Name: M Shahbaz

Roll No: BY624805

Course Code: 8610
Program: B.ed 1.5
Assignment No: 1

Question No: 1
Growth and developmentmay took like same but they have many
differences. Explain these differences.

Answer
OVERVIEW OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
This section provides an overview of two interrelated yet discrete concepts: growth and
development. Child's growth and development are complex processes which are
influenced by multiple factors and sources. This unit encompasses them in detail.

The terms growth and development are often used interchangeably or paired up in a rather
similar way, which causes ambiguity over their meaning. It is, therefore, important to
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understand the difference between these two terms right at the outset.

Growth
The term growth implies an addition or increase in the bodily aspects that can be
measured, for example, height, weight, size, muscles and length (Woolfolk, 2014). It is
based on biological processes that naturally occur over a period of time and are relatively
not or less influenced by context except for extreme illness or undernourishment. It
eventually stops when the body parts reach the peak of their growth.

Overall, growth refers to the natural, spontaneous, specific, genetically programmed and
measurable quantitative gains in a human body. Most of the child's physical gains fall
within this category. Some of the developmental psychologists also refer to these changes
as maturation.

Development
While growth refers to the physical changes that an individual undergoes, development
refers to certain changes that occur within the life-span of an individual, that is, from
conception till death (Keenan & Evans, 2009). It not only involves growth, but also
entails disintegration and eventually decay (death). However, not all changes are
considered as development. Rather, it applies to those changes that appear in orderly
ways and are considerably permanent. Most of these changes are qualitative in nature and
influenced by context, for example, changes in behavioral, social, moral and intellectual
aspects of an individual. Overall, these changes result in better, adaptive, organized and
complex human behaviors.
Development has been described in different ways to highlight different aspects. These
include: domains of development and stages of development. While the former
emphasizes the processes that characterize development, the later focuses certain age
periods to manage the flow of time across child development. The following sections
describe each of them in detail.

I. Domains of development
The pattern of child development is generally divided into three broad categories
including physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development (Berk, 2013). The
physical domain involves biological changes that occur over time. These include changes
in body size, proportions, appearance, motor skills, physical health etc. The cognitive
domain includes changes in intellectual abilities and skills such as thinking, intelligence,
creativity, attention, memory, language etc. Whereas, the socio-emotional domain
highlights the processes that relate to the changes in a child's relationships with others,
feelings, emotions, values, beliefs, personality etc.

The process of child development is quite complex and requires an interaction of several
processes including the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional domain. Overall, these
domains are interrelated and overlapping.

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It is important to note that the domains of child and human development have been
classified into a number of different aspects. For example, one classification of child
development includes different domains such as the physical, cognitive, language, social
and emotional domain (Child Health Explanation, n.d.). Yet, another way to classify
these domains involves physical, personal, social and cognitive (e.g., Woolfolk, 2014).
Nevertheless, these domains are not mutually exclusive. For example, social and
emotional development overlaps each other significantly and so, can be classified under
socio-emotional development.
II. Stages of development.
It is believed that an interplay of various domains of development (as discussed in the
above section) generate the different stages of child development. Some of the
psychologists have used age periods to account for the new capacities, transitions and
social expectations in children over the course of time (e.g., Berk, 2013). The most
common classification of child development includes the age periods highlighted in
Table 1.1.

Table 1.1
Stages of Child Development
Stage Age period Characteristics
Prenatal period Conception  Rapid changes
till birth  Transformation of a single cell into a human body
Infancy and  Extreme dependency
Birth up to 2
toddlerhood years  Beginning of intense physical, cognitive and
socio-emotional development (e.g., symbolic
thought, language development and social
learning)
Early childhood / 2 to 6 years  Self-sufficient
Preschool years  Psychological and moral development
 Considerable expansion in thought and
language
Middle childhood / 6 to 11 years  Increased responsibility
Elementary school  Improved thought processes and athletic
years abilities
 Mastery of reading, writing and mathematical
skills
 Increased self and social awareness
Adolescence 11 to 18  Transition to adulthood
years  Rapid physical changes
 Increased autonomy, abstract thinking and
reasoning
 Development of a strong belief system

Question NO:2
What do you think whether development of a child depends on
heredity or environment?
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 Answer
Physical Development
Physical development is one of the major topical areas in the study of child development.
It focuses on the ways in which the overall body's structure including the brain, nervous
system, muscles, organs, senses and the bodily needs (e.g., hunger, thirst) determine an
individual's behavior and development. For example, a developmental psychologist might
be interested to see how malnutrition affects the physical growth of a child.

However, physical development is not only specified to the biological and maturational
changes that occur over time with little or no influence from the context. Rather, it is
believed to occur within an environmental context, where factors such as nutrition,
opportunities for play, cultural practices etc play a significant role.

THE ABCS OF GENETICS

A human body is composed of trillions of micro units, called cells. Each cell has a core
control, named as the nucleus. The nucleus contains rod like structures which are known
as chromosomes. The chromosomes come in 23 pairs (one from the father and one from
the mother) and carry information about the size, shape and other genetic features
inherited from the parents. Overall, they are responsible for the storage and transmission
of genetic information from one generation to another.

Genetic inheritance
Chromosomes comprise of a series of proteins called deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA.
DNA has a tendency to duplicate itself through a process, called mitosis. This feature
enables chromosomes to copy themselves and produce new cells which have exactly the
same pattern of genetic information. Each DNA carries thousands of genes across the
length of the chromosomes (Berk, 2013). Genes are the basic units of hereditary
transmission. They trigger the production of proteins in response to environmental cues
or other genes. These proteins lay the biological foundation for our physical
characteristics.
Since chromosomes come in pairs (one from each parent), the gene on one chromosome
has an alternate or a partner on the corresponding chromosome. This alternate gene on
the corresponding chromosome is referred to as an allele. The relationship between these
alleles could be described as dominant or recessive depending on which of them is
powerful than the other. The alleles of genes from both the parents and their
interrelationship (i.e., when one allele gets dominant or recessive) determine the traits of
the child. For example, the genes which regulate the color of the eyes may have
dissimilar alleles specifying blue and brown eye color. However, if both the parents carry
the blue-eyed allele, the dominant gene will express itself, resulting in the blue eyes of
the child.

This implies that a combination of genes results in certain traits of the child. Luckily,
many harmful traits are coded as recessive by the genes, which reduce the possibility of
their genetic transmission (Berk, 2013). However, in cases, where both the parents carry
the recessive allele for a certain harmful trait, it is likely that the child will carry that
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disorder. Yet, inheriting certain disorders from parents does not always lead to
untreatable conditions. Rather, a supporting environment can play a significant role in
helping the child to live a normal life.

Genes and environments

Contemporary researchers believe that genes (nature) and environment (nurture) interact
to manipulate a child's development. This is because they often influence and get
influenced from each other to form patterns of development (Keenan & Evans, 2009).
For example, children's immediate environment is created by their parents. Since parents
and children share rather similar genetic structure, it is likely that the environments which
parents create for their children would support their genetic traits such as painting,
playing soccer etc. Similarly, genes may have an evocative relationship with the
environment which helps to reinforce certain inherited traits. For example, a socially
active baby would draw positive attention from other people. As a result of these social
exchanges, it is likely that the baby's genetic tendency is strengthened. Moreover, a
child's genetic disposition urges him/her to find a compatible environment for
himself/herself. For example, a child with a musical talent would be inclined to join the
music/singing club at school etc. This tendency gets stronger as the child moves into
adulthood and takes the charge of his/her own environment.

On the other hand, environment may also have a critical impact on genetic factors. For
example, certain behavioral traits such as cognitive abilities etc change dramatically
under supportive/unsupportive conditions. Similarly, different children react differently
to their environmental circumstances (e.g., out of the two children coming from the same
deprived context, one child performs slightly better under supportive conditions, whereas
the other one performs way better).

Overall, genes and environment continue to act upon each other to form behaviors and
patterns of development. These influences are unique to each individual, caused by
multiple factors and lead to multiple directions. This is why; even the identical twins
living in the same context may develop some dissimilar traits.

FACTORS INFLUENCING CHILD DEVELOPMENT

A number of factors affect child development at different levels. They range from
personal and biological factors to wider influences such as economic and environmental
features; social norms, culture etc (e.g., see Best Start, n.d.). Each factor may support or
inhibit a child's development. They can be generally grouped into four categories. These
are discussed in the following sections.

Environmental factors
Environmental influences including parenting, nutrition, housing, education, culture,
income, employment, health services, safety etc affect a child's development. It is
important that children are brought up in a safe, healthy and nurturing environment to
positively influence their development.
Interpersonal relationships
Interpersonal relationships are critical for a child' learning and well-being. Healthy
interpersonal relationships are characterized by attachment, positive parenting style and
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parental interactions with children, and supportive social networks.

Biological factors
As discussed earlier, biological factors refer to the genetic features that individuals
receive from their parents. These include gender, as well as general, physical and mental
health, inherited traits etc. Boys and girls tend to develop differently. Similarly, general
health of the child, for example, birth weight, and medical condition influence his/her
development over time. Besides, maternal age, health, stress, and nutrition are likely to
influence a child's development.

Question No:3
Suggest some activities for pre school children which may
enhance children’s physical growt.
Answer
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD
Physical development in children is crucial since it provides them with the needed skills
to explore and interact with the world around them. This section presents the course of
physical growth and development in childhood. It also discusses the environmental
factors which influence the physical development of children.

The course of physical growth

The course of physical growth includes changes in body size, proportions, muscle-fat
makeup, and skeleton. It also includes gains in gross- and fine-motor skills (Berk, 2013).

i Changes in body size.

The most rapid changes in body size are observed during infancy. These changes are
marked by an immense increase in the height and weight of the child. However, the
growth rate slows down in early and middle childhood. While the first two years of life
characterize rapid but decelerating annual growth trends, early and middle childhood
follow slow but steady growth. A sharp increase in growth is again observed in early
adolescence followed by a sudden decline when the adult growth is achieved.

ii Changes in body proportions.

As the body increases in size, different parts of the body grow at different rates and
follow different patterns. Understanding these trends would help us to develop
appropriate expectations of a child's physical abilities at different age levels.

The first trend in the growth of the child highlights the 'head to toe' pattern. For example,
a baby would learn to hold up his head way before he could walk. The next pattern
follows the 'inside to outside' or 'centre to outside' path. For example, the muscles around
the trunk of the body grow stronger before the muscles in the hands, feet etc. Besides,
growth also follows 'general to specific' and 'large to small' patterns of development
during childhood.

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iii Changes in muscle-fat makeup.
Muscle to fat ratio also changes during the course of physical development. While the
body fat increases at a faster rate in infancy to help the baby keep a consistent body
temperature, it is considerably reduced during early and middle childhood. Whereas,
muscles build up at a much slower rate during infancy and childhood, when compared to
the adolescence period, as they start to develop rapidly.

iv Skeletal growth.
Since children of the same age may grow and mature differently at different speeds, it
becomes difficult to account for the causes and consequences of individual differences in
physical development. Physical maturity is estimated by skeletal growth or age which
specifies a measure of the development of body bones. It is based on the number of
epiphyses (special growth centers which are present at each end of all long bones in the
body) and the extent to which they are merged. This measure of an individual's physical
development helps to understand the causes and consequences of individual differences
in physical development of children.

v Changes in gross and fine motor skills.

Gross motor involves all the big muscles in a human body. Gross-motor activities involve
activities which require the use of big muscles and include crawling, walking, running,
skipping and jumping. Children's gross motor skills experience considerable gains with
the increase in body size, proportion, and muscle strength. The acquisition of motor skills
is guided by the patterns similar to growth as described in section ii. For example,
children will learn to move in a random fashion before they can make precise movements
to achieve desired results (i.e., general to specific movement).

ACTIVITIES FOR PRESCHOOL CHILDREN

Physical activities play a critical role in developing the basic movement skills of children.
Since it is difficult for children to work on sedentary activities for longer duration of
time, this section presents some ideas about developing physical activities for children in
the pre and elementary school years. These ideas can be modified and expanded in
certain other ways to support the physical development of children.

Preschool and Kindergarten

Preschool children are generally aged between three to five years. At this age, children
tend to develop sufficient control over their fine motor skills which help them to draw,
write, copy shapes and engage in activities that require precise control of hand and body
movement. Children at this age learn best through intrinsic interests and physical
involvement.

Some traditional physical activities for this age level involve running, jumping, hopping,
skipping, drawing, coloring, painting, cutting, pasting, gluing, using play dough, rollers,
and shape cutters etc. However, teachers, caregivers or parents can certainly extend this
network in some non-traditional ways. This may involve using outside play as a reward
for children, free play days, dramatic play, role play, sand, wet mud or clay play, collage,
cooking, building and relaxation (e.g., stretching, breathing in and breathing out, closing
eyes) activities etc. Besides, manipulative activities (e.g., lego, science experiment with

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magnets) and musical, group and movement activities (e.g., locomotors movements
which involve children rapidly moving from place to place, non-locomotors movements
which involve children performing while keeping stationary, and manipulative
movements which involve children using their body parts to manipulate an object) may
provide excellent opportunities for a healthy physical development.

Elementary Level
The school age children continue to develop their gross and fine motor skills. With this
refinement, they become adept at activities which require precise hand and body control,
for example, writing. Daily physical activities should be incorporated into the school
routine of elementary school children to maintain active physical development. This can
be done in different ways, for example, introducing health and physical education classes
and integrating physical activities into other areas of curriculum.

Besides physical education classes, there are many other ways in which teachers can
engage students in physical activities. These include, for example, allocating some time
for physical activity on daily basis, incorporating concepts from other areas of curriculum
into physical activity time and vice versa, and providing children with hands-on
experiences as much as possible (e.g., rather than teaching them the concepts of living
and non-living things within the four walls of classroom, taking them out on a school
round and helping them understand the concept from their surroundings). Moreover,
physical activities described in section 2.5.1 can also be effectively used for elementary
school children by adding consistent yet realistic challenges. For example, the sequential
patterns for locomotor movements can be made more complex as the child learns to
coordinate and control his body movements.

Question No:4
How Vygotsky’s theory is different from Piaget’s teory?
Answer
INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT FROM INFANCY TO CHILDHOOD
Children gain cognitive maturity as they age. With time and experience, they advance
their thinking skills and make transitions from simple to complex cognitive processes
which add to their intelligence as well. This section emphasizes the processes
(cognition) rather than the products of mental activities (intelligence). It examines how
do children make cognitive and intellectual advancements from infancy to childhood. In
doing so, it also highlights the cognitive characteristics of learners at different periods of
time.

Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory

Lev Vygotsky's socio-cultural approach builds upon the role of language and cultural
tools in shaping up human cognition and development. He believed that the cultural
influences, such as, language, instruction, and social interactions etc have a profound
influence on children's cognitive advancements. He introduced the concepts of the zone

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of proximal development (ZPD) and scaffolding to demonstrate how do children move
from one to another level of cognitive progress. ZPD refers to certain cognitive abilities
that are in the process of developing, and that can be achieved with support from an adult
or a capable peer. Whereas, scaffolding allows to adjust level of support according to the
learner's needs and performances. While Piaget focused on the individual learners with a
strong emphasis on the stages through which they pass during cognitive development,
Vygotsky argued that social interactions, cultural tools and collaborative processes set the
stage for higher level cognitive processes.
Information processing approach presents another major perspective which helps us to
understand cognitive development. This approach views human brain as an active
information processing system, like a computer machine. It examines how does
information enter a human mind, and how is it stored, processed and retrieved when
needed. It emphasizes two major cognitive processes including memory and thinking.
Overall, it is argued that children develop and refine their mechanisms to acquire,
process, store and work with increasingly complex information and skills over time. In
doing so, they develop improved cognitive resources, that is, the capacity and speed of
processing information. This improved ability is further linked to better memory and
problem solving skills.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development
Piaget believed those children’s cognitive development progresses through four stages
which involve sensori-motor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal
operational periods. These stages are treated as fixed and universal and represent a
general sequence which is observable in all types of cognitive change.

Piaget argued that children's thinking and the ways through which they make sense of their
experiences (schemes) change with age. The infancy period is marked by sensori-motor
action patterns during which a child acts on the objects around him/her to form schemes.
Soon, he/she begins to form mental images which help to transform thinking and
experiences into meaningful, manageable and memorable patterns. This transformation in
thinking is supported by two critical processes including adaptation and organization.
Adaptation involves the process of developing schemes by directly working upon the
environment through assimilation or accommodation. However, if the balance between
these two is disturbed, it causes a cognitive conflict or disequilibrium within the minds of
children. It is important to resolve the conflict through either assimilation or
accommodation to bring the mind back to the equilibrium state. These resulted in
developing more effective schemes that help the child to advance his/her thinking.

i. The Sensori-motor Stage.

The sensorimotor stage is characterized by the first two years of life during which infants
think through their five senses. At the beginning of this stage, the sensory reflexes of the child
serve to make up for his/her intelligence. The child engages in circular reactions (repeating
chance behaviors) which help him/her to adapt to his/her surroundings. Later, the child
deliberately employs intentional or goal directed behaviors by coordinating different schemes
to solve simple problems. Object permanence (the ability to understand that objects exist even
when they are not seen) emerges towards the end of this period which helps to set the stage
for mental representations and engage s the child in make-believe play.

ii. The Preoperational Stage.

As children grow, they enter in the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years) which characterizes
their immense representational or symbolic capacities. Children make advancements in
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their mental representations as they develop more effective schemes. For example, as they
get past the first two years of their life, their make-believe play gets more sophisticated.
This cognitive change is seen when a child older than 2 years of age pretends to use an
object (cup) in different ways, for example, using it to drink water as well as using it as a
hat.
iii. The Concrete Operational Stage.
The concrete operational stage extends from 7 to 11 years. As the children enter the
middle childhood, they accomplish a number of cognitive advancements. For example,
children at this stage perform mental operations that follow logical rules. They are
capable of thinking in more than one direction and are capable to see a problem from
different angles (decentration). Consequently, they understand that certain characteristics
remain the same even if they change the outward appearance (conservation).

iv. The Formal Operational Stage.

Children develop the capacity for an abstract and systematic thinking around 11 years of
age. Piaget referred to this stage as formal operational stage. While the children can
perform operations with the real objects at the concrete operational stage, they are now
ready to perform mental, abstract operations without any concrete things or events. The
main features of this stage include hypothetical -deductive reasoning and propositional
thought. These abilities refer to the children's capacity to form and evaluate logical
propositions without referring to the real world circumstances and systematically reaching a
conclusion. Accompanying this stage, comes the individual's desire to get noticed, often
referred to as adolescent egocentrism.

Question No:5
What are social skills? Also discuss social characteristics and
the factors affecting social development at preschool level.
Answer
What Are Social Skills?
Social skills are ways of dealing with others that create healthy and positive interactions.
Children who have social skills can communicate clearly, calmly, and respectfully. They
show consideration for the feelings and interests of their peers. They take responsibility
for their actions, are able to control themselves, and are able to assert themselves when
needed. Children learn social skills through experiences with peers, examples and
instructions from their parents, and time with adults.

It is important for children to use social skills because they are the route to creating and
developing relationships. They are needed for enriching social experiences, and they lessen
the chance for negative interactions. Being the building blocks for friendships, social skills
give children the chance to learn from their peers and learn how to be considerate with
those they meet in the future. By having a positive impact on life experiences, social skills
also give children a sense of confidence and mastery over their environment.

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 Social Characteristics of children at various stages of development
A young child’s social life evolves in relatively predictable ways. The social network grows
from an intimate relationship with parents or other guardians to include other family members,
nonrelated adults and peers, social interaction extends from home to neighborhood and from
nursery school to formal school.

Becoming familiar with the way children grow and develop and the basic characteristics of
children of different ages permit a teacher to better understand and plan for their growth. In the
following section social characteristics and hallmarks of children from preschool to elementary
are summarized.

Social characteristics of Preschool children

At this age, kids do not have the ability to understand other people’s emotions or perceptions.
They are in their own world and the world is seen only through their eyes alone. They are
egocentric; however, the adults in their lives still have a major influence on them. They are
beginning to show their independence and capabilities. At this age, they are also eager to meet
and play with new kids but may not know how to approach them due to shyness or fear of
rejection. There are preschoolers who prefer to play on their own, which is why parents and
teachers need to encourage them to make an effort to play in a group with other kids of their
age.

Social characteristics of preschoolers can be summarized as:

 Becoming more social
 Moving from parallel play to associative play. Does joint activities
 Helpful mainly because of interest in matching words to actions
 Beginning of independence
 By four growing sense of initiative and self-reliance
 Becoming aware of basic gender identity
 Imaginary play mates not uncommon

Factors effecting social development at preschool level

Research findings indicate that there are various factors, which contribute towards socio-
emotional development during the preschool years. These factors are discussed in the following
section:

i. Peer relationships
During the preschool years, peers (other children who are a child’s equal) begin to play an
important role in children’s social and cognitive development. Children’s relationship with
other peers differs in several ways from their interactions with adults. Peer play
allows children to interact with other individuals whose level of development is similar to their
own. When peers have dispute among themselves, they must make a concessions and must
cooperate in resolving them if the play is to continue; in a peer dispute no one can claim to have
ultimate authority. Peer conflicts also let children see that others have thoughts, feelings and
viewpoints that are different from their own. Conflicts also heighten children’s sensitivity to the
effects of their behavior on others. In this way peer relationships help young children to
overcome the geocentricism that Piaget described as being characteristic of preoperational
thinking.

ii. Pro-social behavior

Pro-social behaviors are voluntary actions towards others such as caring, sharing, comforting

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and cooperation. Research on the roots of pro-social behavior has contributed to our knowledge
of children’s moral as well as social development. Several factors seem to be associated with
the development of pro-social behaviors (Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989). These include the
following:
 Parental disciplinary techniques that stress the consequences of the child’s behavior for
others and that are applied within a warm, responsive parent-child relationship. (Hoffman,
1993)
 Contact with adults who indicate they expect concern for others, who let children know
that aggressive solutions to problems are unacceptable, and who provide acceptable
alternatives. (Konig, 1995)

iii. Play
Most of a preschooler’s interaction with peers occurs during play. However, the degree to which
play involves other children increases over the preschool years. In a classic study of preschoolers,
Mildred Parten (1932) identified four categories of play that reflect increasing levels of social
interaction and sophistication. Solitary play is play that occurs alone, often with toys, and is
independent of what other children are doing. Parallel Play involves children engaged in the
same activity side by side but with very little interaction or mutual influence. Associative Play is
much like parallel play but with increased levels of interaction in than form of sharing, turn taking,
and general interest in what others are doing. Cooperative play occurs when children join
together to achieve a common goal, such as building a large castle with each child building a part
of the structure. Children engage in more complex form of plays as they grow older, advancing
from simple forms of play to complex pretend play in which children cooperate in planning and
carrying out activities.

Play is most important for children because it exercises their linguistic, cognitive, and social
skills and contributes to their general personality development .Children use their minds when
playing, because they are thinking and acting as if they were another person. When they make
such a transformation they are taking a step toward abstract thinking in that they are freeing
their thoughts from a focus on concrete objects. Play is also associated with creativity;
especially the ability to be less literal and more flexible .

THE END

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