Helping learners make assumptions

using could, might and must

Helping learners make assumptions using could,

might and must

LSA1/Language Systems: Grammar

Candidate number:
The ELT Hub, Strasbourg FR023

April 17, 2019

Word Count: 2497

Contents
1. Introduction 2
1.1 Epistemic modality 2
1.2 Scope 2
2. Analysis 2
2.1 Meaning 2
2.1.1 Could 2
2.1.2 Might 3
2.1.3 Must 3
2.2 Grammatical Form 3
2.3 Phonological Form 3
3. Learning Problems and Teaching 4
Solutions
3.1 Problems Relating to Meaning 4
3.1.1 Teaching Solutions 4
3.2 Problems Relating to Form 6
3.2.1 Teaching Solutions 6
3.3 Problems Relating to Pronunciation 6
3.3.1 Teaching Solutions 6
4. Conclusion 7
5. Bibliography 8
6. Appendices 9-14

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Helping learners make assumptions
using could, might and must

1. Introduction

1.1 Epistemic modality

When making assumptions about present, past or future situations we often do not
think in absolute terms about truth and falsehood, but in terms of a scale of
likelihood. Epistemic modality is a type of linguistic modality that allows speakers to
express notions of possibility, probability, improbability, etc. We have several
means at our disposal to express doubt, certainty or guesses:

 by use of an adverbial such as perhaps, maybe, probably: Perhaps she’s sick.

 by use of a sentence with introductory it and a that-clause: It’s possible that
she’s sick.

But most importantly, we do this by using modal auxiliaries (can, could, may, must,
etc.): She might be sick. Our choice of modal auxiliary depends on our attitude
towards the person or situation we are speaking about and on how we feel about
the reliability of our message (Bolinger, 1977). The grammatical category of
modality is an example of a way in which speakers use grammar to fine-tune the
meaning they wish to express (Thornbury, 1999).
In my experience, the area of modal auxiliaries is a complex one for learners. As
modals have multiple meanings and are often used to express subtle shades of
meaning, learners easily misunderstand or are misunderstood. Through this
assignment I hope to better understand how to help my learners see how different
modal auxiliaries match the range of meanings they need to express and
understand.

1.2 Scope
For the purpose of this essay I will focus on epistemic modality: on the use of could,
might and must to make assumptions about the past and present. These modal
auxiliaries are the ones most frequently used to express doubt, certainty or guesses
and they are the most useful when trying to help learners understand concepts such
as remoteness, distance or degree of commitment (see paragraphs 2 & 3).

2. Analysis

2.1 Meaning
All modals, except shall have a primary and a secondary function. In their primary
function they express some degree of freedom or lack of freedom to act. In their
secondary function, the modals allow the speaker to give a personal evaluation of
the truth of the statement he is making (Close, 1992).

2.1.1 Could
Lewis (1986) states that could is best dealt with as a pair with can as they both deal
with possibility but of a different ‘kind: the former being more ‘remote’ than the
latter. A teacher may state simple paraphrases such as: She can help you: I assert

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Helping learners make assumptions
using could, might and must

that it is possible that she can help or She could help you: I assert that it is ‘remotely’
possible that she can help. Remoteness in the context of epistemic modality is about
degrees of likelihood (She could be a foreigner, but I don’t think so). Could suggests
doubt (Lewis, 1986) about a present or past situation: I can’t find my wallet. I could
have lost it at the supermarket, but I’m not sure. Can is not epistemic. When making
an assumption about a person’s profession She could be a doctor (but I’m not sure) is
preferable to *She can be a doctor. To negate could in an assumption, we do not use
couldn’t: *She couldn’t be a doctor, instead we use can’t to say that something can’t
be true or might not to indicate that it is possible that something isn’t true: She can’t
be a doctor or She might not be a doctor (Wallwork, 2013). Can’t and couldn’t are
both used to express the impossibility of a past situation: It can't/couldn't have been
Carla you saw this morning. She is away on holiday.
2.1.2 Might
As could, might is often used to express tentative possibility. The difference between
could and might is subtle and they are often used interchangeably. Might possibly
expresses the minimum degree of certainty. It is more remote than could and
according to Willis (2004) might suggests that there is no commitment to the truth
of a statement: She might still come to the party, although she’s been very sick or She
could still come to the party; she said she felt a lot better.
2.1.3 Must
In its secondary function, must suggests that the truth of the speaker’s statement is
inescapable. The sentence You must have been hungry, may be paraphrased as I
assert it is necessary that you were hungry. Must expresses a certainty about an event
which we do not observe, but about which we draw a conclusion from evidence
(Leech & Svartvik, 1975). It is about logical necessity.
To negate certainty or logical necessity we use can’t, or couldn’t. Mustn’t generally
refers to prohibition, not to improbability or impossibility (it is: You can’t/couldn’t
be hungry and He can’t have carried all that by himself (Close, 1992).

2.2 Grammatical form

The modal auxiliaries share some important structural characteristics, they:

 occupy the first place in a complex verb phrase and cannot co-occur.
 are followed by the bare infinitive (without to) in assumptions about the
present (He must be so tired) and by have and a past participle in
assumptions about the past: (She could have missed the train).
 are not inflected in the third person: not *He musts be hungry.
 are negated by the addition of n’t or not: not *He don’t can be a doctor.
 are inverted with the subject to form a question.
 have no past tense (Parrott, 2000).

2.3 Phonological form

In most contexts, modal auxiliaries are weakened in natural speech. The vowel is
often reduced to /ə/ or is practically omitted. Could and must are reduced to /kəd/
and /məs/, except in questions, short answers in response to questions or when

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using could, might and must

there is a need for contrastive stress or emphasis. The final consonant in must and
might is often omitted, especially if the verb that follows begins with another
consonant. Could have, must have and might have are reduced to /kədəv/, /mʌstəv/
or/mʌstə/ and /mʌɪtəv/.

3. Learning Problems and Teaching Solutions

3.1 Problems related to Meaning

The area of modal auxiliaries is complex: each modal has multiple meanings and the
differences are often subtle and depending on context, which makes choosing the
appropriate modal difficult. Learners might have problems distinguishing between
could and might, or they might use must when they mean should and vice versa: *He
should be a doctor (because he’s wearing scrubs). This latter example is a mistake
typically made by French learners: French uses forms of the single verb devoir to
cover the notions of obligation and deduction (Swan and Smith, 2001). Learners
might also have problems with the concept of remoteness. In my experience they
often perceive modals used in assumptions as past tenses (could and might) and
consequently fail to understand that the choice of modal reflects a speaker’s attitude
towards his message.
3.1.1 Teaching Solutions
As I discussed in paragraph 2, Lewis (1986) suggests it is preferable to talk about
more or less remote forms instead of past or present. Although this concept has
been useful for me as a teacher in gaining a deeper understanding of when, how and
why we use modal verbs, I am not convinced that it is a useful concept to introduce
in the classroom, especially with lower level students. Perhaps Willis’ (2004) idea of
’commitment’ is of more practical use. He suggests that the choice of modal shows
how far a speaker is committed to the truth of his statement.
To help learners with the concept of commitment (how sure are you about your
statement?) I use a straightforward clarification activity to help them understand
the difference in grades of (logical) certainty:

 Write might, could and must (in that order) on the board with a visual to
indicate degree of commitment/certainty (from might, least certain to must,
most certain).
 Write sample sentences on the board, leaving the space for modal auxiliary
blank. Students choose the correct modal. Sentences need to be carefully
chosen so that the choice of modal is clear.
 Check correct answer and ask concept-checking questions (see Appendix 1).

The use of a visual is an efficient way to explain differences in degrees of ’certainty’

and helps learners choose the appropriate modal. It might appeal in particular to
visual learners and the activity as a whole is suitable for all levels (complexity of
sentences is easily adapted). The use of isolated sentences can be useful for
clarification but for learners to gain a deeper appreciation of the way choice of
grammatical form impacts meaning, activities should be based in context. I have

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Helping learners make assumptions
using could, might and must

used an activity based on a lesson plan from Teaching and Learning in the Language
Classroom (Hedge, 2000) (see Appendix 2) to help learners make deductions about
the past.

 Show learners a magazine picture of more or less open-ended situation, e.g.:

a woman in black, weeping or a happy young man reading a letter.
 Ask learners: What’s the situation? What do you think has happened?
 Elicit suggestions, e.g.: Perhaps he’s passed his exams.
 Then ask learners if they know another way of saying the same and elicit: He
might/could have...
 Show learners other pictures and ask them to make deductions using could,
might and must.
 Ask concept-checking questions.

This activity provides a context in which speakers would naturally make

assumptions about the past. By using more or less open-ended situations, learners
are presented with contexts that call for the use of either could, might or must. It
offers some guidance by asking them to use could, might or must. In that sense this is
a somewhat controlled practice activity. The above-mentioned issue of French
learners erroneously switching must and should can be dealt with here as must is
presented as the appropriate modal for deduction. Teacher could correct by
recasting: L: He should be a doctor. T: So because he wears scrubs you think he must
be a doctor, do you?

An activity that might be preferred by the global learner who prefers experiential
learning through classroom communication which encourages guessing and
structuring, is an information gap activity that I have used at different levels (see
Appendix 3):

 Learners watch a short film featuring a woman with a peculiar daily routine.
 Something in her routine changes, which upsets her visibly. Pause at this
point.
 Tell learners to talk with their partner/group about her daily routine. What
do we know about this woman?
 During feedback, write comments on board relating to her routine, her
appearance: She goes to the same subway station every day, etc.
 Elicit questions based on these comments: Why does she never get on the
train, etc.
 Ask learners to make assumptions with their partner/group.
 Monitor, note examples of language. Feedback, write assumptions on board.
 Elicit, reformulate, correct and ask concept-checking questions.
 Learners predict the ending before rest of movie is played.

In this activity there is no initial presentation of target language. Students will likely
use modal auxiliaries, but other (acceptable) language will naturally come up as

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well. Students are allowed to experiment and make mistakes. At the end of the
activity, during the feedback phase where the teacher deals with learner errors,
there is opportunity for noticing the difference between learners’ output and the
target language.

3.2 Problems relating to form

I have found that my students (irrespective of their first language) often use the full
infinitive (with to) after modal auxiliaries: *You must to be hungry. This mistake may
be caused by over-generalisation from the many other instances in which the
infinitive needs to be accompanied by to. They might also over-generalise the rules
for forming questions and negative statements, which involve adding do or did: *She
doesn’t might be a doctor.
3.2.1 Teaching Solutions
To address issues with form, a dictogloss activity can be effective:

 After brief lead-in teacher reads a short text twice (see Appendix 4) at
normal pace. Text features grammatical elements learners need help with.
 Learners note down key words/phrases after second reading.
 In small groups learners pool their resources to reconstruct the text.
 When they finish learners analyse and compare their versions to those of
other groups.
 Learners come up with a consensus version, which they compare, to the
original text.
 Teacher provides feedback/correction

Through an activity like this one, learners are encouraged to reflect on their use of
language, to focus on form and negotiate meaning. They might discover features
they had not noticed before (consciousness-raising) and in the final stage of the
activity there is an opportunity for noticing the difference between their output and
the target language. The activity is suitable for different levels: length and
complexity of the text can be easily adapted.

3.3 Problems Relating to Pronunciation

French speakers often have great difficulty in perceiving shortened or weakened
syllables, which can cause problems with modal auxiliaries in natural speech. They
might not recognise could and must when they are reduced to /kəd/ and /məs/, or
fail to recognise could have, must have and might have when reduced to /kədəv/,
/mʌstəv/, /mʌstə/and /mʌɪtəv/. Learners sometimes over-emphasise modal verbs
in contexts where they would normally not be stressed. This may give the
impression that they are contradicting something that has already been said and can
lead to misinterpretation of their attitude (Parrott, 2010).

3.3.1 Teaching Solutions

To help intermediate learners with weak forms, I might use a ’dictation computer
puzzle’ (Hancock, 1995: 78):

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 Activity is preceded by presentation of weak forms (see Appendix 5). Write

phrases on board and draw learners’ attention to weak forms. Point out that
pronunciation of weak forms might lead to misunderstanding if context is not
clear.
 Explain that a dictation computer writes down everything the way it is heard.
Write Don’t lighter your mother! on the board and explain learners that this is
a sentence written by the dictation computer. Ask learners to identify the
error. As a clue, give reply: Why not? She always lies to me!
 Learners receive a puzzle and identify errors with help of a clue as in the
example (see Appendix 6).
 After feedback teacher can drill pronunciation of weak forms.

This activity focuses on the receptive understanding of weak forms as most

misunderstandings emanate from a breakdown in understanding. Learners are
encouraged to use context to figure out meaning. Mistakes are more easily identified
when the sentences are read aloud, thereby also helping learners with the
production of weak forms.

4. Conclusion

I believe language should be a means to an end and that focus should be on meaning
not on form. My research has confirmed that presenting language out of context in
isolated sentences will not help learners come to terms with the complexity of
modals and the subtle shades of meaning they may express. I will continue to focus
on communicative activities that make the use of certain modal auxiliaries natural
and useful. These activities are the core of my teaching practice, however my
research has shown me that paying attention to form is essential as well. Perhaps
not in the form of traditional presentation, but in consciousness-raising activities,
which in my opinion are compatible with a communicative, task-based approach to
teaching.

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5. Bibliography

Research:

 Bolinger, D. Meaning and Form. London: Longman, 1977.

 Close, R.A. A Teacher’s Grammar: The Central Problems of English. Hove:

Cengage Learning EMEA, 1992.

 Hedge, Tricia. Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 2000.

 Leech, Geoffrey & Svartvik, Jan. A Communicative Grammar of English. Essex:

Longman Group Ltd, 1975.

 Lewis, Michael. The English Verb: An Exploration of Structure and Meaning.

Hove: Language Teaching Publications, 1986.

 Parrott, Martin. Grammar for English Language Teachers. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 2010.

 Swan, Michael & Smith, Bernard. Learner English: A Teacher’s Guide to

Interference and Other Problems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2001.

 Thornbury, Scott. How to Teach Grammar. Essex: Pearson Education Limited,

1999.

 Wallwort, Adrien. English for Academic Research: Grammar, Usage and Style.
New York: Springer Science and Business Media, 2013.

 Willis, Dave. Rules, Patterns and Words. Grammar and Lexis in English
Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 2003.

Practical:

 Hancock, Mark. Pronunciation Games. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1995.

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Helping learners make assumptions
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Appendix 1

must
could
m
ig
ht
 Jane ……….. (must) have a well-paid job - she’s just bought another new
car. Am I talking about the past or present? (Present) Do I think Jane
is rich? (Yes) Do I know? (No) Am I sure about this? (No) Do I think it is very
likely? (Yes) Why do I think this? (Because she’s just bought another car)
 Robert ……….. (could) be in the library. He’s been there studying all
week for his exam. Am I talking about the past or present? (Present) Do I
have an idea of where Robert is? (Yes) Do I know for sure where he is? (No)
Do I think it is quite likely he’s in the library? (Yes) Why do I think this
(Because he’s been studying there all week)
 Alex……. (might) come to the party, although she’s been sick all day.
Am I talking about the past or present? (Present) Do I know for sure if Alex is
coming to the party? (No) Is it possible she’s coming? (Yes) How likely do I
think it is she’s coming? (Not very) Why do I think this? (Because she’s been
sick all day)

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Appendix 21

Appendix 3
1
From: Hedge, Tricia. Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Pages 32-33

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Helping learners make assumptions
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For this activity I use the short film Mind the Gap (https://vimeo.com/103459634). The
film is about an elderly lady who goes to the same subway station every day, sits on a
platform bench, waits for the train doors to open but never gets on. She just sits there and
listens to the recorded message ‘mind the gap’ and then goes back home. One day the
male voice has been replaced by a female computer-generated voice. This visibly upsets
her. She goes back home. At the end of the movie we find out the male voice belonged to
her late husband and the reason she went to the station was to listen to his voice. The
movie ends well in a way, as she appeals to London Underground after they remove her
husband’s voice. So touched by her story, they decide to reinstate the recording in his
honour at the one station she used to visit.

Appendix 4

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Helping learners make assumptions
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Below is an example of a short text for a dictogloss activity to address problems

relating to form. This text is suitable for pre-intermediate learners.

Laura, do you hear that noise? Listen to all those fire engines! Oooh there must be a
fire somewhere. Where do you think it could be? I don’t know, it sounds like they’re
going to the eastern part of town; it might be the new library. No, it can’t be! The
library is on the other side of town. What about the hospital, it could be the hospital.
Let’s give Mary a call, she might know as she lives close by.

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Appendix 52

Appendix 63

2
From: Hancock, Mark. Pronunciation Games. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1995. Page 78

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Helping learners make assumptions
using could, might and must

3
From: Hancock, Mark. Pronunciation Games. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1995. Page 80

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