the reading is. Deaf learners may have to undertake more

143
preparation if they are required to read the text to subsequently
read it out loud (checking pronunciation, etc.), if it is to lead to a
listening comprehension or if questions are to be answered from
it.

General teaching situations

Understanding explanations or instructions in L1

When trying to understand instructions from their teacher, deaf

learners will often use a support worker, lip-reading or
audiological equipment. If the pace and delivery style of the
instruction is fast, the learner may sometimes struggle more to
understand these instructions than content provided in L2. Try to
pace your delivery so that all learners can participate, checking in
discreetly with the deaf learner and support worker to make sure
your pace does not leave anyone behind.

Deaf learners often sit in a position where they can see you or
their support worker easily, but this means they may not be aware
when other learners are speaking. Acknowledging the
contribution of another learner by pointing at the speaker is
helpful. If the delivery of the learner who is speaking is not clear

144
then it is helpful for all learners if the teacher repeats what has
been said.

Handouts and worksheets

Hearing learners can look at handouts and listen to teachers at the

same time – deaf learners cannot. They can either watch the
teacher, or their support worker, or look at the handout - they
cannot do any two of these simultaneously. When using handouts
and worksheets allow a little extra time for learners to
watch/listen first and then to look at the written materials.
Pointing to the sections/paragraphs/exercises you are next going
use is immensely helpful to all learners.

Group work

It is extremely difficult for deaf learners to follow group

discussions if everyone speaks at the same time or in rapid
succession. An ordered discussion with invited contributions (or
learners raising their hands when they wish to speak) allows the
deaf learner (and the support worker) to quickly identify who is
speaking. They will then be able to make an appropriately timed
contribution.
145
Demonstrating how equipment works

Demonstrating how equipment works can present challenges for

deaf learners. They cannot look at the process you are showing
(which buttons to press, how to record, etc.) and your lips/their
interpreter at the same time. The learner will have to look away
from what the teacher is doing and therefore miss out on
instruction. Explaining first, then demonstrating will allow all
learners to follow.

Before any equipment is used for the first time it is useful if deaf
learners can try out the equipment beforehand and be told what
the equipment is to be used for. This will allow them to test their
audiological equipment with the language equipment and to
ascertain if additional or alternative equipment is necessary.

Tutorials

During tutorials the learner will need a clear sight line to your
face. Sit face to face if possible. If a support worker is present, for
example an interpreter or lip-speaker, they will wish to sit next to
you so that the learner can see you and them at the same time. A

146
note-taker, however, will have to sit next to the learner so that the
notes can be read easily.

Trips abroad

Additional planning will be needed if deaf learners are to

undertake trips abroad. If they need to have support in L1 during
the trip they may need to find a support worker who is available
for their entire stay. This can mean significant administrative
work to find such a support worker and will incur additional
costs. Additionally, deaf learners may need to consider how to
communicate with home and with their place of residence when
abroad.

Working with a computer, data projector or overhead

projector

Learners are unable to look simultaneously at a computer, data

projector or overhead projector screen and follow the teacher’s
instructions. This will need to be taken into account when
planning the timing of the presentation or exercise.

147
Assessments and tests

Some forms of assessment can be difficult or impossible for deaf

learners and it is important to plan assessments accordingly. For
example, an assessed listening comprehension may have to be
undertaken as a reading comprehension. Where possible, deaf
learners will want to undertake the same assessments as their
peers and only where this is not possible, or where the deaf
learner may be substantially disadvantaged, an alternative should
be offered.

When considering course assessment, the above situations may

assist in determining the appropriateness of certain assessment
mechanisms for deaf learners.

Although the special arrangements that are accepted may vary

from institution to institution or from one examining board to
another, it may be useful to summarise the types of arrangements
that can be made. Not all arrangements will apply to all learners
or be available in every location.

• Exemption from the listening and/or speaking

component.

148
• Substitution of additional reading and writing tests for the
speaking and listening component.
• Access to a live speaker rather than an audio recording.
This will require a transcript, a separate room and
additional time.
• The live speaker may read the text more slowly and/or in
shorter chunks, with pauses in between to allow the deaf
learner to write down responses.
• The reading out of the transcript may be repeated even if
the tape is not played again.
• Fingerspelling of the first letter of every word, or the
spelling out of names and other proper nouns.
• Where intonation clearly expresses an emotion such as
surprise, or where a question is asked, this may be shown
by the live speaker through appropriate facial
expressions.
• Assessed and recorded role-plays can be carried out
separately with the teacher rather than with another
learner.
• Language modification or interpretation of instructions
which are provided in L1.
• Where responses to comprehension questions are
expected to be in L1, some examining boards allow
149
 learners to sign their responses. These are later
transcribed by the support worker and approved by the
learner.
• Instructions (the rubrics), if in L1, can be signed by the
support worker or wording can be modified in advance if
it is deemed likely to cause difficulty.

The matrix

A matrix is available from

http://www.judithmole.net/ForeignLanguageMatrix.doc which is
a summary of many of the points discussed in this book. It
represents an attempt to apply a problem-solving approach to task
of adjusting practice to accommodate the needs of deaf learners.
Many people have contributed ideas: teachers, support workers
and deaf learners themselves, but this is just a starting point. All
learners are different, and have their own unique set of
characteristics. As you work with deaf learners we hope you will
use the examples here to help you to construct a personal
planning grid for each learner, as described in Part Two. You will
find other problems to solve and new solutions. We hope you will
add these to the matrix and make it your own.

150
 About the authors

H ilary McColl taught French and English in mainstream

schools in England, France and Scotland before being
seconded as Scottish National Curriculum Development Officer
in 1994 to examine how learners with special educational needs
were being catered for in modern languages. The resulting
compendium of advice to schools included a section on teaching
hearing impaired learners. Hilary's own increasing deafness led
her to give up language teaching in 1996. Now working as an
independent trainer, consultant and writer, she has particular
interest in bringing together teachers who specialise in modern
languages and those who specialise in supporting learners,
believing that collaborative working is the best way to ensure
viable modern language programmes for learners with special
educational needs.

Judith Mole is the director of Direct Learn Services Ltd. She has
been working in education since 1992 and started working with
Deaf learners whilst at college. She has since managed support
units for Deaf learners both at Sheffield Hallam University and at
the University of Wolverhampton, UK. She has worked as a
project manager to create online BSL/English dictionaries for
various academic subjects and has written booklets for academic
and support staff. In 1996 she completed a PGCert in TESOL.
Having grown up in Europe, she has native fluency in German.
She is currently struggling to learn Spanish and Catalan.

Mireille Vale currently works as a sign language interpreter at

Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. She is a
qualified BSL/English Interpreter and has completed a
Postgraduate Diploma in BSL/English Interpreting and a Master's
degree in Sign Linguistics at Durham University. Micky’s interest
in foreign languages arises from personal experience as a learner
of various spoken and signed languages, and as a Dutch person
who has lived and studied abroad for nearly half her life. She
briefly taught Dutch to English speakers both privately and
through Durham University’s language centre. Micky has worked
as a communication support worker, note-taker, electronic note-
taker and interpreter in all phases of education since 1995. This
work has included supporting deaf learners in foreign language
classes (Spanish at high school level and beginner's Japanese at
University level). In 2000, Micky was the Project Leader for the
development of a course in 'Support Work with Deaf Learners' for
communication support workers and deaf educational instructors
in pre-16 education. She has also been involved in the production
of the Microbooks CD-Rom 'Signs for GCSE English'.
152
 References

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<http://www.hearinglosshelp.com/speechreading.htm
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Deaf Children. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters
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Language Instruction - Tips for Accommodating Hard-of-
Hearing and Deaf Students, Online. Available HTTP:
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rame.htm
Gardner H. (1993) Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice.
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Harrington, F.J. (2001) ‘Deaf students and the interpreted
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Kyle, J. and Woll, B. (1985) Sign Language: The study of deaf
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Laurillard, D. and Marullo, G. (1993) ‘Computer-based
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Mitchell, R. (1994) ‘The communicative approach to language
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155
 Glossary

accent The way of pronouncing words. It is distinctive

from dialect, which also has differences in
grammar and word use.
accent A mark or indication which shows which letter
or syllable of a word should be stressed.
adjective A word that describes a noun. For example,
green, big, happy.
admin time Known to US interpreters as 'downtime'.
Working time spent not interpreting.
adverb A word which modifies a verb or adjective. For
example, slowly, hugely.
American Sign The national sign language of the United States
Language of America.
ASL American Sign Language
assistive An audiological device used to assist people
listening device with a hearing loss.
Audio Active Linked system of workstations consisting of
(AA) tape, CD player/recorders or computers with
headphones to facilitate individual or paired
listening and speaking tasks.
audiogram The graphical representation mapping the
hearing profile of a person. It shows both the
volume and frequency a person can hear.
audiology The study of hearing and hearing loss.
bilingual Being able to use two, or more, languages
fluently.
Bilingualism An educational philosophy which advocates the
use of sign language as the primary language in
school which can be used to learn a spoken
language as a second language.
British Sign The national sign language of England, Wales
Language and parts of the Northern Irish communities.
BSL British Sign Language
classifier Classifiers are linguistic features in some signed
and spoken languages to indicate movement,
placement etc.
Closed Subtitles on a video which are hidden unless
captioning viewed with a special devise called a caption
reader.
cochlear An audiological electronic device which is
implant surgically inserted into the skull behind the ear.
conditional An if-sentence. For example, "If you are reading
this book, you must own a computer."
conference An attachment for a radioaid (phonic ear) to be
microphone able to use the device in a small group situation.
CSW Communication Support Worker (UK)
cued speech A way of making lip-reading visible, using hand
shapes to illustrate speech sounds.
dB Abbreviation for decibel. Volume of sound is
measured in decibels.
Deaf The political term for belonging to the Deaf
community.
deaf The medical term for hearing loss.
decibel The measure of the volume of sound.
Abbreviation is dB.
DGS Deutsche Gebärdensprache (German Sign
Language)
dialect Variations of language use, usually linked to
regions. Different from accent as dialect not
only includes differences in pronunciation, but
also grammar and using alternative words.
dipthong A vowel combination where the sound of one
sound flows into another vowel sound.
157
domain A situation where an interpreter may work. For
example, the educational domain, or court
interpreting. Different domains require different
behaviours.
enunciation The clear pronunciation of words.
EI Educational Interpreter
ESOL English for Speakers of Other Languages
fingerspelling Using hand shapes to show a manual alphabet.
FLA Foreign language assistant
frequency A measure of cycles per second. It is measured
in Hz and is used to determine the frequency of
sound.
fricative A speech sound produced by forcing air through
a constriction in the vocal tract.
FL Foreign language
gender A system to classify nouns as masculine,
feminine or neuter.
gesture A form of non-verbal communication.
hearing aid An audiological devise worn in or behind the
ear to aid hearing.
Hochdeutsch Colloquially known as standard written
German, as opposed to a dialect version of
German.
homographs Words which are written the same, but have
different meanings.
homophones Words which sound the same, but are written
differently and have different meanings.
Hz Abbreviation for Hertz, the measure of
frequency.
ICT Information Communications Technology
idiom A common expression which can have an
unexpected meaning.
infinitive The root form of a verb.

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initialisation Using the fist letter(s) of a word when a sign is
not known or does not yet exist.
interpreting Verbal (or signed) translation from one
language into another.
intonation The change in pitch and tone in a sentence.
invisible Consonants which cannot be seen on the lips.
consonants For example /s/.
L1 The ‘source language’ which is also usually the
‘home language’ and usually the mother tongue.
L2 The foreign language or target language being
learned.
lag-time The time which is required to listen to a
message before it can be interpreted. This
causes a gap between the source language and
the target language.
lexicon All the words of one language.
lip patterns The way speech looks on the lips when spoken.
lip-reading Reading the lips as a means of communication.
lip-speaking A form of communication support for deaf
people where speech is reproduced clearly and
silently.
LSC Llengua de Signes Catalana (Catalan Sign
Language)
LSE Lengua de Signos Española (Spanish Sign
Language)
LSF Langue des Signes Français (French Sign
Language)
manual alphabet Hand shapes which represent the alphabet of a
language.
MFL Modern Foreign Language
minimal pairs Words which only differ in one phoneme.
NGT Nederlandse Gebarentaal (Dutch Sign
Language)
note-taking A form of communication support for deaf
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 people, where a note-taker attempts to write
down the contents of a conversation, class or
lecture for a deaf person to read, either in real
time or at a later date.
noun A word which represents a person, place,
substance or material. Usually used for concrete
things.
onomatopoeia A word which resembles the sound it represents.
Oralism An educational philosophy which advocates the
use of speech and listening/lip-reading as the
preferable communication method for d/Deaf
people.
OSV Object-subject-verb sentence construction
Peripheral Audio active stations located around the
Active Learning perimeter of the classroom to facilitate
Environment individual or paired listening and speaking
(PALE) tasks.
PGCert Post Graduate Certificate (UK)
Phonic ear Another term for a radioaid.
phonics The study of the way spellings represent the
sounds of words.
phonetics The study of speech sounds.
plosives A consonant sound which is produced by
stopping air and suddenly releasing it. For
example, /p/ or /b/.
pronunciation The way language is spoken.
proper noun The name of a specific thing, place or person.
Usually capitalised.
question tags Question tags are added to statements, to turn
them into questions.
radioaid Audiological equipment which allows a deaf
person to listen only to the sounds coming
through a microphone, and hence eliminating
unwanted background noise.
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residual hearing The amount of useful hearing a person with
hearing loss has.
received A dialect of English often called 'BBC English'
pronunciation and the form of English most used to show
English pronunciation in British dictionaries.
SL Sign language
SLI Sign Language Interpreter
speech-reading See lip-reading.
stress The emphasis given to a particular letter,
phoneme or syllable of a word.
StV Sign to voice
SVO Subject-verb-object sentence construction
SW Support worker. An umbrella term for
interpreters, note-takers, etc.
syntax The grammatical arrangement of words in a
sentence.
team working Known in the UK as co-working. Two/or more
interpreters working together on the same
assignment.
tense The way a language expresses time.
timeline The way some signed languages express time.
TL Target language
ToD Teacher of the deaf
topic-comment The way some languages organise syntax. BSL
and Chinese both use topic-comment syntax.
Total An educational philosophy which advocates the
Communication use of sign and speech simultaneously. This
approach usually uses Manually Coded English.
transliteration The process of changing one form of an English
message, either spoken English or signed
English, into the other form and vice versa.
trill A consonant sound which is produced by
vibration. For example, /r/.

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 verb A word which describes an action. For example,
to walk, to see.
visible Consonants which can be seen on the lips. For
consonants example, /m/, /t/.
VtS Voice to sign

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