Deposits, Minerals and Plants: Non Ferrous Metal Ores
Deposits, Minerals and Plants: Non Ferrous Metal Ores
Metal Ores
Deposits, Minerals and Plants
( On the example of Former USSR)
Julius Rubinstein, Russian Academy of Mining Sciences; Process Engineering
Department of the Institute of Solid Fuels Preparation, Moscow, Russia
Lev A. Barsky, Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum
Abstract
For the first time, the comprehensive information about nonferrous metals: mineral
resources, geographical distribution, geology, mining and ore processing plants in the territory of
the former USSR are review.
There is an approach to the evaluation of mineralresources base, forecast of ore
concentration and development of technologies. That consists of the combined consideration of
the genetic of valuable deposits and the forms of ore bodies – in conjunction with mining, ore
treatment technology and complex utilization of raw materials. In examples of complex ores
technology of minerals selection is design by superposition of mineral properties and forces in
gravitational, magnetic and adsorptionchemical fields. There is a classification of genetic types
of nonferrous ores and use of gravitation, flotation, magnetic separation, leaching and other
mineral processing.
This book is intended for geologists, mineralogists, mining engineers, technologists of mineral
processing and ore treatment, and businessmen in the field of minerals and CIS investments.
Contents
1. – Fundamental Concepts and 2.11 Mineral Resources of Turkmenistan
Definitions
1.1 NonFerrous Metals 3 – Ores, Ore Complexes, Orebodies
1.2 Deposits and Ores of NonFerrous 3.1 Geochemical Description of Deposits
Metals 3.2 Geochemistry of ores and Minerals
1.3 Technogenic Deposits 3.3 Genesis of Ores and Minerals
1.4. Ways of Valuable Component Ex traction 3.4 Paragenesis of Minerals
1.5 Evaluation of Deposits and Mineral 3.5 Ore Complexes
Resources 3.6 Technogenic ores of Nonferrous Metals
1.6 Definition of Minerals by Processing 3.7 Orebodies
1.7 Mineral Looses, Waste and Secondary 3.8 Mining of Ore Deposits
Resources
2 – Geology and Geography of Non 4. – Mineralurgy, Ore Dressing
ferrous Metal Ore Distribution in the 4.1Technological Systemization of Minerals
Former USSA 4.2 Mineralogy of Nonferrous Metals
2.1 General Information 4.3 Mechanical Properties of Minerals,
2.2 Regional Geology and Deposits of 4.4 Physical properties of Minerals, Primary
Russia Concentration
2.3 Mineral Resources of Ukraine 4.5 Physicochemical properties of and
2.4 Mineral Resources of Georgia Floatability of Minerals, Flotation
2.5 Mineral Resources of Armenia 4.6 Chemical and Thermal properties of
2.6 Mineral Resources of Aserbaijan Minerals, Hydrometallurgy
2.7 Mineral Resources of Kazakhstan 4.7 Concentrating and Selection of Minerals
2.8 Mineral Resources of Uzbekistan 4.8 Prediction of Ore Dressability
2.9 Mineral Resources of Kyrgyzstan 4.9 Interaction of Conversion Stages,
2.10 Mineral Resources of Tadjikistan Production, Combination
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Early 2002 Hardback *ISBN: 0415 269 644 *£80 tentative
TAYLOR AND FRANCIS
INTRODUCTION
1. Presentation Structure
The problem of mineral resources has multiple aspects and calls for versatile
examination. The production cycle encompasses geology, mining, mineral dressing, metallurgy,
ecology, etc. Besides, nonferrous metal ores are always complex not only in availability of
different metals but also in components which can be utilized as building materials, fertilizers,
chemical products and so on.
The ores can be classified variously:
by genetic type deposit geology,
from the viewpoint of deposit mining, i.e., by dressing conditions,
by base metals in the final products, and
by socioeconomic indicators: regional and geographic location, scale,
reserves, valuable component content and so on.
Uptodate examination of the problem also requires essential extention of the
conventional description of mineral reserves in the purely geological & mineralogical and
process aspects.
First of all, there is no leaving aside of secondary mineral resources and technogenic raw
materials whose value in industrial production grows all the time. There have already appeared
nonferrous metals which output from secondary resources in some countries accounts for 50 per
cent and more. The cases in point are first and foremost mercury, tin, lead, tungsten, etc. Besides
being a potential resource, technogenic materials solve ecologic problems while having a great
economic value. It is natural that conventional technologies of mining, disintegration, dressing
and metallurgy are not always applicable to these raw materials. [2].
The very notions of deposit, ore and ore preparation, etc. very although in
processing of technogenic raw materials the metal quality is in the final analyses the same as in
processing of conventional ores (except aluminum). This is all the more true for raw materials
like oceanic concretions, sea and thermal water. New notions, like nonwaste technology,
complex deposit development, etc., have emerged. In this connection it is necessary first of all to
agree upon definitions of
terms and basic notions.
Much attention will be paid in the 1st chapter to the basic notions and definitions
established in the mining & metallurgical industry of the former Sjviet Union (FSU). The
majority of these notions coincides with the generallyaccepted ones, but there is some
peculiarity owing to the prolonged isolation of the state and of its scientific and professional
manpower. Admittedly, a detailed interpretation of terms, classifications and notions, especially
in the new and latest trends of development of these industrial sectors, has bound to be useful for
the Western reader.
The history of nonferrous metallurgy in the FSU is also of certain interest. The
evolution of modern industrial production can be often traced to the depths of the ages. Today it
is of concern as the old fields have not been depleted and can be remined on an innovative
process basis even at a substantial decrease in ore quality. For example, several Far East gold
placers are already being worked for the third time in the 20th century alone.
After the first, (mostly Chinese) free miners and Siberian merchants, GULAG operated
there in the Stalin's times. In the 80s free miner "artel’s" (cooperatives) emerged here aggan.
They use wornout writtenoff quipment with primitive dressing plants. In so doing, a fourth
revival of these placer mines is possible, despite the fact that, for example, in the Ussuri taiga the
openings are healed within three or five years.
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We shall present the geological description of the USSR territory in its general outline,
bearing in mind geological regions which intersect the borders of the existing CIS states.
Geology and mineral resources are discussed in more detail within the framework of the newly
formed republics and regions of Russia.
Furthermore we have found it possible and convenient to unite discussion of certain
aspects and characteristics of mineral products with some operations of the process flowsheet. In
so doing, the classification of ore complexes is given in combination with geochemistry and
paragenesis of minerals. At the same time regional geology affords information on availability of
certain deposits. It is natural that the description of deposited orebodies is given together with
mining systems.
We are of the opinion that mineralogy combined with genetic ore types and dressing
processes is the most important part which dictates the characteristics of the raw material base.
Here our developments in the field of classification of ores, fields and other information which
were previously published in Russian and verified by time have been made use of. [2,3].
It stands to reason that any classification, including that of fields, ores, processes as well
as regional borders, etc., is a matter of convention. We do not lay claim to absolute accuracy and
scientific substantiation. We are aware that any selfrespecting geologist is certain to give his
own scientificallysubstantiated
classification of fields. The same is true of all other specialists. Our classifications set up a claim
principally to convenience of data presentation.
Chapter 1. Fundamental Concepts & Definitions
We think it expedient to discuss notions which sense and meaning are ambiguous in up
todate conditions. The matter is not only in that science and technology in the USSR have been
developing in some isolation but also in that Russian publications reached the English reader in a
rather curtailed way. The raw material base of the CIS countries has been formed under
somewhat peculiar conditions, and in order to describe the base it is necessary to overcome
certain terminological difficulties particularly important to the Western reader.
As has already been indicated, secondary resources, waste and remining of fields gain
greater and greater importance in industrial production at the end of this century and, especially,
at the beginning of the next century. In the FSU the distorted planned economy brought about an
enormous reserve of secondary resources owing to a number of reasons: noncomplex use of raw
materials, lack of investment, neglect of ecology, low quality and short life of equipment and so
on. We must introduce a notion of technogenic raw materials, alongside geogenic deposits and
ores which are a complex of natural minerals. Besides, this notion becomes more and more
actual for the industry of the developed countries.
Along with this we do not consider this book a mere reference guide to presentday
businessmen. It is also designed for process specialists, geologists, metallurgical engineers and
everyone who is interested in the problems of mineral products and the other raw materials
associated with them. We are resolved to maintain the highest scientific level of material
presentation in describing of fields, ores and processing technologies.
From our viewpoint, of the greatest interest is an attempt to establish a general
classification of ore complexes of geogenic and technogenic nature which combines genesis,
technology, ecology and economy. Accordingly, there appears a necessity to link geological,
mining, dressing and metallurgical notions
from a terminological viewpoint.
1.1. Nonferrous metals
There exist several classifications of chemical elements which differ in defining the group of
metals assigned to the nonferrous category. In any case manganese and chromium, besides iron,
are usually assigned to the ferrous metals group. Sodium and potassium, which are encountered
in nature as chloride salts, as well as calcium, strontium and barium tending to nonmetals are
4
commonly excluded from the consideration. We will adhere to the classifications which take
into account the geological & mineralogical and processing properties of metals (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1. Geological & mineralhogical and technological classification of non
ferrous metals
Periodic table group
Class I II III IV V V VII VIII
Heavy Cu Zn,Cd Pb Ni,Co
Minor Hg Sn,Ti,Zr As,Sb,Bi
Light Li Mg,B Al
e
Refractory Nb,Ta,V Mo,W
Noble Ag, Pt,Os,Ir,
Au Ru,Rh,Pd
Rare earth TR,Sc,Y
Dispersed Rb, Ga,In,Tl Ge,Hf
Cs
Radioactive Ra U,Th,Pu
The nonferrous metals industry was among the most highlevel sectors of the USSR
heavy industry engaged in the mining of ore deposits, including ore mining & concentration and
metallurgy with production of nonferrous metals for further processing. After World War II a
sector whose challenge included mining and processing of ores of uranium and other radioactive
elements, and later on beryllium and lithium, was separated with a view to creating an atomic
bomb.
More than three hundred mines & concentrators, mining & metallurgical complexes and
metallurgical works of various capacity have been in operation in the above sectors; each of
them employed from several hundreds to tens of thousands of workers and specialists. The
gigantic industrial complexes like Norilsk, UstKamenogorsk, Balkhash, Almalyk, Dzhezkazgan,
Central Ural and other works were of vital importance.
The main products were concentrates, cast metals & alloys, chemical compounds and
nonferrous metals & alloys products. Byproducts (sulfuric acid, building materials, some
fertilizers and microfertilizers) used to be made from the waste in many cases. The entry raw
materials were for the most part comprehensive, and associated components were extracted from
ore on numerous occasions. For example, in the lead and zinc sector additional 18 components
alongside lead and zinc used to be extracted, with more than 40 saleable product types made on
their base. Fifteen components were recovered from copper ore with 40 product types made.
About 30 per cent of sulfuric acid in the country were produced in the nonferrous metals
industry.
By the end of the 80s the runofmine material amounted to 2.5 bln tonnes, with virtually
the same waste tonnage. The basic ore dressing process (about 90 %) was flotation.
Metallurgical operations were at a fairly uptodate level. By contrast, environment control at the
plants and works of the sector has led to an ecological catastrophe.
In order to meet the requirements of the national economy and the military industry, the
USSR Ministry of NonFerrous Metals Industry used to carry out measures on the development
of the nonferrous metals industry and the production buildup.
The Ministry’s terms of reference were:
startup and commissioning of operations and facilities;
renovation and modernization of plants and works;
final exploration of deposits, mining operations in open pits and mines,
among them shaft sinking;
preporation of standards on estimating explored mineral product reserves, registering
state and movement of reserves and depletion of mineral resources in the Earth’s interior;
comprehensive ore processing with output of nonferrous, rare and precious metals as
well as diamonds;
5
general contractor’s functions with respect to nonferrous metals plants
under construction abroad with USSR technical assistance.
1.2. Deposits & ores of nonferrous metals
The virtually unlimited reserves of mineral resources in the territory which occupied one
sixth of the Earth’s land were the raw materials base of the USSR nonferrous metals industry.
Essentially any genetic deposit type is encountered here. We shall discuss two radically different
deposit types: geogenic and technogenic.
A mineral resource deposit on the Earth’s surface or in the interior which can be used in
industry in quantity, quality, occurrence conditions and processability is called a geogenic
deposit. Deposits whose usage is economically feasible at the existing technology and
engineering progress level are assigned to the workable category.
Geogenic deposits are composed of one or several orebodies whose generation takes
place throughout the whole process of geological evolution and
alteration of the Earth’s crust in several stages. The concentration of oreforming minerals of a
certain composition under certain geological and physicochemical conditions prevailing at some
time period, is an oreforming stage. The number of these stages usually amounts to four or six,
sometimes ten during the orebody generation process.
The oreforming stage accounts for the whole mineral accumulation period which
combines a number of successive phases belonging to one and the same genetic process. The ore
deposit is usually composed within one mineral accumulation stage, more seldom two or more.
For example, the upper parts of the ore bed may contain the mineral mass of the primary
hydrothermal stage and of the stage predetermined by the secondary oxidation of the ore near the
Earth’s surface. The ore bed may be also formed in several stages of a monotype process
common to different geological epochs.
Regional regularities and geological factors of mineral resource deposit formation were
the result of endogenic and exogenic processes during the evolution of the Earth’s crust.
Substances required for mineral resources to be formed enter from the upper mantle of
the crust and from the surface in magmatic melts, liquid and gaseous solutions. Magmatogenic
(endogenic) deposits are subdivided into several groups.[4].
Magmatic deposits are formed during impregnation of magmatic melts into the crust and
coolingdown of them. The ores of Cr, Fe, Ti, Ni, Cu, Co, the platinum metals group, etc. are
associated with the intrusions of the basic composition; the ores of Pd, Ta, Nb, Zr and rare earths
(TR) are confined to alkaline massifs of magmatic rocks. The deposits of mica, feldspar,
precious stones, Be, Li, Cs, Nb, Ta, partly Sn, U and TR are connected with granite pegmatites
by genesis. Carbonatites associated with ultrabasicalkaline rocks form Fe, Cu, TR, apatite and
mica deposits. There are ores of Fe, Cu, Co, Pb, Zn, W, Mo, Sn, Be, U, Au, Bi, rock crystal,
graphite and other mineral resources in contactmetasomatic deposits, especially, in scarns. Cu,
Ni, Co, Zn,
Pb, Bi, Mo, W, Sn, Li, Be, Ta, Nb, As, Sb, Hg, Cd, Ln, S, Se, Au, U, Ra, as well
as quartz, barite, fluorite, asbestos, etc. are contained in pneumatolytic and hydrothermal
deposits.[5].
Sedimentogene deposits which are formed in exogenic processes are subdivided into
sedimentary, placer and weathering. Sedimentary deposits are enerated on sea, lake, river and
marsh bottoms with formation of stratified beds in enclosing sedimentary rocks. Placers
containing Au, Pt, diamonds, etc. are accumulated in coastal sediments of seas and oceans as
well as in river or lake sediments and on valley slopes. U, Cu, native sulfur ores and sedimentary
deposits of Ni, Fe, Mn, bauxite, magnesite, kaoline are connected with the ancient and modern
weathering crust of which infiltration deposits are typical. Previously available deposits
undergo transformation deep in the interior
under the conditions of high pressure and temperature, with the appearance of metamorphogenic
beds (for example, the iron ores of the Krivoi Rog basin and the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly, the
6
gold and uranium ores of South Africa) and marble, andalusite, cyanite, graphite and other
deposits newly formed during the rock metamorphism process.[5].
The industrial application field is used to distribute mineral resources into:
a) fuel and energy resources (oil, natural gas, fossil coal, combustible shale, peat, uranium
ore);
b) ore resources which are the raw materials base of iron & steel and nonferrous metals
industry (iron and manganese ore, chromite, bauxite, polymetallic ore, coppernickel, tungsten,
molybdenum, tin, precious metals ores, etc.);
c) mining & chemical raw materials (phosphorite, apatite, table, potassium and magnesia
salts, sulfur and compounds, barite, boron ore, bromium and iodinecontaining solutions);
d) natural building materials and nonmetallic stones (marble, granite, jasper, agate, rock
crystal, garnet, corundum, diamond, etc.);
e) hydromineral resources (underground sweet and mineralized water). The grouping
of mineral resources is a matter of convention, since the industrial application fields for one and
the same mineral resource may differ, arying depending on technological advance.[4].
We shall give a brief discussion of the regularities of formation and arrangement of
mineral resources in time and space.[46].
Certain formations of rocks and mineral resources associated with them occurred at
successive stages of the Earth’s crust evolution. Their repeatability in
the crust evolution history brought about repeatability in formation of imilar groups of mineral
resources from the most ancient to the junigest stages of geological history marked by
metallogenic (or mineragenic) epochs.
The successive natural arrangement of formations of rocks and mineral resource complexes
associated with them governed their regular distribution in the Earth’s crust composition, which
implied metallogenic (or mineragenic) rovinces. Ore regions subdivided into ore districts stand
out within ore provinces. Ore fields or ore plexuses with a totality of deposits united by common
genesis and geological structure are isolated in the ore region territory. Ore fields consist of ore
deposits enclosing one or several orebodies.
Eight basic oreforming epochs are distinguished throughout the geological crust
evolution history the Archean, Early Proterozoic, Late Riphean, Caledonian, Hercynian and
Alpine.
The metallogenic epochs are the main periods of ore deposit formation which correspond
to the major stages of the geological Earth’s crust evolution. Eleven stages, establishing the
regular sequence of generation of genetic groups of ore deposits, are counted in the history of the
geological crust evolution.
The Greenlandic stage (5,0003,800 mln years ago) coincides with the most ancient
moon period of geological history without ore formation symptoms.
The Kola stage (3,8002,800 mln years ago) coincides with the nuclear period and
manifests the start of the formation of the most ancient endogenic ore deposits, usually deeply
metamorphized. These deposits are clearly divided into two groups. One group comprises
basaltoid greenstone belts to which the most ancient hydrothermal pyrite and goldbearing
deposits of North Africa and India are assigned. The other group belongs to granitoid nuclei with
mica and rare metal metamorphogenic pegmatites known in Siberia, Africa, Australia and Brazil.
The Belomorian stage (2,8002,300 mln years ago) covers the first half of he
protogeosynclinal period and corresponds to the initiation of ancient geosynclines which break
up protoplatforms. Protogeosynclinal magmatic deposits of chrome ores and basaltoid
titanomagnetites along with metamorphogenic ceramic and rare metal pegmatites of granitoids
stand out. Attention is drawn among platform deposits to large dike deposits of chrome ores in
Zimbabwe and unique golduranium conglomerates of vitwaterstrad in South Africa.
The Karelian stage (2,3001,000 mln years ago) is associated with the flourish and the
necrosis of protogeosynclines. The formation of all the world largest basins of iron quartzite
fields (Krivoi Rog, Kursk Magnetic Anomaly, the iron ore basin of North American Great
Lakes) is assigned to the geosynclinal basaltoid volcanicity of this stage. Mica and micarare
7
metal pegmatites of Belomorye, Siberia and other USSR regions together with gold in
metamorphic black slates (the USA, Canada, the USSR) are associated with Karelian granitoids.
The largest magmatic deposits of chrome and platinum ores
of the Bushveld complex (South Africa), the magmatic sulfide coppernickel ores of Sudbury
(Canada) were formed under the protoplatform conditions of the Karelian period.
The Gothic stage (1,8001,500 mln years ago) corresponds to the intergeosynclinal period
of the geological history which marks a noticeable interruption in the endogenic ore formation.
The Grenville stage (1,5001,000 mln years ago) is related to the start of a
new geosynclinal period with the domination of basaltoid volcanicity from which the pyrite
polymetallic deposits of Sullivan type in Canada originate.
The Baikal stage (1,000600 mln years ago) shows endogenic deposits of basaltoid and
next granitoid series. Magmatic titanomagnetites of Canada, Norway and Ural as well as pyrite
deposits of Siberia and North America are associated with basaltoids. Rare metal pegmatites and
greisens are the most typical granitoid representatives.
The Caledonian stage (600400 mln years ago) features predominant basaltoid
development, especially that of volcanic fraction with abundant pyrite deposits of Central
Siberia, Norway, Switzerland, the Iberian belt of Spain and Portugal, Australia and Burma.
The Hercynian stage (400250 mln years ago) determines the flourish of geosynclinal
magmatism and metallogeny. The magmatic deposits of chrome and titanomagnetite ores (Ural)
and pyritepolymetallic deposits (Ural, Ore Altai, West European countries) are associated with
the Hercynian basaltoids. Hercynian orogenic granitoids determine the full range of
postmagmatic ore deposits among which unique rare metal pegmatites, albitites, greisens,
various scarn and hydrothermal deposits are known. The metallogeny of activized platforms is
clearly shown, manifested by belts of alkaline rocks with rare metal mineralization of the Kola
Peninsula and Norway, magmatic sulfide coppernickel deposits in the Siberian platform traps,
diamondbearing kimberlites and rare metal carbonatites of the Siberian and African platforms.
The Cimmerian stage (250100 mln years ago) is manifested among nearplatform
suburbs of the Pacific Ocean and the Mediterranean geosynclinal belts by series of granitoids
with postmagmatic deposits of nonferrous and radioactive metal ores.
The Alpine stage (down to 100 mln years ago) features fault tectonics which controls
volcanogenic belts with hydrothermal gold and silver ore deposits and porphyric copper
formation chains of the Pacific Ocean ore belt as well as carbonatites and diamondbearing
kimberlites of the African, NorthAmerican and Siberian platforms.
The Greenlandic and Kola stages correspond to the Archean, from the Belomorian to
Greenlandic stages to the Proterozoic, and from the Caledonian to Alpine stages to the
Phanerozoic. Each stage ends in granitoid magmatism with formation of granitoid postmagmatic
nonferrous, rare and noble metal ore deposits. For the first time basaltoid mineral deposits
appear 3,800 mln years ago and granitoid ones 2,500 mln years ago and are then repeated
throughout the all subsequent geological history stages.
Large specific geological structure regions, whose interior contained certain mineral
groups and which were named mineral provinces, emerged due to regular formation and
arrangement of mineral resources. Province formation depended on type of geosynclines and
platforms, their geological age and formation epoch, completeness of geosynclinal and platform
geological evolution stage manifestation, occurrence of certain magmatic, metamorphic and
sedimentary rock formations within province range, erosion shear depth. Continent territories are
zoned into mineral provinces by mapping areas with mature fields of this or that epoch.
However, endogenic deposits of succeeding epochs can be imposed on the areal extent of
previously formed deposits of several epochs. Therefore mineral provinces of folded regions are
defined based on identification of areal extent of the last epoch deposits.
Polycyclic mineral provinces appear within geosynclinalfolded regions owing to
imposition of mineral deposits of succeeding epochs on regional areal extent. With due regard to
the discussed principles and bearing in mind the mineragenic epochs, the following provinces are
8
singled out in the Earth’s territory: Alpine, Cimmerian, Hercynian, Caledonian, Riphean and
ProterozoicArchean.
Alpine provinces comprise the inner part of the Pacific Ocean ring as well as the vast belt of
folded structures which appeared in the place of Tethys and extendes from the Alps to the
Carpathians, further on through the Caucasus and Tien Shan to the Himalaya and the Pacific
Ocean archipelago. While Alpine deposits dominate in these provinces, the latter feature a set of
minerals with a maximum number of formation epochs. For example, in the Caucasus Alpine
province there are deposits of ArcheanProterozoic, Caledonian, Hercynian, Cimmerian and
Alpine epochs. Nearsurface, incl. volcanogenic hydrothermal, deposits of nonferrous metal and
gold ores are particularly typical of the province.
Cimmerian provinces are typical of the other part of the Pacific Ocean ring. They show
mediumdepth hydrothermal deposits of lead, zinc, tin and gold ores. In the USSR territory
Transbaikalia, the Maritime Territory (Primorski Krai or Primorye) and the Verkhoyansk
Territory are attributed to these provinces.
The UralMongolian belt can be an example of Hercynian provinces. These provinces are
especially mature in deposit development, including exogenic and endogenic formations of all
geosynclinal development cycle stages, like magmatic deposits of iron, titanium, chrome and
platinum ores, and postmagmatic deposits of nonferrous and noble metal ores.
The Caledonian provinces are limited in extent and in the set of deposits inherent to
them. Their example is the Caledonian provinces of Norway and Western Sayan, with typical
volcanogenic pyrite deposits of copper and zinc ores.
The Riphean provinces (for example, the southern marginal part of the Siberian platform)
contain gold ore deposits.
The ArcheanProterozoic provinces covering formations from the Greenlandic to
Grenville stages are included in the composition of ancient platforms which are represented in
the USSR territory by the EastEuropean and Siberian platforms famous for metamorphogenic
iron ore deposits. Considerable manganese, lead and zinc, gold and uranium ore deposits are
available in the ancient Proterozoic provinces of North and South America, Africa, Australia,
India and China.
Province types are spotted by dominant rock formations and associated mineral deposits.
Provinces of Ural type stand out. They have prevalent formations of basaltoid magma with
inherent iron, titanium, vanadium, chrome, platinoid and copper ore deposits. They are
contrasted with sialic (or Verkhoyansk type) provinces with prevailing formations of granitoid
magma and associated tin, tungsten, beryllium, lithium ore deposits. Sometimes the province is
called by a combination of typical deposits and geographic location. For example, the tinbearing
province of the Far East and the goldbearing province of Kolyma stand out.
Nonferrous heavy metals ore fields are represented by copper, lead, zinc, nickel,
antimony ore deposits. Metal reserves in the largest of them amount to tens or hundreds of
millions of tonnes with the usual metal content of per cent units in the deposits. A large part of
copper ore is available from stratiform cupreous sandstone and shale deposits to which the
Dzhezkazgan field in Kazakhstan and the Udokan field in Siberia belong. A large source is also
the hydrothermal stockworks of the socalled copperphorphyry ores (Kounradsky in
Kazakhstan, Almalyk in Uzbekistan, Kadzharan in Armenia). Copper ores are also mined from
volcanogenic pyrite (Ural) and hydrothermal vein (Zangezur in Armenia) deposits. A substantial
part of this metal output used to be extracted from the magmatic sulfide coppernickel fields of
Norilsk and Pechenga.
In nature lead and zinc are usually encountered jointly in the composition of polymetallic
ore deposits. Stratiform sheetlike deposits in carbonate rocks play a large role among them. The
Zhairem and Mirgalimsay deposits in Kazakhstan belong to them. Besides, leadzinc ores are
mined from volcanogenic pyrite deposits (Ore Altai) of hydrothermal metasomatic fields in
carbonate rocks both among scarns and without them (Dalnegorsk in the Far East, Gorevsky in
the Yenisei Range), hydrothermal vein deposits (Sadon in the Caucasus). The major part of
nickel ore is mined from magmatic sulfide coppernickel deposits and from silicate composition
9
weathering deposits available in Southern Ural. All antimony ore deposits are attributed to
hydrothermal stratified (Kadamdzhay in Kyrgyzstan) and vein (Sarylakh in Yakutia, etc.) ones.
The biggest reserves of tin, tungsten, molybdenum, mercury, beryllium, lithium, tantalum
and niobium amount to hundreds of thousands of tonnes with metal content in ore of usually not
more than 1 per cent. A large proportion of tin ore is mined during working of hydrothermal
sulfidecassiterite and quartzcassiterite deposits in Kolyma, Primorye, the Amur Territory and
Transbaikalia. Tungsten ore is contained in hydrothermal vein and stockwork wolframite
deposits (Transbaikalia, Kazakhstan) as well as in scarn deposits (in the Caucasus and Central
Asia).
Molybdenum ore is mined in stockwork and vein hydrothermal deposits (Krasnoyarsk
Territory, Transbaikalia, Kazakhstan) as well as in scarn deposits mong which stratified deposits
of mercury ore are of greatest value (in Donbass (Donets basin), Central Asia).
Pegmatite and hydrothermal quartz and fluorite deposits with beryllium, greisen and scarn
deposits with helvite and phenacite, volcanogenic deposits of fluoritebertrandite and
gelbertrandite composition are the most essential ones among the various sources of beryllium
ore. Lithium is produced from pegmatites and lithiumcontaining mineral water (lithium ore).
Tantalum and niobium ore is mined from magmatic deposits among nepheline syenites,
carbonatites, albitites and pegmatites.
The main aluminium ore source is bauxites, whose deposits belong to laterite weathering
crusts and marine sediments. Paleozoic bauxite deposits are available in Ural and the East
European platform. The Mediterranean and Australian provinces of Mesozoic age bauxites are
known. Cenozoic bauxite deposits are available in the tropical belt of Africa, India, Guiana, etc.
Nonbauxite aluminium ores include deposits of cyanite, alunite and nephelinepatite res and
clays with more sophisticated technology and higher metal production osts involved.
Noble metal ore deposits are represented by gold, platinoid and silver categors. Their
reserves commonly amount to tens or hundreds (seldom thousands) of tonnes with the content of,
for example, gold which seldom exceeds 10 g/t, i.e., 0.001 %. The most abundant goldore
deposit type is goldbearing quartz and other composition hydrothermal veins and stockworks
available in the Far East and NorthEast, Western and Eastern Siberia, Ural, Kazakhstan, Central
Asia, Caucasia. Substantial value is attached to mining of old from volcanogenic hydrothermal
complex goldsilver ores available in the acific Ocean belt in the USSR territory. Previously,
placers significantly depleted y now were the main gold source. Planitoids whose composition,
besides latinum, includes osmium, iridium, palladium, rhodium and ruthenium are mined mostly
during working of Norilsk type complex magmatic sulfide coppernickel ores containing these
metals.
Uranium, thorium and radium ore deposits belong to radioactive ore deposits. In some
deposits the uranium ore reserves amount to thousands or tens of thousands of tonnes, seldom
more, with a conventional metal content of tenth parts of per cent in ore. The role of sedimentary
deposits usually complicated by nearsurface infiltration processes is rather large among uranium
deposits. Deposits bedded in Paleozoic, especially Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks are attributed to
the above type. Hydrothermal metasomatic and vein uranium ore deposits are various.
Dispersed element ore deposits (actinium, hafnium, allium, germanium, indium, cadmium,
protactinium, rhenium, rubidium, selenium, scandium, thallium, tellurium, caesium, etc.) are
represented by edimentogene, magmatogene and metamorphogene series deposits. Dispersed
lements are extracted as byproducts during processing of other metal ores.
There are no independent deposits of rareearth elements of the cerium and yttrium
groups, ores of these elements are also for the most part extracted as byproducts during mining
of magmatic, carbonatite, albite, hydrothermal and
placer deposits of nonferrous, rare and radioactive metal ores.[58].
1.3. Technogenic deposits
10
A technogenic deposit is an accumulation of mineral substances on the Earth’s surface
or in workings which was formed owing to separation of substances from solid massif and
storage as waste of mining, dressing, metallurgical and other operations and which is suitable for
commercial use in quantity and quality (for extraction of metals and other valuable components,
generation of fuel and manufacture of building materials). [4,9].
The deposits include mineral mining dumps, concentrator tailings dumps,
ash and slag disposal areas of powerandheat plants, stored waste of metallurgical and other
operations. The socalled industrial waste burial polygons, which serve as dumping grounds for
used electric and electronic quipment, automobiles, machinery, devices, and finally municipal
waste (“urban res”) are classified as technogenic deposits and provide a universal source of
many rare and dispersed elements. For example, the main source of germanium is powerand
heat plant ash, of rhenium roasted molybdenum concentrate dust, of selenium and tellurium
polymetallic ore, of gallium bauxite and nepheline processing waste. Technogenic deposits
become more and more important as a source of many mineral types. In industrialized eveloping
countries up to 80 % on the average of nonmetallic building materials are produced from
overburden, up to 20 % of copper (more than 30 % in the USA) from oxidized copper ore
dumps and concentration tailings by bacterial and acid leaching. The total content of valuable
components accumulated over 2030 years in technogenic deposits is comparable to and
sometimes exceed their quantity in annual routine ore output.
Just like conventional deposits, they have a certain valuable component distribution
structure, zones of secondary hypergenesis, oxidation, segregation, etc., but unlike natural
(geogenic) deposits a lower valuable component content. Waste is dumped so as to provide
more favourable conditions for their downstream recycling (stable slopes, minimum dumping
costs, flowline process application). Waste utilization is as a rule economically feasible, since the
deposit is on the surface and the material in it is partially disintegrated. However, these deposits
must be utilized at the proper time, because in many cases they undergo substantial
modifications, losing processability and practical value. For example, deposits containing heavy
nonferrous metal sulfides may be depleted up to total loss of the metals owing to spontaneous
bacterial leaching processes. Separate storage is required in some cases for value improvement
during dumping, otherwise a technogenic deposit may not form: for example, oxidized
ferruginous quartzites, mining and concentration waste in he Kursk Magnetic Anomaly and
Krivbas (Krivoi Rog basin), were dumped together with overburden and thus incurred
considerable loss as technogenic deposits. Separate dumping entails certain expenses and
noticeably increases mining costs in some cases.
1.4. Ways of valuble components extraction
Deposit mining results in output of ore, a natural mineral product containing metals or their
compounds in quantity and form suitable for commercial use. Even naturally highgrade ore
requires dressing as a rule. Nonferrous metal ores are polymictic and accompanied by
commercially useless minerals. Ores are onsidered complex if they have associated valuable
components (metals, nonmetals), whose recovery is economically feasible. Judging from the
chemical composition of prevalent minerals, ores are divided in silicate, siliceous, oxide, ulfide,
carbonate and mixed. All ores mined from deposits enclosed into native sedimentary, magmatic
and metamorphic rocks are called native, while ores produced from river, lake, sea and ocean
sands are called placer.
Ore structure is dictated by combination of individual mineral grains in an ore mineral
aggregate. Structures are differentiated into equigranular, inequigranular, oolite (with
concentrically rounded mineral accumulations), porphyric (with individual coarse mineral grains
in an equigranular mass), radiated etc. Ores are divided into those with uniform, nonuniform and
extremely nonuniform composition accoreding to the valuable mineral distribution nature.
11
For ore mining and processing of essential importance are physical properties:
hardness, strength, jointing, density, melting point, magnetic and electromagnetic properties,
conduction, radioactivity, solubility, sorption, and granulometric composition.
Valuable ore components are the constituent of the mineral resource, whose extraction is
technically and economically feasible with the view of commercial application.
Essential and associated (accessory) valuable components are distinguished. Essential
valuable components are contained in mineral resources in commercial concentrations, which
determine the basic value, application and name of the resource. When two or several essential
components are available, he mineral resource is characterized as a complex one (for example,
coppermolybdenum or copperleadzinc ore). Associated minerals and dispersed elements are
mineral constituents, whose extraction is economically feasible only jointly with the essential
valuable component. Valuable minerals are incorporated into the mineral resource composition
in low concentrations and can be extracted to selective concentrates or accumulated in essential
valuable component concentration products. Dispersed elements are contained in the
composition of essential or associated valuable components as isomorphic, finelydispersed or
other impurities (usually in low concentrations) and can be extracted only during metallurgical or
chemical concentrate separation.
Complete comprehensive recovery and utilization of all valuable components is a condition
for efficient use of the earth's interior. The notion of valuable component is not rigid, but varies
with industrial requirements, progress in engineering and technology of mining, dressing and
processing of mineral products.
The commercial content of a essential component in a mineral resource at which
extraction and use are economically feasible is of substantial significance. The commercial
content for any mineral product type may vary over a wide range depending on economic
geographic deposit conditions, geological structure, ore composition and properties, mining &
processing technology and equipment, cological requirements. Mineral product standards
establish limiting values of the commercial content, on whose basis mineral reserves are
estimated.
Combined processing [11] of mineral products, which is a production process composed
of different dressing and metallurgical techniques and operations, affords the most efficient
selection of components. Selection of components by properties (difference in density, magnetic
susceptibility, conduction, adsorption, wettability, etc.) is based on creation of a gradient of
mineral particle, ion or molecule concentration in a liquid or gas phase as well as at interfaces
using different fields of forces and actions: magnetic, electric, gravitaty, adsorption, etc.
Combined processing is carried out by several properties through combination of fields applied
in a single apparatus (combined process) or in a line of sequentially arranged apparatus
(combined flowsheet).
Combined dressing of mineral products takes place without alteration of the phase and
chemical composition of the minerals contained in the ore, i.e., it results from a combination of
dressing methods. Combined flowsheets are conventionally composed of primary gravity
operation (heavymedia separation, jigging, screw separator dressing, sluicing, etc.) and
downstream magnetic separation or flotation. These flowsheets are typical of iron (gravity
magnetic separation), manganese (gravity flotation) and raremetal ores (gravity magnetic or
electric separation flotation). Widelyused combined dressing processes include gravity
flotation: concentration table flotation (diamond ore), flotation jigging (raremetal ore). There are
also magnetic field classification (magnetite, titanomagnetite ores), flotation in a magnetic field,
runcurrent field, vibration or ultrasound field.
If it is not possible to produce prime concentrates by dressing methods or their combination, a
combination with hydro or pyrometallurgical final concentration is applied. Hydrometallurgical
final concentration is carried out by leaching of harmful components from row concentrates, for
example, phosphorus or silica from iron, manganese, tungsten concentrates. Removal of harmful
components is also possible in pyrometallurgical processes. For example, concentration of
valuable components can be substantially increased through CO2 combustion during roasting of
12
carbonaceous ores. Besides, roasting permits alteration in magnetic mineral properties
(magnetizing roasting of oxidized iron ores) for downstream magnetic separation. There exist
examples of roasting operations applied for alteration of mineral floatability (phosphorites). A
specific pyrometallurgical flotation diagram is used in prcessing coppernickel ores: they are
melted to coppernickel converter matte which is further ground and separated by flotation into
copper and nickel products. Another unique circuit for processing coppernickel ores is bulk
selective flotation with production of nickelpyrrhotite concentrates which undergo autoclave
oxidizing leaching with downstream sulfursulfide flotation.
Combined flowsheets which apply different methods in a sequential layout afford the
most efficient extraction of valuable components from mineral products: combined processes
provide the highest concentrate purity.[11].
As the industry transits to refractory ore and coal, nonwaste technology, etc.,
interpenetration and interaction of technological processes, not only in dressing, are in full
swing, for example, mechanical activation of ores and minerals, hydrometallurgy in combination
with flotation, autogenous grinding with downstream screening, treatment of recirculating water,
etc.
Combined processes and circuits are the basis for comprehensive processing of mineral
products: disintegration of useful material to final products, into which all valuable components
contained in raw materials are extracted and whose processing is technologically and
economically feasible.
1.5. Deposit evaluation and mineral resources
Mineral resources are a totality of useful materials in which hemical elements and minerals
formed by them are available at much higher concentration compared to theirabundance ratio in
the Earth’s crust, permitting affords their industrial application.[12].
They are nonrenewable natural resources. The part of mineral resources prepared for
mining is called a mineral product base, quantitatively evaluated by geological prospecting and
exploration. Preparation of mineral resources for mining includes formation of a mineral
product base of mining industry by means of geological exploration in order to evaluate
commercial reserves of mineral resources at available natural sites and registration of
technogenic deposits as mineral sources as well as setting of mining and processing undertakings
in these regions.
Prospecting and exploration costs are commonly 1.55.0 % of the cost of the metal
produced (iron and steel and nonferrous metals), more seldom 2030 % (some nonferrous and
rare metals), mining and dressing costs range from 610 (for iron or aluminum) to 7080% (for
some nonferrous and alloying metals) of the total product cost.
Mineral production is in continuous growth, and an especially large scale was reached in
the 20th century. The 19011980 period accounted for 9095 % of the total mining output of tin,
lead, zinc, silver, mercury and antimony ores, as well as diamonds, 87 % of iron ore, 85% of
copper and 70 % of gold ore. At the same time the number of mineral resource types increased
drastically, and commercial production of bauxite, titanium, molybdenum, tantalum, niobium
and other ores began.
Mining output grew irregularly. The periods from the end of the 19th to the beginning of the
20th centuries and from the middle of the 50s to the middle of the 70s stand out as the time of
high rates of output increase in mining of many mineral resource types. For example, in the
19501975 period production of niobium concentrates increased more than 20 times, bauxites 11
times, nickel and titanium concentrates 55.5 times.
For many types of mineral products output growth was mostly due to working of large and
very large deposits. Higher mining rates involve working of deposits with leaner ores and of new
13
geologicalindustrial types. For example, at the end of the 19th century the most of the runof
mine copper ore contained 58 % of copper, but this figure fell to 0.73 % in 1925 and to 0.4
1.5 % in the late 70s. Active mining of hither to unworked large copperporphyry type deposits e
began in the 50s.
Increased mining output brought about depletion of nearsurface fields and larger mining
depths which increased from several tens and hundreds of metres to 1,000 m on the average for
nonferrous metal ores (23.9 km at particular undertakings). Fields located in remote regions,
for example, at Arctic latitudes and on the sea shelf, are being drawn into mining. Increased
complexity of the geological conditions, higher power and investment requarements lead to
objective increase in the costs of exploration, mining and primary processing of the mineral
resources. However, the trend towards higher perunit cost is largely offset by larger production
output and the relative increase in the cost of other goods. Thus , the perunit costs expressed in
terms of prices for other products and services do not exceed those calculated in a similar way
for the 1980s when the copper content was 58 %. An objective aspect is the increase in
environment control costs (820 % of all investments in mining in industrialized countries).
Seventyeighty per cent of the reserves for each mineral resource type in the mineral
product balance account for a comparatively small number of large deposits and gigantic fields,
while the other part is available in medium and numerous small deposits. Commercial value and
reserve amount serve conventionally for distinguishing unique deposits of majer importance in
the world reserves as a whole, large deposits in large countries rich in mineral resources, medium
deposits in medium and small regions of large countries, small and minute deposits in individual
districts and undertakings. Table 1.2 presents the reserves of individual types of mineral
resources by continent.
Table 1.2. Allocation of main mineral resource* types by continent and
country group [12].
Mineral Europe Asia Africa North South Australia Total Develop Industr
resource America and and ing ialized
Central Oceania countries countries
America
Bauxites
bln t 0.25 1.83 12.35 0.04 3.9 2.42 20.8 18.2 2.6
% 1.2 8.8 59.4 0.2 18.8 11.6 100.0 87.3 12.7
W ore**
,000 t 159 267 32 367 116 119 1,060 394 666
% 15.0 25.2 3.0 34.6 11.0 11.2 100 37.2 62.8
Co ore***
mln t 0.05 0.43 1.8 0.26 0.1 0.3 2.94 2.51 0.43
% 1.7 14.6 61.2 8.0 3.4 10.2 100 85.3 14.7
Cu ore
mln t 8.3 47.6 78.9 122.5 174.3 15.8 447.4 302.8 144.6
% 1.9 10.6 17.6 27.4 39.0 3.5 100 67.7 32.3
Mo ore**
mln t 0.2 4.2 2.85 0.15 7.4 3.2 4.2
% 2.7 56.8 38.4 2.1 100 43.1 56.9
Ni ore***
mln t 2.1 11.9 5.2 10.1 4.9 16.0 50.2 32.1 18.1
% 4.2 23.8 10.4 20.0 9.8 31.8 100 64.0 36.0
Sn ore***
mln t 0.2 1.8 0.4 0.1 0.8 0.2 3.5 2.9 0.6
% 5.7 51.5 11.4 2.9 22.8 5.7 100 82.9 17.1
Pb ore***
mln t 12.9 8.3 11.1 47.0 13.8 23.0 115.6 25.5 90.1
% 11.1 7.2 9.6 40.7 11.5 19.9 100 22.1 77.9
Zn ore**
mln t 23.3 28.1 24.8 60 21.4 21.0 178.6 56.7 121.9
% 13.0 15.7 13.9 33.7 12.0 11.7 100 31.7 68.3
* Identified and proven reserves as of early 1984 (industrialized and developing countries)
** In terms of oxide
*** In terms of metal
Despite the deplation of individual longexploited deposits and reduction in explored
reserves of mineral resources in some countries, mining levels reached in the early 80s are secure
14
for the visible future. However, a large part of the identified mineral resources is concentrated
in deposits of relatively lean or deep ores and under complex geological conditions.
Commercial development of mineral resources includes their evaluation (geological
prospecting and exploration) and working (mining, dressing and processing), whose scope and
intensity are dictated by the peculiarities of industrial and socioeconomic development, together
with position of the mineral product sector in the national economy. Mineral resources are
nonrenewable, which dictates judicious utilisation and reduction of losses during mining,
processing and handling as well as utilization of the secondary materials and compliance with an
ecological and economic approach in exploitation of the mineral resources.
Mineral exploration is carried out with a view to estimating commercial value of
mineral deposits given a positive rating in a prospecting and evaluation process. A reserve of
replenishing exploration projects are also deposits evalueted in the past, but assigned outside the
balance for variance reasons. Their reevaluation on the basis of new geologicalgenetic
concepts, situation hanges, more perfect exploration techniques along with innovative
technologies of mineral mining and processing, permits transfer of some of the projects for
preliminary exploration without additional field work.
Exploration establishes the geological and industrial deposit parameters required for
commercial valuation, planning of a mining enterprise, initiation of the mining and processing
of the mineral resources to be extracted. For example, the morphology of mineral bodies is
determined in this way, which is of primary importance in selection of a future mining system.
The coutores of the resource body are established with allowance to the geological boundaries,
and average content of essential and associated components, availability of harmful impurities,
nature of mineral resource distribution, etc. are set in accordance with the data of deposit testing.
The data on valuable component content are the initial basis for substantiation of estimation
standards and ultimately for solving the problem of commercial value of the project under
exploration. These data are equally useful in determining the processability of the mineral
resources. Ore deposits are studied stagebystage, with more and more detailed exploration
through regular densification of the prospecting hole networkpattern, with more and more
accurate estimation of the reserves and more and more detailed and complete technical and
economic evaluation of deposits under study.
Deposit exploration methods depend on a set of relevant engineering facilities which provide
maximally complete information . The key operation in prospecting is drilling: percussion (in
placer survey), column (core or coreless) and deep; deep prospect holes, shallow shafts, adits are
applied in extra complex cases (as a rule in exploration of nonferrous and rare metals ore). The
purpose is verification of the prospecting drilling data, clarification of the structure for the most
complex deposit areas, technological sampling. Detailed and final exploration is commonly
carried out grounded on drilling; deep prospecting and prospectingoperating shafts are also sunk
at certain projects. The main types of exploration operations are openings (level, vertical and
inclined) and underground (usually short) holes: column and perforator (coreless). In order to
obtain maximum information on deposit structure and regularities of useful mineral arrangement
at minimum cost, the prospecting holes are distributed so that they cross the whole promising
zone (horizon, structure) thickness while the prospecting profiles (prospecting intersection
groups) are localized primarily across the zone strike. Prospecting network density depends on
the degree of the complexity of the geological deposit structure according to which reserves are
estimated. As the preliminary survey moves on to exploration and further on to operation the
prospecting network becomes denser. In the case of vein rare metal ore deposits the prospecting
network can be condenced to several tens of metres and even more.
Different geophysical & geochemical methods are applied at all prospecting stages. The main
purpose of geophysical works is to find out the deposit structure through clarifying the position
and following the orecontrolling and orelocalizing surfaces (for example, contact of limestones
lithologically favorable to ore deposition and overlapping screening shales, disjunctive
dislocation zones, etc.) as well as through correlation of prospecting intersections. Geochemical
15
methods are applied for delineation of horizons, zones and blocks (with abnormal distribution
of indicator elements) promising in prospecting for buried ore beds.
The choice of engineering facilities for deposit prospecting is dictated by work type:
there may be ditchers and shovels for ditch and trench digging, ulldozers for stripping and baring
of bedrock, as well as trench exploration of placers, mobile equipment for sinking shafts and
mappingreconnaissance boreholes, descentascent mechanisms for sinking deep shafts and
holes, drilling machines of different types for prospecting holes, samplinganalyzing devices,
computerized geophysical field instrumentation for operational data processing, etc.
Summary horizonbyhorizon plans and sections, which are the basis for estimating
mineral reserves, are made up from the primary geological documentation and testing data. The
same data are used for composing detailed geologicalstructural maps, which in turn serve as
basis for prognostic maps are constructed. These are the foundation for further projects.
Evaluation of mineral deposits , which is establishment of their commercial value, using
combined geological methods (geological evaluation) and economic calculations (economic
evaluation) is carried out at all stages of study, prospecting and commercialization, from regional
prediction to complete depletion. [10,12].
The early stages of the geological prospecting process (regional study of the territory,
geological surveying) include evaluation of potentials for this or that area as a whole (ore
province, ore belt, zone, ore region or node, basin, structure, etc.) based on general geological
information. Areas (zones, basins, structures) due for more detailed study are identified on
geological and specialized (geologicalformation, etc.) maps of correspondry scales (1:500,000
1:50,000), on the basis of a specific geological concept (geochemical specialization of region and
rock complexes, favorable tectonic, magmatic, lithologicstratigraphic structural and other
prerequisites). Probable reserves are also estimated for these areas by analogy with other regions.
If there are previouslyregistered indication of the required mineral type, these reserves can be
allocated to more limited areas: zones, structures, etc. Areal extent of prognostic reserves are
targets for specialized detailed survey or surveyrevision and evaluation works. Probable
reserves are usually identified during local predicting (1:50,000 1:2,000) preferably on flankes
or at deep horizons of the deposits under exploration or operation. They are shown on specially
madeup detailed structuralprognostic maps and serve as reserve for expansion of the raw
material base of existing undertakings and a foundation for planning more detailed geological
prospecting works. Geological evaluation of indentified mineral manifestations is based on the
results of oriented surveyprospecting works and consists, on the one hand, in determining
mineral quality (through testing of outcrops) and possible extension range (by thickness, area
and depth) and, on the other hand, in establishing the regional promise for each mineral type (by
geologicaltectonic location of the project under study, assignation to some genetic and
geologicalcommercial type, geochemical regional specialization, geophysical parameters, etc.).
In the case of positive results of geological evaluation a preliminary economic calculation is
carried out in order to determine the minimum project scale which would meet industrial
requirements under these geographiceconomic and geological conditions.
Regional promise is evaluated through division of all identified manifestations of
mineral resources into lowpromising “roots” of erosiondestroyed mineral beds, independent
bodies of varying scale ( to be explored if complying with main standard requirement
parameters), indicators of larger deepburied mineral beds (the most promising variant, which
affords a very reliable evaluation of the whole structure under study). The optimal ratio of
identified ore manifestation groups is usually 20:10:70 for thermal deposits and about 60:30:10
for the very hightemperature scarn and pegmatite raremetal deposits. In predicting buried
mineral beds, the initial evaluation criteria are the vertical range of expansion of this mineral
type, the multiplicity of its localization (for example, the number of lithologically favorable
horizons in the geological regional section), availability of certain symptoms of mineral
resources in overlapping rock layers (dispersion haloes).
Besides mineral manifestations proper, various geochemical, geophysical and other
anomalies as well as promising structures are geologically evaluated. They are assessed initially
16
by laboratory processing data of the materials obtained (for example, geochemical anomalies
are verified through identification of the leading role of supra or subore indicator elements),
with subsequent intersection by single prospecting openings, most often prospectingstructural
drillholes. The result is a justified decision on whose basis the recommendation is given whether
it is expedient to arrange preliminary prospecting, register the deposit in the reserve pool or
recognise it as unpromising, undeserving of attention and further study. Coincidentally several
economic factors: shortage of this mineral product, need for compensation of exhausted reserves
in the region of active undertakings, etc. are taken into account.
The problems of commercial value of the identified deposit, total mineral resource scope
and quality ( including processability, possible working conditions, etc.) are solved during
prospecting. Explored reserves data are used in technical & economic calculations which allow
determination of the main indicators of deposit commercialization in several standard versions,
taking into account production scope and other parameters all of which is reflected in a special
technical and economic report. Both the geological evaluation of the deposit under study and its
region as well as economic assessment are of equal importance at the stage of preliminary
prospecting. The former consists in detailed study of mineral localization conditions, impartial
estimation of the reliability of the identified reserves and establishment of all potentials for their
further expansion; the latter consists in estimation of all cost items (settingup of mining
undertaking, roads, power lines, infrastructure, etc.) which are to be outlaid during
commercialization of the project, along with the expected economic efficiency. At the stage of
detailed prospecting one main task of the geological evaluation is to determine the degree of
reliability of the explored and estimated reserves with a view to excluszion of negative
consequences in case of deviation from subsequent mining data.
The morphology of the mineral bodies, their space location, quality and processability, the
technical and economic conditions of mining, etc. are finalized. Geologicaleconomic evaluation
of deposits under exploration is based on estimation of the identified reserves in turn based on
standards. echnicaleconomic substantiation of estimation standards is based on wholesale
prices of the corresponding mineral product type, the shortage level, working conditions,
processability and other data.
As the deposit is prepared for commercialization, multivariant comparative economic
evaluation and selection of the most economically profitable project from the explored single
type fields are carried out with a view to determining the profitability level of miniry the
explored mineral bed, with the time factor included.
Prior to collapse of the USSR geologicalprospecting works were carried out by the
USSR Ministry of Geology, whose organizations conducted quest and prospecting works in the
territory of the country, on the sea shelf (except deep drilling), and on the sea and ocean bottom.
They carried out regional geological, geophysical, hydrogeological, engineeringgeological and
other kinds of terrestrial, aerial geological cosmic surveys for geological structure study,
industrial, agricultural and construction needs; they also manufactured various geological
prospecting equipment, geophysical devices and rendered technical assistance to foreign
countries in geological prospecting works.
Tens of thousands of mineralizations formations of different scope and value were
registered in planned geological prospecting operations in the USSR. This information is stored
in the archives of regional geological control bodies available almost in every province and
republic. In many cases research works were carried out on these mineralizations.
The Committee on Mineral Reserves, operated indrpendently of the above ministry. It
was in fact an separate ministry and its head (chairman) held the rank of minister. All more or
less interesting formations were approved as mineral reserves after study of dressability,
supplementary prospecting, establishment of orebody boundaries. For completely unexplainable
resons, information on nonferrous metal ore reserves was treated as strictly clossified, though
the time from reserve approval to metallurgical production amounted as a rule to 2030 years.
Other administrations (the USSR Ministry of Geology, republican ministries of geology and
regional geological departments) coducted parralel operations of search and reserve buildup.
17
Reserves of some mineral resources were accumulated for tens of years ahead, with those
on other resources for a few years only. Surveying of technogenic deposits was random in
general and their reserves were not evaluated. As a result, information on manifestations is
enormous, but disordered.
1.6. Definition of minerals by processing
The processing technology of mineral is based on studying their properties. They are
crystalline bodies formed as a result of natural physicochemical (geochemical) processes on the
surface or in the interior of the Earth. Unlike synthetic substances, which can be produced under
required conditions and at the required component ratio, natural minerals are generated in
systems, whose composition depends on the geochemical abundance of particular elements, the
geochemical prehistory of their dispersion, concentration and ranges of pressure, temperature,
pH and Eh variation. Despite these constrictions, the divessity of mineral types is vast, because
of isomorphism phenomena, crystal lattice defects, ionexchange processes and effects of
tectonism, weathering, metamict ransformations, etc. [13,14].
Only a few hundreds out of the large number of minerals available in nature are
encountered in exploitable deposits. Of interest in terms of ore dressing technology are minerals
containing valuable components and minerals of the enclosing rock. They number about 250 (not
counting variants), and we shall confine over discussion to them.[11].
Variants of one and the same mineral may be encountered in different deposits and
sometimes within The same deposit, depending on chemical composition, impurities and
structural peculiarities. Knowledge of the abundance and paragenetic associations of minerals is
of great importance in ore dressing. Ore dressability is to a large extent governed not only by the
physical and chemical properties of the mineral, but also as the relative content of components in
the ore and the presence of other minerals.
Finally, the characteristics of a formation (particle shape, fracture appearance, availability
of groupings and size) often predetermine the choice of extraction method.
Unlike mineralogical manuals, in which descriptions and characteristics are intended
mainly for diagnostic purposes, we present only those data which are necessary to a technologist.
Mineralogical description of available minerals with associations peculiar to them will help in
assessing whether a deposit and mineral associations are typical or unique.
Accordingly, ore and deposit description is based on technological mineralogy
concepts.[3,15].
1. In creating ore preparation flowsheets, including homegenization, crushing, screening,
presorting, grinding and classification:
identification of technological ore types for individual dressing and intratype
homegenization, (zoning, space distribution of ore minerals and concentrations of components
useful or detrmental to dressing);
geologicaltechnological mapping of deposits by ore type, establishment of
typomorphic peculiarities of minerals and variants, features of mineralogical compositions,
determination of mineral paragenesis of different deposit areas with respect to sample
dressability;
assessment of possible ore presorting for component concentration, material
composition, dressability, selection of dump products at the primary or intermediate crushing
stage with separation of individual minerals or mineral associations by density (heavy media),
size (screens), color, luster, luminescence (photometry), natural or induced radioactivity
(radiometry), etc.;
assessment of possible primary dressing or separation of mineral particles by shape,
friction factor, grindability, particle size, etc.;
assessment of mineral hardness, mechanical aggregate strength, grindability,
assessment of impregnation and interpenetration of minerals, scale of ore gradations for
grinding optimization.
18
2. In desgning technological ore dressing circuits:
study of component composition of ore and valuable minerals, with a view to assessing,
possibility of producing selective and bulk concentrates by dressing, determining the complexity
nature of a comparent (in the mineral, in the mineral association, in the dispersed state, etc.);
study of the component composition of barren rock with a view to assessing the
possibility of recycling the dressing waste and creating a nonwaste process flowsheet;
study of minerals enclosed in ore with a view to determining possible methods of their
separation by gravitaty, in electric or magnetic apparaus, by flotation and other methods;
study of possible modification of a dressability properties by mechanical, thermal,
acoustic, chemical, radiative means for better selectivity in component separation;
3. In creating chemicalmetallurgical and combined processing flowsheets:
study of solubility in different solvents with a view to assessing the possibility of
hydrometallurgical recovery of components and final concentration;
study of possible modification of solubility by thermal, bacterial, autoclave, mechanical
and other means for improved component recovery and comprehensive ore processing as well as
applicability of geotechnological deposit mining.
4. In developing flotation dressing modes:
investigation of crystallographicchemical mineral peculiarities, surface properties,
conductivity type, nature of sorptionactive centers, structure of atom bonds in surface layer with
a view to assessing the possibility of applying certain agents for flotation selection of minerals;
investigation of mineral surface hydration in water suspension, particularly, in the
presence of flotation agents are available, with a view to controlled selective flotation;
investigation of the effect of changes in isomorphic impurity composition and amount,
structural defects, conductivity type and other mineral peculiarities which vary within the
deposit, on sorption and flotation properties with a view to organization of flotation mode
control systems and prediction of dressing parameters.
Mineralurgy [3,10]. We shall designate the theory and technology of mineral selection in
industrial processes by the term “mineralurgy”.
Mineralurgy (from mineral and Greek ergon work) is a theoretical base for mineral
dressing. It includes new direction (ore preparation, selective exposure of minerals controlled
modification of natural mineral properties, chemical dressing and recovery of technogenic
minerals). Mineralurgy provides effective means for processing lean and refractory ores and for
complex utilization of the raw materials, including waste recycling.
Mineralurgy encompasses the whole complex of primary mineral processing operations,
including ore preparation, improvement of mineral concentration and selection of minerals by
mechanical, physical and physicochemical methods, chemical dressing, dewatering and
pelletizing and some other operations required for achievement of the necessary standards of
useful component and impurity content, granulometric composition, moisture and other final
product quality parameters. Mineral products can undergo chemicalmetallurgical processing
with output of materials (metals, chemicals) or enter mechanical or other processing operations,
when the minerals and rocks have the technical properties which dictate their direct use (for
example, piezoquartz, building materials).
Mineralurgical methods will be applied in processing liquid mineral resources
(underground water, World Ocean water). Saleable ore was, for a long time, the principal raw
material in chemicalmetallurgical processing for solid mineral resources rich in valuable
components. Prior to the 1st half of the 19th century mineralurgical processes were reduced to
mechanical ore processing (crushing, screening, washing, sorting by outward appearance), and
products entered the next conversion stage as concentrates. As methods of mechanical grinding
in drum mills and gravity dressing along with physical (magnetic, electric separation,
radiometric sorting) and physicochemical dressing methods were developed, finely ground
mineral concentrates became the final product. Methods of agglomeration (sintering, pelletizing,
briquetting) were developed vith a view to optimal mineral product size for metallurgical
processing.
19
In the 80s it becomes more and more often advantagenes to prepare raw materials as
artificial (technogenic) minerals with preset composition and properties. They can be produced
from solid minerals separated during dressing by means of recrystallization with introduction
(where necessary) of certain additives of other materials (for example, production of metallized
and fluxed pellets for the iron & steel industry, fused phosphates for the mining & chemical
industry). In chemical dressing of solid minerals and processing of liquid minerals, final products
are obtained mostly as chemical concentrates of liquid and solid semiproducts and crude metals.
Processing ofd lean refractory ores is a multyaspect problem. Typical traditional
dressing circuits became ineffective for deposits of complex genesis. The difficult geological
conditions of deep deposit mining, the larger scales of mechanized systems with high excavation
capacity result in ore impoverishment by barren rock and make it impossible to maintain the
standards for which the dressing circuits are designed. Power costs are dramatically increased, as
for producing the same quantity of valuable components from lean ore is correspondently larger
quantity of rock must be crushed. Refractory ore is characterized by mineral associations with
close properties which are difficult to separate in the absence of the required contrast in
differentiating features (gradation of dividing symptoms). In extrarefractory tenancions ores
(very fine mineral impregnation, isomorphic impurities), it is impossible to separate individual
mineral components into distinct phases during crushing.
The level of mineralurgical processing (“depth”), final product type and structure are
dictated, besides quality requirements, by the type of processed raw material type, by the
engineering level of applied processes and, in the final analyses, by the economic criterion
(minimum total costs over all conversion stages from mining to final processing).
Technological mineralogy, ore preparation theory, the theoretical fundamentals of
controlled modification of the natural properties of hardly separable minerals, chemical dressing
theory are included in mineralurgy.
Technological mineralurgy exposes the interrelation of the mineral properties (applied in
technology) with compositional and structuale peculiarities of the ore and constituent minerals
typical of the particular deposit in question. It is the information base in constructing a judicious
processing flowsheet for ores of complex composition.
Ore preparation theory makes it possible to setup a quality control system for conversion
of a runofmine rock mass into prime ore by means of controlled modification of the strength
properties during blasting, imparting the required lumpiness by blasting and mechanical
crushing, separation into technological grades, intragrade homogenization, primary
concentration by size (on screens), density (in heavy media), and natural and induced
radioactivity (radiometic sorting).
Controlled modification of the natural properties of poorly separable minerals by
physicochemical and chemical actions makes it possible to create the property contrast range
necessary for improved flotation, magnetic and electric separation efficiency. Application of
required action agents is of particular importance for mineral groups typomorphic in surface
properties.
The theory of interaction of flotation agents with minerals brought about an extended
range of mineral product processing methods.
The theory of chemical dressing opens ways to judicious process flowsheets for
tenancious ores, which cannot be dressed by combined circuits with metallurgical refining of the
commercial products, direct metallurgical treatment being economically unfeasible. Chemical
dressing implies search for low powerintensive techniques of selective exposure of minerals
containing valuable components. In this case it becomes possible to concentrate and separate
valuable components at ionmolecule level and to perform controlled synthesis of technogenic
minerals with required properties. The extended range of pyro, hydro and biometallurgical
processes is resorted to selecting those, which are technologically combined with the dressing
operations and economically justified by ore technology of the preparation and downstream
processing.
20
Ore dressing [10,16,17]. Dressability of mineral resources is the most important
intermediate link between mining and application.
In Russia mineral concentration improvement processes were initiation in the context of
separation of gold from ore. The first concentrating plant for gold recovery was built on the Iset
river in 1760. In 1763 M.V. Lomonosov described dressing processes in his book “First
Fundamentals of Metallurgy or Ore Mining”. His contemporaries I.V. Polzunov and K.D. Frolov
constructed several mechanized (waterwheel driven) concentrating plants equipped with ore
washing machines.
Depending on mineral composition, valuable mineral content together with impregnation
size, mineral dressability is established, and a separation flowsheet consisting of a number of
successive processes is chosen. The most general circuit includes mineral “selection”, that is,
mineral removal from aggregates which is performed by ore crushing and grinding, and mineral
separation by dressing processes proper. At first, ore preparation, which incorporates crushing,
screening and homogenization is usually carried out. Crushing is performed in several stages,
between which the final product can be drawn. Crushed product can be preconcentrated in heavy
media or sorted radiometrically for removal of impoverishing rock. Grinding is carried out for
ore opening, after which minerals are concentrated by gravity, magnetic separation or flotation.
Mills operate in a cycle with classificators for isolating products of desired size.
Mineral dressing is associated with different methods of separation by physical
properties: strength, shape, density, magnetic susceptibility, conduction, wettability, adsorption
capacity, surface activity, but without change in aggregation, aggregatephase state, chemical
composition, crystallographicchemical structure.
When the density of minerals to be separated, differs various methods of gravity dressing
are applied, utilizing differences in velocity of particle motion in water or air medium under the
effect of gravitaty or centrifugal forces. These methods include jigging, heavymedia separation,
table separation, sluicing. Flotation is based on differences in the physicochemical properties of
separated mineral surfaces. When minerals have different magnetic susceptibility, they are
separated by magnetic processes. When there are differences in electric properties (conduction,
dielectric permeability, frictional charging ability), minerals are separated electrically.
Differences of grain size, shape, brittleness and friction coefficient make it possible to
separate them by these symptoms. Gravitaty, flotation and magnetic methods are the most widely
used. When there are contaminating impurities (mainly clay) in the ore, washing is included into
the dressing circuit. Mineral selection can be carried out by several properties, using different
combinations in a single apparatus (combined process) or in several apparatus arranged straight
away in one line (combined flowsheet). Combined dressing circuits usually incorporate primary
gravity processes and downstream magnetic or flotation operations. Such circuits are typical for
mixed iron (gravitymagnetic), manganese (gravitatyflotation) and raremetal (gravity
magnetic) ores.
The most widely used combined dressing processes are flotationgravity: concentration
tableflotation (separation of coarse sulfides from cassiterite), flotation jigging (dressing of rare
metal ore). Magnetohydrodynamic and magnetohydrostatic separation, classification in a
magnetic field, flotation in magnetic field are also well known.
When prime concentrates cannot be produced by dressing methods or their combination,
combination with variens final concentration techniques are resorted to. Hydrometallurgical final
concentration is carried out by leaching of harmful components, for example, phosphorus or
silica, from iron, manganese, tungsten concentrates. For example, roasting of carbonatite ore can
substantially increase the concentration of useful components through CO2 removal. Roasting
induces changes in the magnetic mineral properties (magnetizing roasting of oxidized iron ore)
for downstream magnetic separation. Examples of roasting with a view to changing the flotation
ability of minerals (phosphorites) are known. A specific circuit including pyrometallurgy and
flotation is used in processing coppernickel ore, which is melted to coppernickel converter
matte consisting of artificial sulfide minerals with downstream grinding and separation to copper
and nickel products by flotation. Another unique circuit for coppernickel ore processing is bulk
21
selective flotation yielding nickelpyrrhotite concentrates which undergo autoclaveoxidizing
leaching with downstream sulfur and sulfide flotation.
Ion flotation, electric flotation, the Mostovich process are attributed to category of
combined dressinghydrometallurgical operations.
Mineral dressing affords a substantial increase in concentration of valuable components.
The content of heavy nonferrous metals (copper, lead, zinc) is 0.32 % in the ore, and 2070 %
in concentrate products. Molybdenum concentration rises from 0.10.05 % to 4750 %; tungsten
from 0.10.2 to 4565 %; the coal ash level drops from 2035 to 810 %. Separation targets also
include removal of harmful mineral impurities (arsenic, sulfur, silicon, etc.). Recovery of
valuable components in the concentrate in dressing processes varies from 60 to 95 %.
The key development trends are improvement of individual dressing processes and
recourse to combined circuits with a view to maximum improved concentrate quality and
recovery of useful components from ore; increase in production rate of particular undertakings
through intensified processes and upscaled equipment; higher complexity and recycling of waste
(most often for production of building materials); automated production. An important target is
minimized environmental pollution.
Since all types of solid mineral resources are subject to dressing, the most essential
characteristic is dressability [11,17] of the useful minerals, i.e. technological assessment of the
possible recovery rate and concentration of the mineral components depending on mineral
composition, texture and structure of the ore. Dressability is an obligatory characteristic of the
deposit in evaluation of the reserves, development of the technological flowsheets, engineering
of concentrating plant, selection of flotation agents, etc.
Dressability is tested on material obtained from deposit trials. The material composition
of samples is studied by mineralogicalpetrographic, granulometric, phase and chemical
analyses. Based on the findings of fractional analysis, a graphic dressability relationship is
plotted in the coordinates of dressing product output component content and recovery.
Evaluation of dressability includes study of mineral properties (mechanical, electric, magnetic,
semiconductor, adsorption, chemical, etc.) by spectroscopic, nuclearmagnetic and other
techniques. The ore preparation schedule is chosen on the basis of the petrographic composition
and mechanical properties. It includes crushing, screening, grinding and classification for
opening (exposure) of mineral grains at as large as possible particle size. Ore preparation also
encludes roasting (magnetizing, oxidizing, etc.), and granulation (prior to leaching). Dressing
methods and schedules are chosen by comparison of physical and chemical mineral properties
with allowance for the separated grain size.
Depending on the distribution of the mineral impregnation size, the dressing schedule is
broken down into stages with ore preparation operations interspersed between them. The first
stage is aimed at selection of maximum quantity of final exposed useful mineral or barren rock at
minimum crushing rate. This stage is predetermined by the content of solid mineralizations or
the presence of large amounts of virtually valueble rock. Gravity dressing methods (heavymedia
separation, jigging, etc.), dry magnetic separation, bulk flotation are resorted to at the first stage.
The second stage is aimed at maximum recovery of all valuable components in rough or bulk
concentrates. Here flotation, jigging, table concentration, electric separation, wet magnetic
separation are used. The second stage operations for some ores (uranium, gold, copper, etc.) are
leaching, cyaniding, sorption, etc. When underground or glomeroblastic leaching is used, ore
dressability is evaluated by crushing on occurrence site.
Rough concentrates (bulk or mono) produced by a basic dressing process undergo final
concentration or selection. Here either multiply repeated indentical operations (for example,
recleaning flotation) or chemicalhydrometallurgical operations (colloiddisperse or isomorphic
impregnation, etc.) are resorted to. Final concentration terminates with dewatering of the finished
products. Metal products (for example, gold, copper) are produced from the concentrates.
The dressability studies are followed by elaboration of a process circuit which includes a
combination of diverse dressing and occasionally metallurgical methods and processes, which in
turn resuls in optimal separation of the components by properties (density, magnetic
22
susceptibility, conduction, adsorption, wettability, solubility, etc.) . In the process, a gradient
of mineral particle, ion or molecule concentration is generated in liquid or gas phase, as well as
at the interphases boundaries with the aid of force fields and actions (magnetic, electric, gravity,
adsorption, etc.). Dressability in a specific separation operation depends on the equipment
arranged. Mineral dressability scales are constructed for separation intensity estimation.
Dressability tests at different dressing units and plants conclude by sample dressing to a selected
schedule with technicaleconomic assessment. Here parameters like recovery, product quality
and output as well as the prime cost of processing to the selected schedule are compared.
Dressability criteria: technological, kinetic, thermodynamic, statistical and economic, are
established as a function of the totality of the above parameters. These criteria allow evaluation
of the dressability at different dressing stages with a view to optimization. Dressability tests are
carried out under fullscale, pilot and laboratory conditions, using methods of statistical planning
and processing of results according to the corresponding criteria.
In mining of mineral deposits the highest economic efficiency is achieved during
comprehensive processing of mineral products, which is ore separation to final products with
recovery of all valuable components contained in the initial raw material whose production is
technically and economically feasible. This processing is based on the genetic peculiarities of the
deposits, which always contain multiple of valuable components, in particular, deposits of non
ferrous metals.
Four levels of comprehensive processing of solid mineral products are distinguished
[11,18]:
separation of a single concentrate containing single or multiple essential valuable
components from the initial material by dressing methods (for example, coal from coal fields, a
monometallic component from iron and nonferrous metals ore deposits),
supplementary separation of individual concentrates which are not basic for this
subindustry by dressing methods (for example, molybdenum from coppermolybdenum ore,
copper and bismuth from tungstenmolybdenum ore, barite, fluorite, feldspar from nonferrous
metals ores),
separation of associate elements which do not form independent minerals (rare and
dispersed elements) from concentrates by chemicalmetallurgical methods or combined
processing (for example, selenium and tellurium from sulfides, tellurium and gallium from
alumina, germanium from coal, platinoids from coppernickel ore, part of gold and silver from
pyrite concentrates, etc.),
use of dressing & metallurgical waste for production of building materials and other by
products (for example, road metal, sand and gravel from concentrator tailings, slag wool,
phosphate fertilizers from blast furnace slags, sulfuric acid from nonferrous metal industry gas).
Detailed analysis of the composition of raw materials, dressing products and chemical
metallurgical processing is necessary in comprehensive processing. This analysis is the point of
departure for calculation of the valuable component distribution balance on the basis of the
processing products, and elaboration of a judicious recovery technology.
The feasibility of separating of relevant components is govering by technicaleconomic
conditions: available production facilities, demand for the product type, in question,
transportability, financing of plant and unit construction, prime production cost, etc.
Comprehensive processing is the most crucial concept for all mineral product industrial
sectors. In the USSR nonferrous metals industry it permited production of byproducts, whose
total value was about 30 % of the saleable production and recovery of about 70 elements as 700
different product types. Of these about 30 byproduct concentrate types out of the above products
were produced at dressing plants.
1.7. Mineral losses, waste and secondary resources
When conventional technologies are applied in processing of mineral resources, losses
constituting a considerable fraction of the deposit reserves are unavoidable.[2,11].
23
Mineral losses are part of the balance reserves of solid mineral resources unextracted
during deposit mining or wasted during mining and processing. Mining losses are a relative
value representing incomplete recovery of the balance reserves during deposit mining. The
causes of the losses are various: insufficient and low grade realizating of the geological
prospecting works; resulting in inexact evaluation of the geological characteristics; inconsistency
between the designed mining methods and parameters and the deposit working conditions;
untimely or incomplete preparation of the resources for mining; irrational selective excavation;
inconsistency between the machinery and equipment used for ore extraction and the geological
operation conditions; absence of scientifically grounded loss norms or reliable methods of loss
registration and control, etc. Losses are classified as minewide (pit or placerwide) and
operating. Their amounts are calculated in mass or volume units and as percentages: of the
overall mine (pit, placer) balance reserves for the minewide category, of depleted balance
reserves for the operating losses. For multicomponent ores, losses are registered for all valuable
components of commercial value. They are evaluated through onsite measurements or under
mine on the basis of surveying plans and sections with reliable outlining and testing of deposits
or stoping areas. Where is impossible to apply direct methods, indirect ones are used:
comparison of the mineral quantities in exhausted balance reserves and the runofmine ore.
The valuable component recovery ratio expresses the ratio of the quantity of valuable
components extracted from the interior to the quantity of valuable component enclosed into
counted balance reserves.
In the mining industry balance reserve losses vary from 23 to 4050 % and even more,
depending on working techniques and systems, material value, geological conditions and other
deposit exploitation factors. The lowest losses are attributed to open working (36 %). In
underground mining operating losses account for 1218 % on the average.
The classification of losses in deposit working which was valid In the USSR (Table 1.3)
permitted identification of losses by production stage, working method and system, individual
stoping area.
Table 1.3. Classification of mineral losses in ore mining [9,10].
Losses in dressing are a relative value representing incomplete recovery of the valuable
component in the final dressing product. Valuable component losses are estimated as the
difference (100R)%, where R is the recovery of the valuable component in the concentrate. The
amount unextracted during dressing varies from 5 to 50 %. Losses of associate components
because of noncomprehensive processing are the highest and can reach 100 %. Significant
losses of nonferrous, rare and precious metals in ore dressing are due to abcence of fullscale
processes for extracting valuable components from lean concretions and pulp with undissolved
metals.
24
Technological and mechanical losses are distinguished estimated in process and
product balances. Their amounts depend on the composition, structure and properties of the
mineral resources and dressing methods (Table 1.4). However, the basis losses are governed by
the mineralogical composition and physicochemical properties of the raw materials. In the first
place, losses with fine and coarse grades of the dressed ore full under this category. Substantial
losses are observed when the ore contains several minerals of the same component. Dressing of
such ores are always accompanied by greater losses because different minerals necessitate
different extraction methods, or are extractable by the same method, but with different
effectiveness. Application of combined circuits is economically justified only if the proposition
of the minerals of the component in question is significant.
Table 1.4. Classification of mineral losses in ore dressing [11].
Table 1.5. Types of waste in mining & metallurgical cycle [2].
Waste has always accompanied mining and processing operations, but has not been
considered a particular problem almost up to the middle of the 20th century. As mineral output
grew, waste amount increased, and at a much faster pace than the product yield, since meanwhile
the valuable component content in the ore decreased, the coal ash level went up, deposit mining
conditions became more and more complex and the amounts of spoil and overburden increased
correspondingly. The overall world output of mineral products is estimated approximately at 100
27
bln tpy and increases 100 per cent each 1012 years. Not more than 3040 % of this amount
are used (including building materials and combustible minerals).
The mining waste problem is considered in two aspects.
From the ecological viewpoint, the greatest concern is caused by gas waste, for example,
sulfur dioxide and other sulfur compounds, carbon and nitrogen oxides which amount to over 1
bln tpy in total. Dust emissions containing metallic compounds exceed by tens of times those of
natural sources (volcanoes, forest fires, dustladen wind, etc.). Consumption and pollution of
water by the mining industries is about 10 m 3 /t of mined product. One tenth of hectare of land
area per each one thousand of products on the average is allocated for spoil, and dumps occupy
hundreds of millions of hectares of usually unusable, but in some cases quite productive land.
The recreation capacity of nature is already unable to cope with the growing amounts of waste
quantity which causes irreversible environment pollution.
On the other hand, mining waste has a certain resource potential by generating
technogenic deposits. Recovery of gold, uranium, rare metals from old waste has been carried
out from early in the 60s. Waste is the source of supplementary production of copper, coal, etc.
For example, aluminum, gallium, potash, soda, cement are made from nepheline tailings of
apatite flotation. It is predicted that 3040 % of solid waste will be used as building materials,
2030 % applied for filling gob mine and pit areas. Bacterial leaching permits additional
extraction of heavy nonferrous metals from dressing tailings. Oxidized ferruginous quartzite
accumulated in iron ore deposit dumps and magnetic separation tailings can be reclaimed.
Combined dressing circuits for slags, slime, filter cake and other metallurgical waste are under
development. Sorption and ionexchange technologies permit recovery of nonferrous metals,
salts, halogens from drainage, pulp, mine water, etc. In the USSR more than 30 % of the sulfuric
acid output were produced from waste gases of the nonferrous metals industry.
Waste recycling is as a rule connected with the raw materials requirements of allied
industries. Technological studies on waste reclamation showed that comprehensive processing of
many mineral resources is possible with full or partial transition to production of different
product types from waste (Table 1.6).
The economic aspect of the waste problem calls for comparing the economic estimates of
the damage from waste discard and the gain from reclamation. Storage of solid waste as potential
mineral product source is associated with expenditure on certain protective measures to prevent
weathering, oxidation (incl. bacterial), washingout, as well as occupation of productive land.
Plants for mining waste recycling also involve significant investments.
Solution of the waste problem is related to lowwaste and nonwaste technologies. [2,10].
Under the “Declaration on lowwaste and nonwaste technologies and waste reclamation”
adopted at the AllEuropean conference on cooperation in environment control (Geneva,
November, 1979), nonwaste technology is defined by the UN Economic Commission for
Europe (ECE) as practical application of know how, methods and tools so as to achieve judicious
use of natural resources and energy in conjunction with environment control. This definition is
too extended and in fact includes all kinds of studies, developments and implementations aimed
at judicious use of natural resources, environment control and recreation.[20].
The nonwaste technology* notion developed in Russia has gained a more purposive
interpretation. Nonwaste technology is understood as an individual operation, or a totality of
production operations, whose implementation has no negative effect on the environment. A non
waste technological system is a combination of administrative and technical measures,
technological processes as well as raw and other material preparation methods providing
maximized and comprehensive utilization of raw materials and power and eliminating negative
ecological effects or reducing them to an environmentfriendly minimum level.
The nonwaste technology concept is a matter of convention to some extent. It is
envisaped as an ideal production model which cannot be fully implamenated in the majority of
cases (lowwaste technology), but is approached closer and closer in the course of technological
progress.. The nonwaste production concept is criticized as practically and even theoretically
unfeasible. Referring to the second law of thermodynamics, it is reasoned that just as energy
28
cannot be fully converted into work, so raw materials cannot be fully processed into products
for manufacture and consumption. This is implausible, since all products should be environment
friendly for maintaining good ecology. It can be exemplified by the nonwaste activity of the
natural ecological systems.
Complete utilization of solid waste is sometimes called a dumpfree technology. A
constituent part or a variant of nonwaste technology is also a socalled drainfree technology,
i.e., one without liquid waste. The main trends in creating a drainfree technology are recourse to
waterless technological processes and minimally waterconsuming processes, choice of a
production complex providing subsequent multiple use of water, maximum development of
waste reclamation systems, local treatment of water effluents with recovery of valuable
components, improvement of existing and elaboration of new, mostly, agentfree methods of
water effluent treatment, substitution of air for water in cooling, removal of process waste,
primarily solidphase or highconcentration, for recycling or backfilling.
The systems listed below can be the subject of investigation in nonwaste technology:
production process or production enterprises;
grouping of production stages related to one or several subindustries or territorial units;
territorialproduction combinations, including territorialproduction complexes;
the state as a whole;
groupings of states or border territories of two or several states.
In this context all natural resources of reproducible or irreproducible nature and all
negative effects on environment components should be covered.[20].
The idea of creating a nonwaste technology emerged in analogy to the interrelationship
of natural process, which products of vital activities of one organism are absorbed by other
organisms, so that no excess substances accumulate as a result of the circulation. Nonwaste
technology is the most promising stateoftheart trend in flowsheet design, including those for
mineral processing, thereby solving the problem of more complete comprehensive utilization of
mineral reserves and environment protection. Nonwaste technology presupposes maximum
recovery of all valuable components at minimum output or total absence of solid, liquid or gas
waste. Based on interindustry cooperation it is expekted to produce besides the basic component
associate iron and nonferrous metals, building materials, basic chemicals, fertilizers from run
ofmine ore, and to utilize the spoil for filling gob areas, manufacture of road metal and road
pacing material, construction of irrigation and hydrotechnical structures, landscape leveling.
The rock mass balance shows that annual accumulation of mining waste is approximately
the same as the output of nonmetallic building materials (sand, lime, road metal, etc.). However,
in this case full substitution is impossible and economically irrational in terms of transportation
conditions, material composition, etc. Only partial substitution is possible, though on a much
larger scale than at present (34 % in total).[2,19].
It should be noted, hawever, that if nonwaste technology is taken in its wide sence, the
scale of waste generation in mineral mining and processing regions makes it possible to pose the
question of constructing cheap irrigation systems in the form of hydraulic fill dams, and
landscape leveling with subsequent agricultural or power utilization. In this context nonwaste
technology is aimed at conservation of agricultural land and increased yields through lower
environment pollution.
Inprinciple feasibility of nonwaste technology depends on the scale of the system under
consideration. For example, it is unlikely that all the input raw materials can be used for making
useful products within a single undertaking: plant or concentrator. A large complex producing a
wide product range is more suitable for the wastefree idea to be implemented. This idea can
largely be put into practice within one region or state.
Lowwaste technology tends to complex utilization of mineral resources and environment
protection, which implies maximum full extraction of all valuable components from raw
materials on the operating site with minimum yield of solid, liquid and gas waste. Unlike non
waste technology, which entails environmentfriendly operation with full waste recycling or
backfilling, water circulation and dump rehabilitation, it only partially solves the problem of
29
complex application of raw materials and prevention of irreversible changes in the natural
environment. Lowwaste technology implies creation and implamentation of supplementary
product manufacture from waste, development of water circulation systems based on local waste
water treatment and elaboration of technologies for industrial waste recycling into secondary
material resources.
The need for establishing a lowwaste technology appeared in the middle of the 20th
century because of the catastrophically growing pollution of the hydrosphere, atmosphere and
biosphere by accumulating solid, liquid and gas waste. The scale of pollution in many regions is
beyond natural remediation. Lowwaste technology makes for a more extensive mineral product
base, lower investments and operating costs in manufacture, higher recovery of useful
components through complex utilization.
One type of lowwaste technology is drainfree industrial use of water, with the larger
part of the water in the recycling circuit with low makeup rate. Drainfree systems with full,
partial recovery or no recovery of separated components (i.e., with waste storage) are
distinguished. Lowwaste technologies must be environmentfriendly, technically feasible in
practice and economically expedient.
In the USSR the first example of a lowwaste technology was implemented into practice
at the Volhov aluminum plant (1960) which processes nepheline concentrate into alumina,
calcined soda, potash and cement with recovery of helium.
Lowwaste technology is expected to yield 2025 % reduction of the rock mass output
(mainly due to production of building materials from waste), lower overall prime product cost,
and restoration of the environment in mining and processing regions.
As follows from the above discussion, environment protection and ecological problems
play a fairly important role in mining and metallurgical industry. These problems will be
adressed in detail further on. Here only some ecological notions will be introduced.
Environment pollution is the degree of harmful effect of an industrial project on the natural
environment (organic and inorganic) with allowance for social, sanitary and economic factors.
Emission is accidental or deliberate discharge of matter or energy polluting the
environment.
Steadystate pollution is regularly repetitive or continuous discharge of matter or energy
which polluting the environment.
Normalized emission is the total discharge of pollutants into the environment with
allowance for the differences in their degree of harmfulness, determined as ratios of maximum
permissible concentrations or on the basis of specialized medicalbiological studies.
Ecologicaleconomic damage is actual or potential consequences of resource losses
during production or owing to an adverse impact of the undertaking on the natural environment,
the agricultural, and water services, forestry or mineral reserves in the interior.
Potential damage is losses due to pollution in the absece of preservation measures and
expressed as cost; it can take the form of labor, material, financial resources losses in curred as a
result of air & water pollution.
Actual damage is losses expressed as cost and connected with changes in the steadystate
equilibrium of the natural environment and socialeconomic consequences of these changes.
Prevented damage is difference between potential and actual impairment at a certain
momentin time in a certain region.
30
Table 1.6. Possible trends of waste utilization in allied industries
Wastegenerating industries Products from waste for sectors
fuel iron & steel, alloys & nonferrous metals, fertilizers & basic building materials materials for nuclear other fields
compounds alloys & compounds chemistry products engineering
Coal industry Refuse coal, Fe from pyrite Al, Al2 O3 , AlSi alloys Soil liming agents, Aggloporite, Mine filling,
mine methane sulfuric acid from road metal, road building
Refuse gasification pyrite brick
Heat power engineering Combustible matter FeSi alloys from AlSi alloys from ash, Sulfuric acid from Road metal, U, Th Road building
from ash, power alloys Ge,Ga,Mo waste gas, micro ash gravel, agglo
generating plant heat fertilizers porite, brick
Iron & steel industry Furnace heat Fe from oxidized V, Co, Cu, Ni, Ti, Zr, Phosphoric Road metal, slag Road building, gorge
quartzites Zn, Mg, Ba, Ta, Nb, fertilizers concrete, cement, and mine filling,
etc. refractories, sand, irrigation construction
lime
Nonferrous metals industry Autogenous sulfide Fe from pyrite, Metals from old Sulfuric acid, Ditto U, Th, Li, Be Mine filling
combustion, metal pyrrhotite, titano refuse, slags, tailings microfertilizers
lurgical furnace heat magnetite dumps,
sedimentations,
drainage
Production of mineral Magnetite, Rare earths, Al from Phosphorus from U, Li from salt Ditto
fertilizers (mine chemistry) titanomagnetite, nepheline, Ti, Mg dressing tailings, water, Th
perovskite soda products from
nepheline, fertilizers
from dressing waste
Production of nonmetallic Magnetite and Fe in Ti, rare earths in Soil liming agents, Mine and open pit
building materials sand cleaning sand processing soil structure filling, road building,
improvement, irrigation structures
moisture adsorbent
in soil
Nuclear power engineering Powerplant heat Fe, Mn Au, Cu, Zn, Pb Microfertilizers, Final extraction of U, Mine filling
phosphoric fertiliz Th from refuse
ers, sulfuric acid
31
6. Possible trends of waste utilization in allied
industries
Wastegenerating industries Products from waste for sectors
fuel iron & steel, alloys & nonferrous metals, fertilizers & basic building materials materials for nuclear other fields
compounds alloys & compounds chemistry products engineering
Coal industry Refuse coal, Fe from pyrite Al, Al2 O3 , AlSi alloys Soil liming agents, Aggloporite, Mine filling,
mine methane sulfuric acid from road metal, road building
32
Unlike the rest of the book, the information provided in this chapter has an
awkward aspect that needs to be explained. The factual data on ore deposits and
mining, dressing and metallurgical faciliies tend to dynamic change, and particulary
in the territory and period in question cannot be regarded as constant and reliable.
The initial data were compiled from a rariety of sources, published or based on the
professional experience of the authors, who had at different times staged at all major
dressing plants and metallurgical enterprises of the fomer USSR.
In our view, the must verified and reliable material is thet published in the
“Encyclopedia of Mining [10], in which L. Barsky had participated as a contributor
and as redactor of oredressing section. In addition, information from [2246] was
processed and corrected on the basis of individual articles and of data from the Non
ferrous Metallurgy Information Institute. A significant amount of data, including the
groundwork for the maps indicating deposits and industrial enterprises, was drawn
from the composite work [48] carried out by variance institutes. The dates on
Kazakhstan was drawn from [49,50].
Still the reader much be made aware of the need for coution in having recoverse to
this information. Over the last 710 years the mining sector or the former Soviet
Union has undergone changes too drastic to be reflected in a book. Besides natural
changes associated with depletion, opening of new ones and conotruction of
facilities, a universal upheaval has taken place in the territory in question. Following
the social, political and economic transformations, same enterprises have been closed
down or converted, while others have flourised; old industrial, technological and
economic links have been broken and new ones formed. The basic causes of these
transformation are:
34
The emergence of new states and new international bouderies, with the
corresponding of interests.This has in turn led to breakdown of the technological
chain of the miningprocessing complex (deposit mining works ore dressing
metallurgy metalworking consumption). In these circumstances, individual
enterprises were forced to close down or curtail their operations, to look for new
partners (including foreign once), etc.
The disappearance of many former customers, for the originally State ordered
production (the military industry complex; the nuclear energy agencies; the central
planing Authority with its permanrnt inconsistencies) as often as not accompanied
by suspension of payments for delivered products and of staff wages.
Solid changes at the enterprises themselves, following wage delays,
privatization, acquisition by former investors, etc.
The accession of the newly states to the world market, with the attendant effect
on the economics of enterprise operation. Working of lowgrade ores became
unprofitable in absence of planned State orders, and as a result, mining and
production of tin, gold, uranium etc. were cut down, while for other metals, now
expostable, the prospects have improved.
Disorganisation through warfare ( Caucasus, Tadzhikistan, etc.) national
aspirations and claims on Russia (the Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Central Asia), local
conflicts (the Far East, the Kuzbass, etc.).
Becouse of these and other factors, the productivity fluctuations in the mining and
associated industries impede reliable forecasting and generalisation. More over, the
conversation of these contries from a planned to ordinary market economy
aggravates the dynamicism of the changes in terms of structure, scale and
establishment.
Still, the information provided in this chapter is unique in its comprehensiveness
and scope, and can serve as a sufficiently reliable guideline in predicting the
development of the mining and metallurgical industries in the CIS. In any event, the
data on the location of nonferrous metal ore deposits, on the plants operating at
these locations, and on existing technological and economic links are in our opinion
of definite interest.
Our apologies to the readers for any errors and inaccurancies due to the factors
enumerated above.
2.1. Background
The area occupied by the USSR was 22,403,200 km 2 (one fourth portion of the
country’s territory was the European part). The population was 281.7 mln people (as
of Jan.1, 1987). Fifteen union republics composed the USSR: Azerbaijan, Armenia,
Byelorussia (new name: Byelarus), Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kirghizia (new
name: Kyrgyzstan), Latvia, Lithuania, Moldavia (new name: Moldova), the Russian
Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan.[10,12,26,27].
The distribution of nonferrous metal resources in the CIS countries, the
production and consumption of minerals in the FSU along with the exports/imports of
minerals in the FSU are given in Tables 2.12.4.[23,25]. The nonferrous metals
minerals are distributed extremely nonuniformly. The Baltic republics (Estonia,
Latvia and Lithuania) as well as Moldavia, Byelorussia and Turkmenistan are
virtually deprived of nonferrous metal deposits.
In the Baltic states mining industries are comparatively small in size or value.
There are phosphate deposits at Maardu in Estonia. The former Soviet republics of
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania will go on keeping economic relations with many of the
35
former USSR republics, involving trade or exchange of mineral and energy resources
for the most part.
2.1.1. Basic Features of Geological Structure [4,10,49,54,55,56,61].
The large part of the territory is of platform structure. In the South and East
platform areas are framed with coverfolded and roofblock mountain structures
which are partially young, Cenozoic, and partially more ancient, from Late Cambrian
to Mesozoic, regenerated by the latest movements.
The extreme eastern periphery of the country is the region of the active
continental margin of the Pacific Ocean while the northern periphery is the passive
margin of the Arctic Ocean.
Ancient platforms have the Early Cambrian base, Archean in the large part.
They are the EastEuropean (Russian) and Siberian platforms. The latter is wholly in
the USSR territory while the former extends with the bulk of its territory towards the
Scandinavian countries, Poland and Rumania. Besides, a small North Barents
platform is prominent in the northeast part of the Barents Sea (FranzJosef Land)
while the Hyperborean platform, with the PreCambrian base as well but, maybe,
somewhat younger, stands out in the northeast part of the Novosibirsk archipelago
and the nearby water area.
The EastEuropean platform occupied almost the whole European part of the
USSR, exclusive of Timan and the Pechora lowland, the western Ural slope, the
Carpathians and the extreme Moldavian south. The western platform borderline was
almost wholly, excluding a small section along the Ciscarpathian foredeep, outside the
USSR territory, coinciding with the socalled BalticPodolian lineament. The platform
is bounded by faults along which adjacent folded systems of different age are thrust
over the platform. In some areas in the southeast and south the platform borderline is
concealed by the cover of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments transient from the
ancient
36
Table 2.1. Distribution of nonferrous metal resources in the CIS countries (%)[23,25]
State Cu Ni Pb Zn Sn Ti Sb Hg Mo W Al Others
Russia 52.5 92.7 23.9 37.2 84.9 82.0 23.0 50.6 68.3 61.0 52.5 U, Au, As, Ag,
Be, Cd, Mg, Co,
Pt
Kazakhstan 32.2 5.0 57.6 49.0 4.6 2.0 5.0 27.1 30.0 45.5 U, Ag, As, Be, Bi,
Cd, Mg, Re, Ag,
Au, Ge
Ukraine 0.9 0.6 0.7 16.0 2.0 4.8 U, Be
Uzbekistan 7.4 7.3 6.0 1.4 6.0 4.0 U, Au
Georgia 1.8 0.4 0.7
Armenia 1.6 0.3 0.4 1.7 Au
Azerbaijan 4.5 1.6 1.2 2.0
Kyrgyzstan 3.0 14.4 38.6 3.0 U, Au
Tajikistan 1.4 8.3 4.8 3.2 52.3 2.9 2.0 Au, U,As, Bi,
Cd, Ag
Table 2.2. Mineral production in the former USSR for 19821991
(,000 tonnes, unless otherwise specified) [46,5153]
Table 2.3. Mineral consumption in the former USSR
(,000 tonnes, unless otherwise specified) [52,53]
Table 2.4. Mineral exports/imports in the former USSR for 19811990,
(,000 tonnes, unless otherwise specified) [23,25,29,43]
38
platform to the young one. The platform base is barren in the Baltic and Ukrainian shields,
superimposing the zero contour line in the Byelorussian and Voronezh massifs, in the latter one
it is stripped by open pits in the region of the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly, being exposed
somewhere in the Don River valley. The base is laid bare by numerous drillholes in the rest of
the area. Archean formations, among which relics of the most ancient rock with an age of up to
3.9 bln years are encountered, are of prime value in the base structure (the Kola Peninsula,
Karelia, the Voronezh massif, the Ukrainian shield). The Early Proterozoic formations with a
more limited range compose a protoplatform mantle (Karelia, Pechenga Imandra Varzuga in
the Kola Peninsula) or protosynclinal folded systems (the KurskKrivoi Rog, OdessaKanev and
OrekhovoPavlograd platforms). The sedimentary mantle of the EastEuropean platform
composes the Russian platform, including Upper Wendian and Phanerozoic sediments. The
mantle base incorporates numerous rift structures made by land and shoalymarine detrital and
partially carbonate sediments, involving basic volcanites here and there.
The shoalymarine CambrianLower Devonian Russian platform mantle sediments are
limited in abundance, located mostly within the Baltic and partially Moscovian syneclises. On
the contrary, the Middle Devonian Lower Triassic sediments are the most abundant.
In the Middle Paleozoic a sublatitude uplift streak was formed. It includes the
Byelorussian and Voronezh anteclises and separates the Baltic and Moscovian syneclises from
the PripyatDnieperDonets aulacogen and its eastern continuation, the Donets basin with the
heavy coalbearing Middle Carboniferous rock mass which has turned into the folded Donets
Range by the middle of the Early Permian. Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments are mature mainly
in the southern half of the Russian platform, in the Ukrainian and Caspian syneclises, on the
Black Sea slope of the Ukrainian shield and only partially in the deepest parts of the Baltic and
Moscovian syneclises. Land and shoalymarine terrigene sediments of the Upper Triassic and
Lower Cretaceous period change to carbonate ones (chalk, marl) of the Upper Cretaceous
Lower Paleogene period and again to terrigene, shoalymarine and land ones of the Oligocene
Neogene and ultimately to glacial (in the north) and perglacial (in the south) Quaternary ones.
The Caspian syneclise situated in the southeast angle of the Russian platform shows a unique
structure. The central part base sank to the depth of more than 20 km, and the consolidated crust
exhibits the suboceanic structure type. In the Devonian and prior to the beginning of the
Kungurian age of the Early Permian the Caspian syneclise was a deepsea basin uncompensated
by sedimentation. In the Kungurian it became a place of accumulation of heavy saltbearing
39
strata which presence is associated with salt tectonics typical of the series in the overlying
shoalymarine, partially land sediments of the Upper Permian, Mesozoic and Cenozoic.
The TimanPechora platform adjoins the ancient EastEuropean platform in the North
East. Here the Cambrian base is superimposed with the Riphean folded complex outcroping in
Timan, the Kanin Peninsula, the Kildin Island, the Sredny (Middle) and Rybachiy Islands and
overlying the mantle of the southern part of the Barenz Sea and the Pechora trough.
The second big ancient platform (Siberian) occupies the area between Yenisei and Lena,
Taimyr and the Baikal region. The northwest and northern platform borders are concealed
below the margin of the MesozoicCenozoic mantle of the WestSiberian platform, Yenisei
Khatanga depression and the Laptev Sea; the eastern border is along the Cisverkhoyansk
depression and to the south along the SetteDaban Range, the southern border is along the fault
limiting the Stanovoye Nagorye (Upland) and farther to the Baikal region. The southwest border
extends along Eastern Sayan and the Yenisei Kryazh (Range). The platform base is exposed in
the Aldan Shield, Anabar massif, Olenek Uplift and on the southwest platform periphery, in the
Sharyzhalgai block and the Baikal Region. It is bedded mostly by Archean rocks, the most
ancient ones of them are considered to be deeply metamorphized formations: basic and ultrabasic
slate, plagiogneiss, charnockite. In the Early Proterozoic the Stanovoy Belt underwent intensive
tectonicthermal regeneration, and the protoplatform land and shoalymarine sedimentary mantle
became to be deposited on the already stabilized Aldan shield. The North Baikal volcano
plutonic belt appeared along the southern platform margin in the end of the Early Proterozoic.
The sedimentary mantle on the Siberian platform began to be accumulated in the Late Wendian,
and sedimentation and trappean magmatism were concentrated in aulacogenes in the Riphean
and early in the Wendian.
In the Riphean and Paleozoic the EastEuropean and Siberian platforms were divided by
the wide moving UralOkhotsk or UralMongolian geosynclinal belt of meridional strike which
turns to the east in the south, gaining latitude strike and separating the Siberian platform from the
ChineseKorean one. The northern belt segment is UralSiberian, and the southern one is Central
Asian. The latter partially goes out of the USSR territory to China and Mongolia. This belt is
considered to be bedded on the Early PreCambrian land crust which is common with the
adjacent ancient platform crust but underwent intense destruction during the Riphean, especially
in the second half. As a result by the Early Cambrian here appeared extended oceanic crust
basins which compose the PaleoAsian Ocean in which however there were also preserved
numerous land crust fragments (microcontinents), KazakhstanNorth Tien Shan, Dzhungar,
TuvaMongolian and others, more shoaly, particularly, over the ocean periphery.
The second biggest moving belt of the FSU territory is the Mediterranean one which
frames the EastEuropean platform in the south and separates it from the African one, and
borders directly or almost directly the UralOkhotsk belt to the east of the Caspian Sea. The
bedding of the Mediterranean geosynclinal belt relates to the Late Riphean, like the Ural
Okhotsk belt, it appeared on the destruction developed and preserved as microcontinents of the
PreCambrian land crust.
The eastern marginal land of the USSR also underwent an active development process in
the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. The VerkhoyanyeChukotka folded region which final distortions
relate to the Late JurassicEarly Cretaceous period is situated to the east of the Siberian platform.
The large part of this region up to the Chersky Crest in the east was in progress in the Paleozoic
and Early Mesozoic period as the passive margin of the Siberian continent. In the MiddleLate
Jurassic period the volcanic arch was formed on the edge of the KolymaOmolon
microcontinent, and the collision with the VerkhoyanyeKolyma margin of the Siberian
continent began. It brought about foldedthrust distortions of the VerkhoyanyeKolyma system
which are rather moderate in the large part of the area but expressed by smooth thrusts along the
borderline with the Cisverkhoyanye depression generated already in the end of the JurassicEarly
Cretaceous period, as well as in the collision zone proper.
40
The Far East geosynclinal region covers SikhoteAlin, the Seas of Okhotsk and Japan,
Sakhalin, Kurylys, Kamchatka, the Koryak Highland, representing one of the segments of the
Pacific Ocean geosynclinal belt; the greater part of the region appeared on the oceanic type crust
evidenced by variousage ophiolites from Ordovician to Late Cretaceous. However here
relatively small detached masses of the Early PreCambrian land crust are also wellknown in
Kamchatka, in the Taigonos Peninsula, in Sikhote Alin. Supposedly, the large Mediterranean
Central massif of the Sea of Okhotsk has equally an ancient base. The folded systems of the
region in general extend in line with the contour of the Pacific Ocean trough.
2.1.2. Minerageny [46,10,59]
The Archean, Proterozoic, Paleozoic and MesozoicCenosoic mineragenic epochs can be
distinguished in the geological history of formation of mineral deposits in the USSR territory.
Magmatic coppernickel deposits of Monchetundra in the Kola Peninsula,
metamorphogenic mica pegmatites of the Liabar massif, Dzhugdzhur, etc., phlogopite deposits
of Aldan were formed in the Archean epoch. It is typical of the Proterozoic epoch to develop
feldspar, mica and rare metal pegmatites of Siberia, Karelia and Ukraine, ferruginous quartzites
of Krivoi Rog, the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly, Kostomuksha, etc., magmatic titanomagnetites of
Pudozhgorye and Karelia, iron ore scarns of Tayezhny type in Yakutia, pyrites of Karelia,
coppernickel ore of Pechenga, raremetal albitite, goldbearing black shale formation, ancient
cupreous sandstones of Udokan in Siberia.
The Paleozoic epoch comprising plentiful magmatogenic formations of Baikal,
Caledonian and Hercynian cycles of geological development features wide manifestations of
magmatic, scarn, albitite, greisen, hydrothermal, stratiform and pyrite deposits of iron, non
ferrous, rare, noble and radioactive metal ores distributed in Ural, Central Asia, Kazakhstan and
Siberia. Paleozoic bauxite deposits should be pointed out from the sedimentogene deposits of the
epoch.
The MesozoicCenozoic epoch comprising formations of Cimmerian and Alpine cycles is
distinguished by abundant development of postmagmatic nonferrous, rare and noble metals ores
deposits shown in Caucasia, Eastern Transbaikalia, Primorye and in the NorthEast. Titanium
deposits should be mentioned among the sedimentogene deposits of the epoch.
In the FSU territory there may be identified the biggest tectonicmineralogenic
subdivisions as follows: EastEuropean platform, Siberian platform, Paleozoic UralMongolian
geosynclinalfolded belt, Pacific Ocean geosynclinalfolded belt of the Far East and NorthEast,
Alpine geosynclinalfolded belt.
In the EastEuropean platform there is minerageny of the ancient crystalline base, the
Phanerozoic mantle, and the Phanerozoic and tectonicmineragenic activization zones. Magmatic
titanomagnetite deposits are known among greenstone series of the Archean period and
Proterozoic gabbro formation rocks. They can be exemplified by the Pudozhgorye deposit on the
eastern bank of the Onega lake. Magmatic deposits of coppernickel ores of the Pechenga
Varzuga spillitekeratophyre and diabase formation of the Kola Peninsula karelids are typical.
Sulfurpyrite formations are also known within the paleogeosynclinal trough valleys of the
regional karelids. Tin ore in the North Ladoga region scarns is confined to the Late Proterozoic
granite exocontact. Among the Carboniferous and Jurassic weathering crust products there are
laterite, talus lakemoor and alluvial bauxite deposits: Vislov, Severo(North)Onega, Tikhvin,
Timan, etc. Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Paleogene and Neogene titanium mineral placers (the Yarega
deposit of the Devonian, the Samotkannoe deposit of the Neogene, etc.) are known in the East
European platform sedimentary rock mantle.
Zones of Phanerozoic tectonicmineragenic activization of the EastEuropean platform
are associated with the formation of apatites in the Khibini, loparite and the Kovdor carbonatite
iron ore deposit in the Kola Peninsula as well as hydrothermal deposits of mercury ore of the
Nikitovka deposit and leadzinc ore of the Nagolniy Kryazh in Donbas.
41
2.1.3. Nonferrous Metals Ores [2,10,11,57,58]
Copperpyrite, copperporphyry, cupreous sandstones, sulfide coppernickel and
complex polymetallic ores are of the greatest commercial value. There are copperpyrite ore
deposits along the eastern Ural slope (from Ivdel in the north to Mugodzhary in the south) as
well as in Northern Caucasia. Copperporphyry ore deposits include, for example, Kounradsky
and Boschekul in Kazakhstan, Kalmakyr (Almalyk) in Uzbekistan, Kadzharan and Agarak in
Armenia while cupreous sandstone type deposits include Dzhezkazgan in Kazakhstan and
Udokan in the Chita Territory. The former has been mined for about half a century, and the latter
located in the BaikalAmur line route is under preparation for commercialization. Sulfide
coppernickel ores of magmatic deposits of the Norilsk ore region and the Kola Peninsula
contain large copper reserves. Complex polymetallic deposits of copperlead and copperlead
zinc ores are an essential copper source.
Leadzinc ores are localized primarily in hydrothermal and sedimentaryexhalation
deposits. Hereat the largest deposits are attributed to medium and lowtemperature stratiform and
pyrite deposits bedded in laminated mass of sedimentary and partially effusivesedimentary
rocks. Deposits of this type have been explored in the Central Kazakhstan ore region, in the
Karatau Mountains, in Dzhungar Alatau, in Altai, in Uzbekistan, Buryatia, Transbaikalia,
Azerbaijan. Hightemperature metasomatic scarn deposits identified in Primorye, Tajikistan and
other regions are of important commercial value. The Gorevsky metasomatic deposit in
carbonate PreCambrian rocks was explored in the Krasnoyarsk Krai. Mediumtemperature vein
deposits in eruptive and other rocks are mined in Northern Caucasia and Tajikistan. A majority
of leadzinc ore deposits are of complex composition, containing, along with lead and zinc,
copper, silver, often gold, cadmium and rare elements as well as sulfur pyrite, sometimes barite
and fluorite. An important zinc source is copperpyrite ores of Ural and other regions.
The main nickel and cobalt source is magmatic deposits of sulfide nickel ores which are
situated in the Norilsk ore region in the north of the Krasnoyarsk Krai and in the Kola Peninsula.
An important feature of these ores is their complex multicomponent composition: along with
nickel and cobalt, the ores are the most important source of copper and other metals. Exogenic
silicate nickelcobalt ore deposits are known in Ural and Western Kazakhstan. Hydrothermal
deposits of coppercobalt, ironcobalt and cobalt proper ores are identified in some regions
(Azerbaijan, Tuva, etc.).
Tungsten and molybdenum ores are centred mostly on scarn contactmetasomatic and
hydrothermal vein and storkwork deposits. The Tyrnyauz tungstenmolybdenum ore deposit
located in Northern Caucasia is attributed to the first type. Tungsten (scheelite) scarn type
deposits are in Uzbekistan and in the Far East. Hydrothermal tungsten deposits of vein and
stockwork type are identified in Buryatia and Kazakhstan. Vein and stockwork molybdenum
deposits of hydrothermal genesis are explored in Transbaikalia, Western Siberia and Kazakhstan.
An important source is Mocontaining copperporphyry ore deposits of Kazakhstan and
Armenia.
Titanium ore deposits are known as sedimentary rutileilmenite placers (for example, in
Ukraine, in the coastal Baltic Sea sediments, etc.), as metamorphized ilmenitecontaining
sandstones (the Yarega deposit in Komi) or as magmatic titatomagnetite ores which essential
deposits are found in Ural, Western Siberia, the Kola Peninsula.
Paleozoic highgrade bauxite deposits have been explored in Northern Ural (Krasnaya
Shapochka, Kaliya, Cheremukhovo, etc.). Here big open pits of the North Ural bauxitebearing
region are in operation. They are the suppliers of raw materials to the Ural aluminium plants.
The bauxite deposits explored in Western Kazakhstan are the raw materials base for the Pavlodar
Aluminium Plant. As to the European part, the most important bauxite deposits are identified in
the Arkhangelsk territory (the North Onega bauxitebearing region), Komi (the Timan bauxite
bearing province), and in the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly region where bauxites are bedded in the
42
weathering crust together with iron ore deposits. In Siberia comparatively small bauxite deposits
are known in the Salair Kryazh, the Angara River region, Eastern Sayan. Russia was the world
first country to put into practice production of alumina, cement and soda products from
nepheline ore which deposits are in the Kola Peninsula (apatitenepheline ore of Khibini),
Siberia (KiyaShaltyr and other deposits of nepheline syenites), Transcaucasia and Central Asia.
The dominating part of Russian tin ore deposits is of Mesozoic age, connected with the
Pacific Ocean ore belt and the Mesozoic activation zone. The most essential deposits represented
mainly by cassiteritesulfide ores have been identified in Yakutia, the Magadan and Chita
Territories, the Khabarovsk and Primorski Krai. Tinore deposits of Paleozoic age were explored
in Kyrgyzstan. Besides original ore deposits, tinbearing placers are known in Yakutia and the
Magadan Territory.
Mercury and antimony ore deposits of hydrothermal genesis have been identified in
many regions of the country. The most important explored deposits are situated in Ukraine
(Nikitovka mercury), in Kyrgyzstan (Khaidarkan and Chauvay mercury, Kadamdzhay and
TerekSay antimony), in Tajikistan (Dzhizhikrut mercuryantimony) as well as in Yakutia,
Chukotka, Kamchatka and Ore Altai.
Placer and original gold deposits are known in the Magadan Territory, Yakutia, Eastern
Siberia, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Ural, Armenia. The main silver source is silvercontaining ores
of polymetallic deposits. In the prerevolutionary Russia platinum was mined only from the Ural
placers, in the USSR platinum and other metals of this group used to be extracted from magmatic
deposits of sulfide coppernickel ores.
Accumulations of tin, titanium, zirconium, iron, manganese, sometimes gold minerals,
mainly as coastalmarine placers, are grouped in nearshore bottom deposits of the Far East seas.
Titaniumzirconium placers were identified in the nearshore sediments of the Black and Baltic
Seas.
Table 2.5 shows the main deposits, plants and metallurgical works of nonferrous metals
ores, with the general information on essential and secondary metals concentrations along with
the basic deposits and their geography. [2,10,47,48,50,58].
Table 2.5. Mining, dressing plants and works
P: BakrTau, quarry O Cu,
D: Sibayskaja, flotation C Zn,S,Au;
C Cu,Zn,Au,
C Ag
Zn, Cu;
S
Russia, SredneUralskiy
Ural D: flotation C Cu,Zn,Au,
M: smelting C Ag
C Zn, Cu;
M S
Cu (metal)
H2SO4
Pfertilazer
Russia, Buribay Oktjabrskiy P, mine O Cu, Zn, S
Ural Buribaevskaja D, C C
flotation
Russia, Kirovograd P: Levichinskiy quarry O Cu, Zn, S
Ural P: Lomovskiy mine O Cu, Zn, S
P: NovoEzhovskiy mine O Cu, S
D: Kirovogradskaja, C Cu,Zn,Au,
flotation C Ag
C Zn, Cu;
M S
M: Kirovogradskiy, M Cu (metal)
smelting M Bronze
ZnO
Russia, Turjinskoe, Svjatogor:
Ural Volkovka P: Turjinskiy mine O Cu, Au,
P: Volkovskiy, quarry O Ag,S
D: Krasnouralskaja, C Cu,Zn,V,,P
flotation C Cu
C Zn, Cu
C FeV
D: Turjinskaja, flotation C Cu,
M Au,Ag,S
M: Krasnouralskiy, M Cu, Fe
smelting Cu (metal)
Au, Ag
H2SO4
Pfertilazer
Russia, Karabash P: Central mine O Cu, S
Ural Secondary recovered Cu M Cu (metal)
M: smelting M Cu (matte)
CNi Pt etc.,
Ni,Co, Cu,
C pyrotine Pt etc.
Pt etc.,
M: smeltind, electrolysis, M Cu,Ni,Co
hydrometalurgy Cu;Ni;Co;
Pt;Se;Te;
H2SO4;
East Sibiria Kholbin
Father East (Laso)
Russia, Odinoky, P; D: gravitation C Au,Ag
Father East Adycha
Russia, Lebedinoe P; D: gravitation C Au,Ag
Father East
Russia, Berelokh, P; D: gravitation C Au,Ag
Father East Natalka
Russia, Ulakhan P; D: gravitation C Au,Ag
Father East Onkuchakh,
Kular
Russia, Karalveem P; D: gravitation C Au,Ag
Father East
Russia, Vesenny P; D: gravitation C Au,Ag
Father East
Russia, Dolgozhdan P; D: gravitation C Au,Ag
Father East y,
Zolotogorsk
Russia, Valkarem P; D: gravitation C Au,Ag
Father East
Russia, Maimakan P; D: gravitation C Au,Ag
Father East Karantsay
Russia, Kharbalakh, P; D: gravitation C Au,Ag
Father East AllakhYun
Russia, Kerby, P; D: gravitation C Au,Ag
Father East Severnoe
Kolendo
Russia, Sorskoe Sinyukha.P;
West. D: gravitation C Au,Ag
Sibiria
Russia, Lake Zolotushino:.P; O Pb, Zn
West. Malinovoe D: flotation C Pb; Zn
Sibiria
Russia, Egor’evsko .P;
West. e; D: gravity C Au,Ag
Sibiria Dodonkovs
koe
Russia, Zhireken Novoshirokinskiy: P: O Pb, Zn
East Sibiria D: flotation C Pb; Zn
Russia, Barun P; O W
East Sibiria Shivey, D: gravity C W
Bazhenov
Russia, Itaka P: O Mo
East Sibiria D: flotation C Mo
Russia, Zhuya P: quarry C Au,Ag
East Sibiria group: D: gravity
Irokind,
Mir,
Sputnik
Russia, Kunar P: quarry C Au,Ag
East Sibiria D: gravity
Russia, Vangash, Au,Ag
51
East Sibiria Sovetsky
Russia, Boidaaibo, Au,Ag
East Sibiria khotogo
Murbay
Russia, Naryn, Au,Ag
East Sibiria Malorechen
sk
Russia, Ikibzyakh, Au,Ag
East Sibiria Maly Patom
Russia, Ayano P; Au,Ag
Father East Maisky D: gravity
group: Dan,
KetKap,
Odola,
Tomptokan
Russia, Chardinsky P; Au,Ag
Father East D: gravity
Russia, Selemdzha Au,Ag
Father East Milkan
Russia, Beliberda, Au,Ag
Father East Sredniy,
Idzhek
Sajak
Kazakhstan Zhyrem P: O Pb, Ba
Stepnyak D: flotation C Pb; Ba
Kazakhstan Akbakay, Akbakay, P: O Pb,Zn,Au,
NE Kosmurun, D: flotation C Cu
Akbastau, Pb; Au
Muzek, Cu; Zn
Prioskoe
Kazakhstan Kutessay P: O Pb, Zn, TR
D: flotation C Pb; Zn;
52
TR
Kazakhstan Karagaily P: O Pb, Zn, Ba
NE D: flotation C Pb; Zn; Ba
Kazakhstan Kairakty P: O Pb, Zn, Ba
D: flotation C Pb; Zn; Ba
Kazakhstan Achisay P: O Pb, Zn, Ba
Karaoba D: flotation C Pb; Zn; Ba
Kazakhstan Belousovka P: O Pb, Zn,
NE Alaigir D: flotation C Pb; Zn;
Kazakhstan Akchatau P: Akzhal O Pb,Zn, Au
P:Akchatau O Au, Mo
P:Zhambul O Be, Pb,Zn,
D; Akchatau, flotation C Be; Pb
Au; Zn;
Mo
Kazakhstan Zhezken, Zhezken:
Orlovsky P: Orlovsky, mine O Cu, Zn, Pb
D: Zhezken, flotaton C Cu; Zn
Kazakhstan Ridder Leninogorsk:
NE Sokolnoe, P: O Pb,Zn,Cu,
Chekmar, D: flotation C Au
Shubino, Pb; Zn;
Tishinskoe, D technogen, gravity C CuAu
Dolinnoe M: smelting, M Pb
hydrometallurgy Pb
Kazakhstan Ubileynoe, Irtysh:
NE Snegirichins P: mine O Pb,Zn,Cu,
k, D: flotation C Au
Anisimov Pb; Zn;
Kluch, M: smelting, M CuAu
Irtysh, hydrometallurgy Cu; Au
Belousovka
Kazakhstan Irtish Irtish:
NE P: mine O Ti
D: flotation C Ti
M: smelting, M Ti; Mg
hydrometallurgy
Kazakhstan Obuchovo TiZr
Kazakhstan Karagaily Aktash: P: quarry O Sn
Kazakhstan Bestyube Karaoba: P: quarry O Sn,W,Mo,
Bi
Kazakhstan Karaoba, Aktas, P O Hg
Stepnoe
Kazakhstan Semizbugy Belogor’e Nb, Ta
Kazakhstan Novo Be, Li
Archipovo
Kazakhstan Kundybay TR, Y
Kazakhstan Bolshoe Pavlodar: P: quarry O Al2O3
Yarovoe M: hydrometallurgy M Al2O3
lake
53
EastAgat
Kazakhstan Vasilkovka, Krasny Oktyabr, P O Al2O3
Lisakovsk
Kazakhstan Zaozer’e Taunsor: P: quarry O Al2O3
D: C
Kazakhstan Kachar Ayat: P: quarry O Al2O3
D: C
Kazakhstan Turgay P: quarry O Al2O3
Krasny May D C
Kazakhstan Uvanas; P: Underground leaching Solution U
North M: hydrometallurgy C U
Karamurun,
Kanzhugan,
Munkuduk
Kazakhstan Grachevsko Volodarskoe: P U
e
Alpyuz,
Zhalair
Naimanskay
a
2.2. Regional Geology and Deposits of Russia
2.2.1. General Background [2,10,11,12,23,25,61]
The Russian Federation was by far the largest out of the fifteen former Soviet republics.
It occupied three quarters of the total territory of the FSU. It also had the most essential mining
industry which accounted for a significant share in the total mineral production. The Russian
Federation is situated in the eastern part of Europe together with the northern part of Asia. The
area occupied is 17.08 mln km 2 . The population numbers 145 mln people (as of January 1,
1987).
Russia possesses a great deal of reserves of any type. It accounts for up to 10 per cent of
mercury and titanium ore output in the FSU. In 1993 Russian gold reserves were estimated at
333.5 t, up from 290 t early in 1992.
The enormous Russian land area can be divided into several mineralrich regions,
notably, the Far East, Siberia, Ural and the Kola Peninsula. Ural, one of the country’s oldest
mining regions, developed the copper industry early in the 18th century. As of today ten
important copperzinc mines and four smelteries are situated in Ural as zincproducing facilities.
Ural is composed of a number of key industrial clusters or complexes focused on big mining
cities, production facilities and electric power sources. They include the Serov (steel, aluminium,
coal), Nizhny Tagil (steel, copper), Sverdlovsk (copper, aluminium, gold, asbestos), Chelyabinsk
(steel, copper, nickel, tantalum, columbium), Magnitogorsk (steel, copperzinc), Orsk (nickel
cobalt, steel, copper, asbestos) complexes and Western Ural (salt, potash).
Eastern Siberia is famous for a variety of small nonferrous metal ore deposits. The
Siberian nonferrous metal industry is of greater significance to the Russian economy since non
ferrous metal mines are throughout the eastern areas of the north from Norilsk to the Far East
mines of Chukotka and Magadan. The crucial source of Russian nickel is the great Norilsk nickel
complex in the Arctic zone of Eastern Siberia. Owing to the Norilsk production operations, the
USSR has become the world biggest nickel producer by 1990, ahead of Canada. Nevertheless,
the facilities (110,000 tpy of refined nickel and 110,000 tpy of nickel matte) of the smelteries
and the refinery near Norilsk are not utilized to the full capacity. In addition, Norilsk produces
platinum, copper and cobalt.
The Russian Federation accounted for a major share of gold, diamond, platinum and base
metals output. Russia has the longest history as a gold producer out of the CIS primary mineral
producers. Although sometimes surpassed by the USA, Canada and Australia in the last century,
Russia (and consequently the USSR) has been second only to South Africa in gold output for the
last 150 years.
Table 2.6 outlines the distribution of mineral resources in the Russian Federation by
region. As to value, the largest resource potential belongs to the Far East economic region
although the area occupied has been slightly explored as yet. Only 1.6 per cent of the reserves in
the Far East have been identified whereas 97 per cent were counted based on geological
evidence. Western and Eastern Siberia containing more than a half of the explored Russian
reserves are also comparatively wealthy in mineral resources. The North and Ural regions are
well endowed with minerals and moderately explored. In the North region more than one third of
the reserves has been explored which accounts for 18.5 per cent of the total explored reserves in
Russia. The Central, NorthWest and VolgaVyatka regions possess the fewest portion of the
total Russian resources.
Russian mineral resources include the value of explored and blockedout, prospected and
extrapolated reserves (Soviet categories A, B and C1, respectively), inferred reserves (category
C2), and probable reserves (P1, P2, P3). Russian resources in minerals and energy account for
nearly 90 per cent of the total value of these products in the former USSR.
57
Table 2.6. Distribution of Russian mineral resources by economic region [23,28]
Economic region Value share of Russian resources / Value share of region
resources a
Total reserves Explored reserves b Probable resources c
Far East 34.4/100 5.2/1.6 40.4/97.4
Western Siberia 26.2/100 45.9/18.3 23.5/74.4
Eastern Siberia 26.1/100 12.3/4.9 28.5/90.7
North 5.4/100 18.5/35.9 3.0/56.4
Ural 3.1/100 8.7/28.9 0.9/24.8
Black Earth Centre 2.3/100 3.1/14.2 2.0/71.6
Volga 1.4/100 2.9/21.9 1.1/66.1
Northern Caucasia 0.8/100 2.4/30.6 0.5/44.4
Centre 0.1/100 0.4/32.4 /33.4
NorthWest 0.1/100 0.4/39.0 0.1/31.0
VolgaVyatka 0.1/100 0.2/28.6 /23.6
Russian Federation 100/100 100/10.4 100/82.9
Nonferrous metals 6.8 3.8 3.0
a
Percentage of resources in individual economic region which is limited to
explored reserves and probable resources. Figures indicate the level and extent of exploration in
each region.
b
Explored or proven reserves encompass categories A, B and C of the USSR
mineral resource classification. Explored resources consist of the most highly proven part of
mineral base which has been investigated thoroughly, explored in detail and definitely
delineated (category A), prospected reserves consisting of deposits which characteristics have
not been evaluated so thoroughly but only preliminarily surveyed (category B), and resources
which have not been welldefined or delineated (category C) which include extrapolated or
indicated reserves composed of deposits of complex geological structure or inadequately
prospected in new areas (C1) along with promising reserves identified outside the explored parts
(C2).
c
Probable or undiscovered resources of basins, areas and fields are estimated by
analogy with similar explored resources elsewhere. They are subdivided into three categories:
probable resources of explored deposits or those under exploration (P1), probable resources of
undiscovered deposits presumed to exist on the basis of evidence from geological surveys,
prospecting, and geophysical and geochemical tests (P2), and probable resources of potentially
promising areas where new deposits may be discovered (P3).
2.2.2. Nonferrous Metals Ore Deposits [1,10,11,22,27,61,62]
The main copper ore reserves are concentrated in sulfide coppernickel, copperpyrite
deposits and in cupreous sandstone deposits. Large sulfide coppernickel ore deposits connected
with the Lower Mesozoic traps are situated in the Norilsk ore region (Norilsk1, Talnakh,
Oktyabrsky, etc.). The deposits of these ores are known in the Kola Peninsula where they are
associated with PreCambrian intrusives (Zhdanov, Kaula, Allarechensk, NittisKumuzhya
Travyany, etc.). Copperpyrite ore deposits are the most abundant in Ural, they were identified
along the eastern slope from Arctic Ural in the north to Mugodzhary in the south (Krasnouralsk,
Kirovograd, Karabash deposit groups, Degtyarsk, Uchala, Sibay, Named after XIX Parts’ezd
(Party Congress), Gay, Vesenny, Aralcha, Named after 50th October Anniversary, etc.). The
copperpyrite mineralization in these deposits is confined to Paleozoic heavilymetamorphized
volcanogenic strata, concentrated mainly in basaltliparite formation rocks and presented by
solid massive and impregnated ores. The copper content in the ores is from per cent portions to
58
20 per cent. Pyrite deposits of Northern Caucasia are bedded in Middle Paleozoic sedimentary
volcanogenic formations (Urup, Khudes, etc.). Sedimentary deposits of cupreous sandstone type
are laid in the strata of metamorphized terrigenic sediments of the Lower Proterozoic (the
Udokan deposit in the Chita Territory). The copper content in the ore is 0.24.0 %. Substantial
copper reserves are concentrated in complex polymetallic deposits.
The main source of nickel and cobalt ores is magmatic deposits located in the Norilsk ore
region (Norilsk1, Talnakh, Oktyabsky, etc.) and in the Kola Peninsula (Zhdanov, Kaula,
Allarechensk, NittisKumuzhyaTravyany, etc.). The sulfide ores of these deposits are complex:
they contain copper, nickel, platinum. Exogenic deposits of silicate nickelcobalt ores are known
in Ural (Serov, Cheremshany, Sinar, Lipovtsy, Buruktal, etc.). The complex KhovuAksy deposit
of arsenicnickelcobalt ores has been explored in the Tuva republic.
The largest reserves of leadzinc ores are contained in deposits of pyrite and stratiform
types with much smaller reserves accumulated in metasomatic, scarn and vein deposits.
Paleozoic pyrite deposits include numerous polymetallic deposits of Ore Altai, among them
those located in the Altai Krai territory (Korbalikha, Stepny, Sredny, Zolotushino and other
deposits). The leadzinccopper mineralization of these deposits is mainly confined to Middle
Devonian metamorphic deposits of volcanogenicsedimentary rocks. The ores usually contain
more zinc than lead and more lead than copper. Northern Transbaikalia where the Ozero and
Kholodny deposits are identified is the region of the Paleozoic pyrite polymetallic
mineralization. Small pyrite deposits are located in the AltaiSayan folded region (the Salair and
Ural deposit groups, the KyzylTashtyg deposit). The majority of explorers attribute the
Gorevsky metasomatic deposit located in the Yenisei Kryazh to stratiform deposits. Lead is the
dominating element in the deposit ores (the average Pb to Zn ratio is 1:0.2). The Sardana deposit
on the Aldan River relates to the same deposit type (the Pb to Zn ratio is 1:4). Deposits bedded in
the Lower Cambrian carbonate rocks of Eastern Transbaikalia (Blagodatnoe, etc.) are attributed
to metasomatic ones. Leadzinc deposits of scarn type are known in the Sikhote Alin folded
region (the Far East group deposits) and in Southern Primorye (the Voznesenskoe zincfluorite
deposit). Vein polymetallic deposits in Northern Caucasia (Sadon, Zgidy, Arkhon, Elbrus, etc.)
and in Eastern Transbaikalia (the Nerchinsk group deposits) are Mesozoic. Vein deposits and
mineralizations of PostMesozoic age were identified in Southern and Western Verkhoyanye, in
the YanaChukotka region and in the Kamchatka Peninsula. The major part of the leadzinc
deposits shows complex ore composition: along with lead and zinc, they contain copper, tin,
noble metals, rare metals and elements as well as sulfur pyrite, sometimes barite and fluorite.
The predominant part of Russian tin ore deposits of Mesozoic age is connected with the
Pacific Ocean ore belt and Mesozoic activation zones in Eastern Transbaikalia. The deposits are
represented mainly by cassiteritesulfide and cassiteritequartz ores. Tin ore deposits are in
Yakutia (Deputatskoe, EgeKhaya, AlysKhaya, IlinTas, Burgochan, Kuster), in Chukotka
(Iultin, Valkumey, Pyrkakay tinore node), in the Khabarovsk Krai (Solnechnoe, Festivalny,
Perevalny and other deposits of the Komsomolsk ore region), in the Primorski Krai
(Khrustalnoe, Verkhnee, Arsenievo, Levitsy, Dubrovka), in Transbaikalia (Khapcheranga,
Sherlovaya Gora, Etyka, etc.). Tin ore deposits were also identified in Karelia (Kitely located
near the Pitkyaranta deposit). Tinbearing placers are in Yakutia and the Magadan Territory.
Tungsten and molybdenum ores are available mainly in scarn, hydrothermal vein and
stockwork deposits. The first type includes the Tyrnyauz deposit of complex tungsten
molybdenum ores in Northern Caucasia. It is confined to the heavy zone of scarn and scarnized
marble zones. Tungsten deposits of scarngreisensulfide type are known in the Far East
(Vostok2, Lermontov). Greisen deposits include the Orekitkan stockwork molybdenum and
Spokoininsky tungsten (Transbaikalia) deposits. Hydrothermal deposits of molybdenum and
tungsten are in Transbaikalia (molybdenum: Shakhtama, Bugdain, Zhiren; tungsten: Kholtoson,
Inkur), in the Kuznetsk Alatau (Sorskoe molybdenum), in Chukotka (Iultin tintungsten).
The major source of titanium ores is ancient (buried) coastalmarine and alluvialdeluvial
placers of ilmenite and other titaniumbearing minerals of Neogene, Paleogene, Mesozoic and
59
Paleozoic age. They are widespread in the EastEuropean platform, in Ural, in Eastern and
Western Siberia, in Transbaikalia. Metamorphogene placers of the Bashkir anticlinorium which
are rich in ilmenite and zircon are of considerable interest. In the Komi republic there is the
Yarega deposit in oilbearing sandstones of the Middle Devonian which is a buried ancient
placer in which leucoxene is the principal ore mineral. Magmatic deposits include the Kusima
group of ilmenitemagnetite and ilmenitetitanomagnetite ore deposits in Southern Ural (Kopan,
Medvedevo, Matkal, etc.) which are confined to gabbro massifs. The Pudozhgorye (Karelia),
EletOzero (the Kola Peninsula), Kruchina (Transbaikalia), Lysan and Malotugal (Eastern
Sayan) deposits are also attributed to this type. Metamorphic deposits are known in ancient
crystalline shales in Central (Kuznechikha) and Southern (Shuba) Ural.
In Ural gabbropyroxenitedunite formation rocks are widely developed. Vanadium
containing titanomagnetite deposits (Kachkanar, etc.) are connected with them. There are also
small vanadium deposits in polymetallic ore oxidation zones. Coastalmarine placers of
vanadiumcontaining titanomagnetite sands are found on the shore of the Caspian Sea and on the
Kuril Islands. Higher vanadium content is established in coal and iron ore deposits as well as in
the highsulfur oil of the VolgaUral province.
Reserves of aluminium ore: bauxite, nepheline and other types of aluminium raw
materials. Geosynclinal type highquality bauxite deposits are explored in Northern Ural.
Bauxite deposits formed under geosynclinal or subgeosynclinal conditions were also identified in
Southern Ural. Platform type bauxite deposits are located in the European part of Russia, they
are redeposited bauxites of the Tikhvin (3549 % Al2O3) and North Onega (4953 %) bauxite
bearing regions, together with deposits connected with weathering crust fracture in the Siberian
platform (the Chadobets, Angara and Tatarsk deposit groups). Laterite (residual) bauxite deposits
in the Lower Paleozoic weathering crusts were identified in the Belgorod district of the Kursk
Magnetic Anomaly (the Vislov deposit: 4951 %) and in Middle Timan (VezhayuVorykva, etc.:
3655 %). Alumina and aluminium production from nepheline concentrates of apatitenepheline
ores of Khibini deposits (the Kola Peninsula) and from nepheline syenites (urtite) of Kiya
Shaltyr deposit (Kuznetsk Alatau) has been put into practice. The socalled synnyrite (potassium
alumosilicate rocks of the Synnyr massif), cyanite shales of the Keiva plateau in the Kola
Peninsula, sillimanite shales of Buryatia (the Kyakhta deposit), alunite of the Far East (the
Askum deposit), etc. are considered promising aluminiumcontaining raw materials.
The most valuable deposits of antimony ores in the Russian territory are hydrothermal
deposits of vein type in the Yenisei Kryazh (Razdolnoe and Uderey), in Yakutia (Sarylakh,
Sentachan).
Hydrothermal deposits of mercury ores are of much greater abundance. Among them
there are Perevalny, Sakharinsky, Belokamenny, etc. in Northern Caucasia, Beloosipovsky in
Kuznetsk Alatau, ChaganUzun, Aktash in Ore Altai, Chazadyr, TerligKhaya in the Tuva
republic, West Palyana and Plamennoe in Chukotka, Tamvatney, Olyutor, Lyapganay, etc.),
Chempura, etc. in Kamchatka, Svetlovsky in Sakhalin.
Rare metal ores. In the Kola Peninsula, the Caucasus piedmont, Ural, Siberia and the Far
East there are ore deposits, manifestations and mineralization zones of different types which
contain higher concentrations of rare and dispersed elements. Tantalumniobium ores in alkaline
rocks are arranged within the Baltic shield. They are attributed to multiphase intrusives of
central type. Loparite is the principal ore mineral. Various niobiumcontaining carbonatites
connected with indepth faults in ancient niobium shields and platforms are another genetic type
of rare metal deposits. High tantalum content is registered in tantalumbearing pegmatites of
Eastern Siberia. Raremetal pegmatites and feldspar metasomatites, scarns and other mineral
formations are carriers of beryllium mineralization.
There are gold ore deposits of different genetic types. Scarn deposits are in Siberia
(Olkhovskoe). Ore bodies are represented by lenses and veins complicated with tongues.
Hydrothermal deposits among which different goldquartz formations stand out are the most
abundant. The Berezovka deposit in Ural, the Darasun deposit in Transbaikalia are attributed to
60
the goldquartzsulfide formation. Volcanogenic hydrothermal deposits in Archean ophiolite
rocks in platforms and young lategeosynclinal andesiteliparite complexes (the Pacific Ocean
ore belt region) are of practical interest. Complex ore composition and nonuniform bonanza
gold concentration, often jointly with silver, are typical of these deposits. Goldquartz
chalcedonysulfide formation deposits (Baley, Taseyevsky in Transbaikalia) are represented by
stockworks, linear vein zones and individual veins accompanied by impregnated mineralization
aureoles. Workable gold ores form ore shoots in their limits. The Karamken deposit (the
OkhotskChukotka belt) in the NorthEast of Russia which is represented by veins and their
bundles is attributed to the goldsilverquartzadular formation. In Siberia metamorphic black
carbonaceous shales of PreCambrian age are widely abundant. Their dispersed primary gold
content was regrouped under the effect of metamorphized agents and gold ore deposits were
generated. Placer deposits among which alluvial placers are of greater importance have been
identified and explored in the Magadan Territory, Yakutia, Eastern Siberia, Transbaikalia.
All workable silver ore deposits are postmagmatic. The greater part belongs to
volcanogenichydrothermal formations. The Khakandzha deposit in the OkhotskChukotka
volcanic belt is attributed to the silvergold formation while the Mangazeya group of silver
polymetallic deposits in Yakutia belongs to the silverlead formation.
Platinum group metal deposits are represented by latemagmatic original and placer
types. The latemagmatic Nizhny Tagil deposit is included into the socalled Ural platinum belt.
In Russia there are eluvial, deluvial and alluvial platinoid placers. The Late Quaternary Ural
alluvial placers extended over river valleys for several kilometres and substantially depleted are
of greater commercial value among them. Platinum and platinum group metals are extracted as
byproducts also out of sulfide coppernickel ores of magmatic deposits.
2.2.3. Nonferrous Metal Resource Mining History [10,63]
Copper production operations appeared in the second half of the fourth millennium and in
the third millennium B.C. in the Ural region, Ural, the Minusinsk basin, etc. In the end of the
third millennium and especially from the middle of the second millennium B.C. copper, lead and
tin deposits were mined in Altai, Siberia and, in particular, in Central and Southern Ural where
about 150 ancient openings of outcroping copper ores were found. The workings of the
Karagailinskoe deposits of cupreous sandstones relate to the same period. In the second and first
millennium B.C. largescale operations were carried out in the Gumeshevo malachite pit where
the working depth reached tens of metres. In the second half of the second millennium and at the
beginning of the first millennium B.C. tin ore was mined in the Kalba pits (the Chud, Kryk
Churuk, Urunkhay and other deposits). Copper, tin, gold ores were mined from pits of the
Bronze Age (in Ural, Altai, in the Minusinsk basin). Operations were carried out in pits, ditches,
trenches (i.e., by an open technique) and dig holes or primitive shafts. In the first millennium
B.C. and first centuries A.D. the working projects were gold, lead, silver, copper ore deposits
which became famous in the 18th century: Zmeinaya Gora, Salair, Zolotushino, Berezovka,
Ridder, Bukhtama, Zyryanovo, Saigach, etc.).
In the first millennium B.C. the UgroFinnish tribes, which were later named “chud’ ”,
lived in the Ural region, the North Dvina and Pechora basins. Bronze and copper instruments,
metallic dishware together with traces of primitive mining of copper ore were discovered in their
tombs.
In the 6th9th centuries Slavonic tribes with first industrial centres were settled
throughout the EastEuropean territory. It brought about a dramatic increase in output of iron and
copper ore, stone materials (mainly, limestone), clay, mineral paints, salt, precious stones
(gems). “Pit” hearths in which iron was made in the 9th century were found in the land of the
Vyatich tribes. Approximately at the same time iron ore was mined in the UstyugZheleznopolye
region, on the Mologa river.
61
When the Moscow state was established and the TartarMongolian yoke was overthrown
(1480), the feudalclass monarchy was formed, industry and trade were progressing, and
intensive settlement of Ural and later on Siberia began. Mines set up by the merchants and
craftsmen, who got the tzar deeds for search and working of mineral resources (except gold and
silver ore), evolved.
In 1491 the first Russian special expedition went to the Pechora River for search of silver
ore. The expedition discovered silver and copper ore deposits on the Tsylma River where a
copper mine was built. This afforded minting of small change coins from domestic metal.
In the 17th century small industrial enterprises of manufacturing type, among them
mines, emerged. Owing to growth of industrial production active works on search of iron, silver,
copper ore, mica, gems started. They were conducted by search teams who served the tzar or big
merchants or by local inhabitants throughout the vast territory, including Ural and Siberia, where
mining development was accompanied by construction of new towns: Tyumen (1586), Tobolsk
(1587), Mangazeya (1601), Yeniseiski Ostrog (1619), Krasnoyarski Ostrog (1628), Bratski
Ostrog (1631), Yakutski Ostrog (1632).
In 16171618 the Kuzhgor and Grigorov deposits of cupreous sandstones were
discovered on the Yaiva River (the Kama tributary) and on the right Kama bank. Their mining
led to the setup of the Pyskorsky copper smeltery in 1635. In the 2nd half of the 17th century
copper ore occupied the first position in terms of significance among mineral resources.
Mining and metallurgical operations have been arranged in the Olonets Krai since the
1660s: in 1666 copper ore deposits were discovered, and their mining started. In 1670 at the
inflow of the Spirovy Ruchey (stream) to the Put Ozero a copper smeltery was built. The entry
ore was likely to be mined in the Kovzhezersky and Uspenskoe open pits and in Mednoyan (in
1679 the Spirovsky plant was set up at this site). Coastal people have ben mining silver since
1669. It was used mostly in making of church utensils.
Siberian ore mining was promoted by the establishment of the Siberian “prikaz”
(department) which arranged search teams with involvement of skilled ore miners and surveyors,
mainly in pursuit of reports of local inhabitants. In particular, such search crews surveyed
outcrops of silver ore on the left Yenisei bank.
In 1678 silver ore deposits were discovered in the Nerchinsk Krai, the Nerchinski Ostrog
was founded, and the Bolshoy (Big) and Maly (Small) Kulruk mines went into operation. In
1700 the Nerchinsk Silver Smeltery was set up. In 1966 in Ural near the Verkhotursky Road (the
Murzinka settlement) Dmitry Tumashov, ore miner, discovered copper ore deposits and precious
stones, among them two emeralds (first Ural emeralds). In 1668 Zh.Oglobinskikh, ore miner,
discovered “crystal stones” and “light blue and red” stones in Kolyma.
In the last quarter of the 17th century the state borders were extended to the East and
NorthEast up to Amur, Anadyr and Dezhnev Cape. By this virtue search operations were
especially active in Siberia, in particular, in Transbaikalia.
In 1698 Moscow masters pursued a test smelting of silver ore found in Southern
Transbaikalia, on the Argun River, near the settlement of Nerchinski Zavod. In 1704 on the
Altacha River a silver smeltery was set up near the ancient mines on the Kultuchnaya Mountain.
In the 17th century capital was accumulated in the hands of small commodity producers,
production operations became specialized, big deposits began to be mined which resulted in set
up of manufacturings, including mine undertakings.
Peter the Great arranged the first Russian mining administration named Ore Mining
Department (Prikaz rudokopnykh del). Money reward was established for ore discovery with
punishment for concealment. The decree of Peter the Great on freedom of mining, i.e., separation
of the right for bowels of the Earth from the right for surface (cancelled by Catherine the
Second), became a great motivation of mining development in Russia. Training of mine
surveyors began at mining schools set up in Nevyansk (1709), at Olonets mine undertakings
(1715), Kungur and Uktus mines (1721), at the mine school in Ekaterinburg (1724).
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It afforded qualified geological search, ore testing and mining process improvement. Due
to these measures the mining industry was progressing at a rapid pace.
In the 1730s the Voitsky ore mine was built near the Vyg River source. Manufacture of
mining equipment started up at the Olonets enterprises.
In 1725 the Polevsky Copper Smeltery (based on the Gumeshevo deposit) was set up,
with the Troitsky (Talitsky) Copper Smeltery in 1731.
A real event turned out to be the discovery of the Berezovo deposit by E.Markov,
peasant, in 1745; in 1757 a mine and a plant were set up. They proved to become a cradle of the
Ural gold industry. In 1760 the first Russian dressing plant for gold recovery was built on the
Iset River.
In 1725 A.N.Demidov set up the Altai first Loktevsky (KolyvanoVoskresensky) Copper
Smeltery. The essential silver content in the ore allowed Demidov to arrange secret melting of
this metal at the plant along with coinage as well as to establish several plants nearby which were
totally named KolyvanoVoskresensky. In 1746 these plants were handed over to the tzar family.
In 1749 silver ore on the Tyra and Kandoy Rivers were surveyed and a mine was set up. In the
1730s copper ore mining was progressing along with the construction of plants in the Kazan
province and the Kungur district.
In 1733 F.Pryadunov and E.Sobinsky, Arkhangelsk merchants, reported to the empress
that 36 pounds of pure silver were mined on the Medvezhiy Island in the White Sea, later on
mines (Orel, Nadezhda, Strelna, Boyare) were build there (17351741). At that time coastal
people discovered copper ore and gold nuggets which were later on mined in the Laplan mines
(closed in 1745).
Since the middle of the 18th century the mining operations were transformed into a big
industrial sector in Russia: in 1750 seventytwo iron ore mining undertakings and twentynine
copper smelteries were in operation. They made 3,000 tpy of pig iron (the first world position)
and 900 tpy of copper. Ural occupied the leading place. In 1754 the Miass deposit of copper ore
was discovered (in 1776 the Miass Copper Smeltery was built). I.A.Mosolov, mining
businessman, discovered new deposits of copper ore in the Bashkirian land late in the 1760s
early in the 1770s. In 1770 F.Salatanov, employee of the Dobryanka Copper Smeltery
(nowadays the Dobryanka settlement) of the Stroganovs found copper ore on the
Systukhanskaya River; in 1782 N.Permyakov and K.Tretyakov, ore miners sent by the plant,
discovered copper ore in seven areas on the Chusovaya, Komarikha and Kamenka Rivers.
In 1788 copper mines in the Aginsky steppe and in the Onon and Borzya River heads
were put into operation. About 500 deposits on the whole out of which 120 ones were mined
were discovered in the Nerchinsk Krai in the 18th century and at the beginning of the 19th
century.
In the 2nd half of the 18th century the metallurgical industry of silver smelting was
established in Altai, Yakutia and Transbaikalia owing to highsilver polymetallic ore deposits put
into operation. For example, in Altai large deposits were mined. They were Zmeinaya Gora
(1744), Berezovo (1756), Semenovo (1763), Cherepanovo, Ridder (1786), Petrovka (1787). The
same base is used in the development of a silver making centre: Barnaul (17391893), Pavlovka
(17641893), Suzun (17641880), Loktevo (17831893) silver smelting plants. By virtue of silver
ore mining expansion, lead smelting grew drastically (more than one third of world output). In
the south of Transbaikalia silver smelteries (Duchar, 1760; Kutomar, 1763; Shilka, 1769;
Vozdvizhenskoe, 1776; Ekaterininskoe, 1777; Gazimur, 1778; Sibiryakovo, 1776) were built.
The silver ore deposit which was mined in 17741781 was discovered on the Yundybal River in
Yakutia in 1765. In this period silver ore was also mined in the Echigal and Myukesey mines on
the Lena river. All this allowed Russia to be promoted to one of the world leading positions in
silver production.
After lowmelting rich copper ore deposits were exhausted, the Central Ural copper
plants began to be closed. In the south of Ural similar plants still went on with operation on
deliveries of the Karagaily copper deposit ore (5 % Cu), and in the north of Ural the plants
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operated on Turya mine ore (15 % Cu). Early in the 19th century Ural, like before, retained the
monopolic position in copper mining and making in Russia (more than 30 deposits were in
operation). Tin ore was mined in two regions: the Pitkyaranta deposit in Karelia (discovered in
1814, mining in 18421904) and the Aginskoe deposit in the middle current of the Onon River
(mined in 18111859).
Development of placer gold and silver deposits which became Russian mining leaders for
a long period has gained the highest value since the beginning of the 19th century. A great event
was the development of an effective fullscale gold placer washing technique by L.I.Bresnitsyn,
miner, in 1814 in the Berezovka and Pyshma River valleys where he set the Melkovo, Danilovo
and Stanovoy mines. This manifested startup and rapid development of Ural gold placers,
establishment of Russian gold industry. Inflow of labour into this industry took place. Progress
in gold mining was promoted by permit of private work. The first plant to be engaged in the
development of goldbearing placers in 1819 was the Neivinsk plant which belonged to the
Yakovlevs, and in 1869 the plant’s mines produced 270 kg of gold. As compared to mining
operations, goldbearing placer working featured low investments, short production cycle, high
final product price and steady demand for gold. In the 20s and early in the 30s the annual gold
mining reached 640 kg, and up to 1,000 people worked in the mines. The first Siberian gold
placers found in the Mariyinsky taiga (the Tcherikyul, Makarak and Kundat Rivers) by merchant
A.Popov’s search teams in the 1820s led to the setup of big mines there. This discovery brought
about extensive survey works in Siberia. In 1830 Mordvinov found gold on the Fomikha River
(the Egorievsk gold mine), and later on gold placers along the Suenya, Berezovka, Troitskaya,
Chesnokovka, Nikolayevka, Poperechnaya, Belaya, Osipovaya and other Rivers were found. In
1836 gold placers of the Khorma River were discovered. In 1832 in Transbaikalia the richest
gold placers were found on the Kara Rriver (the left inflow of the Shilka River) which laid the
foundation of gold industry in this region. In the 1840s big mines which work at many tens of
placer gold fields in Transbaikalia were set up (Innokenievsky, 1844; Eleninsky on the Vitim
River, 1845).
In 1840 merchant T.Zotov’s crews discovered gold over the Oktolina River, the Vangash
inflow, along with placers over the Sevaglikon and Kalami Rivers. The discovery of gold in
Eastern Siberia involved big gold mining undertakings built there. The Russian government
required more and more gold which forced gold fund replenishment sources to be searched.
Therefore in the 2nd half of the 19th century the Russian government sent geological crews for
search of new goldbearing areas.
In the 50s on incorporation of the Amur region into the Russian territory gold search
started in the Far East. In 1840 there were discovered the Bodaibo goldbearing area placers
which mining began, and at the same time the Olekma placers were found (in fullscale
operation since 1852). The Lena gold mining companionship (Lenzoloto) was founded in 1891
in order to mine these fields. In 1845 gold was searched in Kuznetsk Alatau mountains from the
Tom River heads to the Verkhnyaya Ters River, early in the 2nd half of the 19th century the
Altai plant management transferred gold search works to the Biya, Lebed, Peschanaya and Anui
Rivers as well as to the eastern slopes of the Kalba Khrebet. The Ural and EastSiberian mines
produced (pure gold metal, t): 1820 0.32, 1830 6.27, 1850 7.5, 1860 24.42, i.e., in the
middle of the 19th century Russia accounted for 40 % of world gold output (the 1st world
position).
After the first platinum placer was found on the Uralikha River (1819), the Tsarevo
Aleksandrovsk platinum mine was built there in 1824. Later on mine officer Gallyakhovsky
discovered the platinum placers: Pokrovka on the Izvestnaya River, TsarevoElisavetinsk on the
Melnichnaya River, etc. Soon on the Nizhny Tagil River there were found the richest Sukhoy
Visim fields of placer platinum (big nuggets were encountered), the Isovskoe goldplatinum field
(in 1829). The more detailed Ural interior examination allowed the first Russian graphite deposit
to be discovered in 1826, with the first diamond field (in the Koiva River basin) found in 1829.
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By the beginning of the 19th century Altai has gained the leading position in the mining
of polymetallic deposits. In the 19th century rich deposits of polymetallic ores (Zyryanovo,
1791, working since 1798; Zavodinskoe, 1820; etc.) were identified, and the operation of tin ore
deposits began (the Onon, Kulunda, Zavitino tin mines).
Ore prospecting was arranged in the Kuznetsk Krai, here the Gurievsky silver making
plant was built in 1816.
In 1847 a copper deposit was found on the Maloye Pechische River (Sayan), and the
construction of the Spassky Copper Smeltery began. In 18501872 about 50 t of lazurite and 10 t
of nephrite were mined in the Malaya Bystraya River valley. In the 1870s the Solnechnoe,
Purinsky, Novotroitsky and other fluorite deposits were explored, their ore went to silver
smelting operations.
In the 2nd half of the 19th century iron, copper and silver ore mining curtailment was
intensified in Ural and Siberia. Ural copper mines became closed (the Karagaily and Turya
deposits were mined longer than all other deposits). Only several tens out of eight hundred of the
explored Altai deposits were in operation. Silver ore mining was terminated, and Transbaikalian
silver smelteries were shutdown: Ducharsky (1949), Ekaterininsky (1852), Vozdvizhensky
(1852), Nerchinsky (1953) and other plants. Late in the 19th century big Altai mine enterprises
were shutdown: in 1893 Barnaul, Pavlovka, Loktevo, Zmeyevsky Silver Smelteries, in 1897
Suza copper smeltery, etc. Depression of mining & metallurgical industry of Ural, Altai,
Transbaikalia and some other regions in the 2nd half of the 19th century is attributed to obsolete
technology designed for high cheap labour intensity. However Ural remained the main Russian
iron ore base which provided about 75 per cent of the total output (Central Russia accounted for
2025 per cent). In Ural the first Russian deposit of nickel ore (Petrovka) was mined (since 1855)
which permitted nickel industry foundation to be laid (in the 1870s).
In the 70s prof.A.A.Inostrantsev found the lead mineralization on the seashore of the
Kola Peninsula, and in 1875 a leadzinc mine was set up on the Medvezhiy Island. In the 1880s
silver ore deposits were discovered in the areas of the Pechenga and Bazarnaya Rivers.
Gold prospecting and mining gained momentum in the 1860s 1880s. Fullscale gold
mining began in Khakassia (the ProrokIliya and Veseloe mines on the Bolshoy Kyzas River,
1868). The mines on the Lena River and its inflows (Vitim and Olekma) were the biggest.
Transbaikalia which accounted for about 40 per cent of gold output in Russia remained
the most important gold mining region in the 80s. In that period the simplest dredge design is
applied for placer working and gold was extracted at gold washeries.
Prior to that Ural had no competitors in copper ore mining. The depletion of upper zones
of easymelting ore with 515 % metal content required use of cupreous pyrites (2.53.5 % Cu).
The method of copper smelting from pyrite was developed at the Karabash copper plant (Central
Ural) early in the 20th century. In 1988 the Degtyarsk copper ore deposit which working began
in 1914 was discovered. In 1910 polymetallic ore mining started in Primorye (the Tetyukha
JointStock Company) on the basis of the Dalnegorsky group of lead, zinc and tin deposits.
In 1910 about 1,100 small gold mines were in operation (approximately 60 per cent of
gold were mined by prospectors). The mechanization rate was low: 54 dredges and 75 small
hydraulic units were available. The foreign capital share in Russian gold mining accounted for
about 50 per cent (1913). The Russian gold mining industry held the 2nd position among mining
industries in operating personnel number (84,000 people, 1913).
In Aldan gold was found in 19101911. Rich placers were discovered on the Timpton
River where the Lebedinsky mine was set and also on the Sutam River. In Aldan gold search was
resumed on the Tommot River, and in 19161917 gold was found on the Tyrkanda River. In
Khakassia gold mining was growing: in the Dumny undertaking (the Abakan River basin, 1898),
the big Bogomdarovannoe open pit (the Bely Iyus River basin, 1899) was put into operation. By
the beginning of the 20th century the greatest gold share was mined in Eastern Siberia.
Virtually the total platinum output was produced in Ural. Silver ore was mined mainly in
Altai, Ural and Transbaikalia. In 1897 in the Primorski Krai the Dalnegorsk polymetallic deposit
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(worked since 1932) was discovered. The mineral product base of lead and zinc industry was
composed of the deposits of Northern Caucasia (Zgid, Sadon, Elbrus), Western Siberia
(Zmeinaya Gora, Zolotushino, Lazurnoe, Salair), Transbaikalia (Blagodatskoe, Kadain,
Mikhailovskoe, Savinskoe), the Far East (Tetyukha).
In the 19th century the discovery and mining of mineral deposits in Russia were the basis
of industrial operations arranged in this country and motivated the development of Ural,
Transbaikalia and other regions of Siberia and the Far East. But the mining of the deposits
discovered was affected by imperfect mining equipment, only high metal content deposits, as a
rule, of low depth were involved in mining. Owing to this, many deposits were not involved into
the mining operations, a great quantity of deposits were exhausted only partially, i.e., a rich
easilyaccessible ore part was extracted after which mines were shutdown. Imperfect prospecting
methods and equipment failed to identify mineral deposits at relatively large depths and in
difficult (among them, northern) regions.
In the history of development of mineral resources of Northern and Eastern Siberia it is
necessary to point out the role of GULAG which succeeded in continuation of the Russian
tradition of mineral mining using prisons and exiles and actively functioned in these regions
from the beginning of the 30s. For example, the Norilsk CopperNickel Complex was built by
prisoners on the site of the deposit discovered in 19191922 by the N.N.Urvantsev’s expedition.
Not only mining but also geological prospecting were conducted by prisoners and exiled
geologists who discovered deposits of gold, tin, tungsten and other mineral resources.
2.2.4. Mineral Resources and Mining Industry of Russian Economic Regions
Eleven economic regions are distinguished in the Russian territory with regard to natural
and economic peculiarities. However not all the regions are connected with the nonferrous
metals industry. We have taken six regions:
NorthWest, including the Kola Peninsula,
Northern Caucasia,
Ural,
Western Siberia, including Altai,
Eastern Siberia (the Baikal area, Transbaikalia, the Krasnoyarsk Krai, Tuva),
the Far East (Primorye, Sakhalin, the Amur Territory, the Khabarovsk Krai, Kolyma,
Kamchatka, Yakutia).
2.2.4.1. NorthWest of Russia
This economic region covers the Leningrad, Novgorod, Pskov, Vologda, Arkhangelsk
(including the Nenets Autonomic District), Murmansk and Kaliningrad Territories, Karelia and
Komi. The area is about 1.6 mln km 2 . The population is 15.1 mln people (as of January 1, 1987).
Geological structure and mineral resources
The Late Archean (Kola) geological evolution stage was characterized by generation of
KolaBelomorian metasedimentaryvolcanogenic complex, intensive manifestation of
magmatism, metamorphism and folding. The iron ore deposits (jaspilite) are connected with
basaltdeciterhyolite formations while the coppernickel (Lovno) and titanomagnetite (Kolvitsy)
mineralization is connected with gabbronoritelherzolite and websteritegabbronorites. The
sulfide coppernickel mineralization is connected with gabbronoriteperdotite (Monchetundra)
and gabbroverlite (Pechenga) complexes while mica and amazonite pegmatites and rare metals
are connected with granitoids.
In the Late Proterozoic period the Kola ore region underwent marine erosion. The
CaledonianHercynian period was manifested by tectonicmagmatic activity, deep fault
formation, introduction of alkaline gabbroids, alkalineultrabasic rocks, nepheline syenites with
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which deposits of complex apatitemagnetite (Kovdor), apatitenepheline (Khibini and Lovozero
tundra) ores are connected.
Mining & metallurgical industry
The industrial production structure consists of fuel, mining & chemical, iron & steel and
nonferrous metals industry as well as building materials industry. Deposits of apatitenepheline,
iron, coppernickel and rare earth ores, coal, natural gas and oil, bauxites and mica, noble metal
ores, turf, combustible shales and others are being worked. The biggest Apatite and Nickel
Production Associations, Pechenganickel Mining & Metallurgical complex, Olenegorsk
Complex, Kovdor Mine & Concentrator, Lovozero Mine & Concentrator, Kovdorslyuda
Complex are operating on the deposit basis. These enterprises supply raw materials for
production of mineral fertilizers, iron & steel, nonferrous and rare metals, mica, feldspar,
valuable grades of building stone.
The coppernickel ore deposits are being worked in the Kola Peninsula (deposits of
Monchetundra and the Pechenga area). In 19351938 the Nickel Concentrating Complex
(production association at present) was built based on the NittisKumuzhya deposit. After World
War II the Kaula, Kammikivi, Kotselvaara deposits were discovered, and the Zhdanov deposit of
impregnated ore was explored. They are the base of the Pechenganickel and Severonickel
Mining & Metallurgical Complexes.
The Kitely tin deposit was explored in Karelia.
Bauxite mining was initiated based on the Tikhvin deposits found in 1916. The Volkhov
Aluminium Plant was put on stream in 1932. The North Onega bauxite area located in the south
east slope of the Baltic shield was discovered in the Arkhangelsk Territory in 1949. The North
Onega bauxite mine was put into operation on the basis of the Iksa deposit in 1936. The entry
raw materials for aluminium smelting are the Tikhvin and North Onega deposit bauxites and the
Kola Peninsula nephelines. Further product output buildup may be due to better utilization of
nephelines and mining of the Middle Timan bauxites.
Apatite, nepheline, iron, rare metal, baddeleite, vermiculite concentrates along with
nickel, copper, cobalt are produced based on apatite and Kovdor ironmica deposits. Unique
technologies of production and processing of sphene, aegirine and titanomagnetite concentrates
have been elaborated, and production of fused magnesium phosphates is being put into
operation.
Mineral products feature multicomponent compositions. The major part of ores contains
a wide range of valuable components which can be extracted to saleable products at a modern
state of technology and equipment.
Reserves of rare and dispersed elements in complex ores are of great value. In addition to
rare metals produced as concentrates: baddeleite (Zr) the Kovdor Mine & Concentrator;
loparite (Ta, Nb, TR, Th) the Lovozero Mine & Concentrator, an essential number of dispersed
elements is present in the concentrates of other mines & concentrators. Coppernickel ore
contains Pt and platinoids, Au, Ag, Se, Te, etc. Apatite concentrate includes rare earths (TR), Th,
and Ti can be also extracted (perovskite). Aluminium ore (bauxite and nepheline) contains Ga
(Fig.2.1 & 2.2).
The extraction of these elements has not been put into practice to an adequate extent
though the technologies are developed and in the town of Apatity there is a special institute of
chemistry and technology of rare elements. For instance, apatite concentrates were exported
(more than 30 % of output), and extraction of associate components was set up in Germany.
2.2.4.2. Northern Caucasia
The North Caucasus economic region incorporates the Krasnodar and Stavropol Krai, the
Rostov Territory, Dagestan, KabardinoBalkaria, Chechnya and Ingushetia. The area is 335,000
km 2 . The population is 16.5 mln people (as of January 1, 1987).
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The most important industrial sectors are oil, gas, coal, iron & steel, nonferrous metals
industries along with machinebuilding and building materials industries.
Mineral resources
The region has at its disposal a large combination of mineral resources: oil, natural gas,
coal, zinc, copper, molybdenum, tungsten, mercury ores, salt, gypsum, building materials,
mineral water, etc.
Copper ore is mined by an open pit method in the Stavropol Krai based on the explored
Urup deposit. Here the Urup Mine & Concentrator which products are copper and sulfur pyrite is
in operation.
It is promising to develop the copper pyrite deposits of KizilDere in Dagestan.
Underground leadzinc ore mining is carried out at the Sadon Lead & Zinc complex which work
on the Sadon and Fiagdon ore region deposits in Northern Ossetia. In the prewar time the region
supplied about 37 per cent of zinc and 7 per cent of lead produced in the country.
Tungstenmolybdenum ore is mined by the Tyrnyauz tungstenmolybdenum complex
which works the like deposit in KabardinoBalkaria.
Mercury ore is extracted by an underground method in the Sakharinsky deposit in the
Krasnodar open pit (Fig.2.3 & 2.4).
2.2.4.3. Ural [6466]
The Ural economic region includes the Kurgan, Orenburg, Perm, Sverdlovsk,
Chelyabinsk Territories, Bashkiria, Komi and Udmurtia. The area is more than 0.8 mln km 2 . The
population is 20.1 mln people (as of January, 1987).
Ural is the country’s oldest mining region of iron & steel and nonferrous metals
industries, woodworking industry, building materials industry, oil and gas production and
refining.
Mineral resources
Ural is rich in various mineral product resources.
Copperpyrite deposits are confined to volcanites (Gay, Sibay, Degtyarsk, the Kirovograd
group, etc.). Copperporphyry deposits are abundant in Central and Southern Ural. Placers and
native gold (the Berezovo and Kochkar deposits) and platinum deposits (Isovo) are available.
Polymetallic ore deposits (Saur, Kuzha, etc.) were found in carbonate blocks. The largest bauxite
deposits (the Northern Ural bauxite region and other regions) are connected with Middle
Devonian carbonate sediments. Different rare metal deposits, molybdenum, tungsten and other
ore manifestations were encountered in granitoid complexes and carbonatites of different age, in
particular, the Late Paleozoic. A mineralization of radioactive nature and of younger (Triassic
Jurassic) age was registered with regard to tectonicmagmatic activization processes on the
eastern slope of Ural and in Transbaikalia.
Mining & metallurgical industry
Ural occupies a particular place in various mineral resources. The mineral resources of
fuel, ore chemical raw materials and nonmetallic useful materials feature high quality,
complexity and favourable geological conditions. Ural is a leader in the CIS nonferrous metals
industry. Aluminium and copper industries are the most developed branches (Fig.2.5 & 2.6).
Fiftytwo copper deposits are available in the territory of the Ural economic region (in
Bashkiria, the Sverdlovsk, Chelyabinsk and Orenburg Territories). Big aluminium plants
operating on their base have become prosperous. The intensive working caused the deposit
depletion and lower copper ore output. Meanwhile the total registered reserves remain essential
for the region due to reserved and new deposits. The main raw materials base of the Ural copper
industry is copperzinc pyrite deposits. These ore reserves are mostly in Southern Ural while the
copper smelteries are in Central Ural. Complex copperpyrite deposits are available in the
Sverdlovsk Territory (Degtyarsk, Named after 3rd International, Krasnogvardeisk, Tarnier,
Valentor, Shemur, Chusovoe), Bashkiria (Sibay, Uchala, Oktyabrsky, Yubileiny, Podolsk,
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Uzelga, Molodezhny, etc.), in the Chelyabinsk Territory (Chebachye, Aleksandrovka, Talgan,
Named after XIX Parts’ezd), in the Orenburg Territory (Blyava, Gay, Dzhusa, Vesenny, Letny,
Osenny, Komsomolsk).
The Krasnouralsk Copper Smeltery carries out working of the Volkovo and Vadimo
Aleksandrovsky deposits. The smeltery’s concentrator is provided with local raw materials for
91.2 per cent, and the rest part is delivered from Southern Ural. The raw materials base structure
may be much improved due to involvement of explored deposits of Northern Ural (in the Ivdel
District): Valentor, Shemur, NovoShemur. Ore has been supplied from the Safyanovo deposit
(the Sverdlovsk Territory) since 1995.
The Kirovograd Copper Smeltery works by an underground method the Levikha and
Lomov deposit groups (the Lomov open pit was closed in 1993). A project for mining of the
extra NovoShaitan deposit has been made up. The concentrator is provided with the local ore
for 82.4 per cent, and the rest part of ore is delivered from Southern Ural. The copper smeltery is
focused on melting of secondary materials, and copper smelting from local ore accounts for only
6 per cent of the smeltery’s capacity.
The Central Ural Copper Smeltery processes 600,000 tpy of ore from the Degtyarsk
deposit and 400,000 tpy of ore delivered from Southern Ural. The ore has been supplied from the
Safyanovo deposit since 1995. The concentrate recovery rate by plant is: Turya 93.55 %,
Krasnouralsk 74.86 %, Kirovograd 86.36 %, Sredneuralsk 76.3 %. The rate of recovery to
blister copper in reverbatory furnaces is 94.8 %, sulfur recovery is 54 %, the copper recovery
rate at the Pyshma Copper Electrolysis Plant is 99.3 %.
An effect of concentrator tailings on the environment is unfavourable. At four
concentrators 90 mln t of tailings with 0.090.35 % Cu, 0.240.61 % Zn, 0.21.3 g/t Au, 2.615.8
% Ag, 727 % S were accumulated in slime settlers. More than 52 t of slags with 0.40.48 % Cu,
2.464.53 % Zn were collected in slag dumps of three copper smelteries.
A new group of copper pyrite deposits (Tarnier, Shemur, NovoShemur, Safyanovo) was
identified in Northern Ural. They feature higher content of essential and associated components
(zinc, noble metals, cadmium, indium, cobalt, etc.).
Several copper pyrite deposits part of which is being already mined have been found in
Southern Ural. The copper ore reserves of these deposits with a set of associate valuable
components (zinc, sulfur, gold, silver, lead, cadmium, indium, selenium, tellurium, barium)
provide the Uchala Mine & Concentrator for several decades. Besides, in Ural there is the whole
number of small deposits which mining is not expected in the near future owing to different
reasons though it can be profitable judging from geological and economic calculations. It must
be also noted that considerable reserves of copper as an associate component are in iron ore
deposits however copper extracted from this ore during processing has been almost completely
lost so far.
Copper is extracted from the copperironvanadium ore of the Volkov deposit and
copperscarn ore of the Turya deposit.
The Mednogorsk Copper Sulfur Works mines the Blyava deposit reserves left using an
underground leaching method. Ore is concentrated by bulkselective (the Gay and Uchala Mines
& Concentrators) and direct selective (the Bashkirian Copper Works) methods. Ten copper and
copper sulfur plants and works in total are in operation in Ural. Besides copper, they produce
sulfuric acid, blue vitriol, rare and noble metals. Zinc concentrates are also produced from
copper pyrite ore of the Gay, Uchala and Sibay deposits. Their further processing is carried out
at the Chelyabinsk Zinc Plant.
Ore processed at present is rich and refractory. The total recovery rate is only 80 %, with
67 % of zinc, 3045 % of gold and silver, 54 % of sulfur, from units to first tens of per cent for
selenium, tellurium, cadmium, indium, bismuth, zinc and some other components. One can
substantially increase product output, profit and improve environment situation in copper
smeltery areas due to introduction of new technologies of ore processing, application of
overburden for building purpose, recycling of concentrator tailings, exhaust gas and
69
metallurgical slags of copper smelteries, i.e., by means of more complete utilization of primary
raw materials.
Considerable highquality copper and copperzinc ore reserves available in Ural (copper
content in Ural ore is approximately 1.4 time above the average in the Russian copper industry)
predetermine the necessity of further progress of the Ural copper ore base. Replenishment of the
depleted capacity involves working of the Southern Ural and Bashkirian deposits where large
registered copper reserves are available. Here of primary importance is the mining of the Gay,
Uchala, Uzelga mining areas which have a mature infrastructure and big labour resources. In
Central Ural it is intended to put into operation the 2nd stage of the Volkov mine and the new
Safyanovo deposit.
Prospecting and preparation of copper porphyry deposits discovered in different Ural
areas lately are in sight. There is an outlook for identifying commercial coppermolybdenum
porphyry deposits and cupreous sandstones in Ordovician sediments of Arctic Ural.
Complex rare metal ores containing niobium, selenium, tantalum, etc. are being worked
at the Vishnevogorsk mine. The ores are concentrated by direct selective flotation and
gravitational flotation.
In Ural noble metals are mined from placers (from Krasnouralsk to Orsk) and native
deposits. The Beresovo deposit is mined by an underground method, mainly, through a system of
sublayer drifts, more seldom by horizontal layers with filling and ore stoping. Ore is flotation
dressed.
Gold, silver and platinum deposits are available or newly discovered for the last decades
virtually in all large geological structures, from the Arctic Circle to Mugodzhary. Twelve gold
bearing and about two hundred placer deposits are state registered in the Chelyabinsk,
Sverdlovsk and Perm Territories alone. Goldquartz veins and placers have been the main
workable types of gold deposits so far. New goldbearing deposits of veinletimpregnated type
were identified. These deposits are located in the periphery of granitoid blocks in the zones of
Late Paleozoic tectonicmagmatic activization. There are data on higher gold content of the West
Ural zone Central Ural Upland structure. However there are no gold ore projects essential in
scale on the western slope of the Urals as yet, and gol mining operations are grouped mainly on
the eastern slope, the eugeosynclimal region.
Mining of medium and even smallscale goldbearing deposits located near the existing
mine undertakings is profitable in Ural with its highlydeveloped industry. Now three gold ore
deposits, 84 goldbearing and 12 platinum placers are being worked in the Sverdlovsk Territory,
with four gold ore deposits and 26 goldbearing placers in the Chelyabinsk Territory and two
goldbearing placers in the Perm Territory.
The Berezovo and Kochkar deposits are the gold ore base, with the mining of the new
Svetpa and Vorontsovo deposits in future, while the raw materials base of gold placers is
replenished with 14 new placers.
At present gold mines are provided with reserves in the following way: underground
mines for 2430 years, placer deposits for 1520 years at dredge working and 1520 years at
hydraulic working.
Platinum is mined from placers along the Is river.
The Ural diamondbearing region is located in the Perm and Sverdlovsk Territories as
well as in Bashkiria. The first Ural diamonds were found in the Koiva River basin, in the
Krestovozdvizhenskoe placer area in 1829. Planned search and prospecting started up in 1938.
Placers have been worked in the Chusovaya River basin since 1941 and later on in the Vishera
River basin. Placers are focused mostly on the western slope of the Urals in the zone of
meridional strike of more than 1100 km in length where western and eastern bands are separated.
Placers, mainly of Quaternary age, are in the western band (the Kolva, Krasnovishera, Kusya
Aleksandrovna and other groups). The eastern band (the Verkhnyaya Vishera, Verkhnyaya
Kosva, Verkhnyaya Koiva and other groups) is confined to intermountain depressions elongated
over the Main Ural Range, and traced in the south along the eastern margin of the Bashkirian
70
Upland. Placers are for the most part of PaleogeneNeogene age. Ancient placers are commonly
presented by solid sandstones and conglomerates, modern ones are composed of loose rocks
(gravel, sand and clay). Diamonds are of various shape but rhombododecahedrons and
octahedrons dominate. Crystals are frequently damaged and presented by aggregates from
several individuals. Jewelry stones are encountered in a considerable amount. Diamond placer
formation is associated with fracture of ancient (supposedly of Medium Proterozoic Lower
Paleozoic age) of undiscovered kimberlites. A close spatial connection of a majority of enriched
placer areas with outcrops of sandstone sediments of Takatin suite of the Middle Devonian
which play an obvious role of intermediate diamond collectors is noted.
Placers are mined by an open pit method using shovels and dredges. Diamondbearing
sands (loose or cemented sandclay pebbleboulder material) are separated. Screened and
deslimed material is separately concentrated by jigging. Concentrate (heavy fraction) and tailings
(light fraction) are produced. Tailings are delivered to dumping, with concentrate to processing
by roentgeneluminiscent separation.
Bauxite ore beds of Devonian age are found on the eastern slope of Arctic Ural. The
genetic and formation similarity of bauxites of the eastern Arctic Ural slope with North Ural ores
gives grounds to expect that the North Ural bauxite belt extends farther to the north, within the
eastern slope of Arctic Ural.
The South Ural bauxite mines located on the western slope of Southern Ural, and the
workable reserves in the Chelyabinsk Territory are at an extremely low level. At present the only
raw materials base of the mines is the Uluir1 section with about 2 mln t of reserves.
The comprehnsive processing rate for the Ural bauxites is low. Virtually alumina alone is
extracted (overall recovery: 80 per cent). During alumina production an essential part of
components transits to red slime and is accumulated in recycling solutions in industrial
concentrations. The concentration in slimes is adequate for economic production of iron,
titanium, zirconium, vanadium, gallium, germanium, scandium, niobium compounds, besides
additional aluminium amount (10 per cent).
2.2.4.4. Western Siberia
The Altai Krai, the Kemerovo, Novosibirsk, Omsk, Tomsk and Tyumen Territories are
incorporated into the WestSiberian economic region. The area is 2.4 mln km 2 . The population is
14.4 mln people (as of January 1, 1987).
Mineral resources
A wide area is occupied by the WestSiberian platform associated mostly with oil and gas
fields. The ore part of the region is Altai, a link of the UralMongolian geosynclinal belt.
In Altai there are several ore belts (from east to west): mercury (the Katun anticlinorium),
molybdenumtungsten and ironore (the KholzunChuy anticlinorium), polymetallic (Ore Altai),
tungstentincopper (the Kolba zone). The polymetallic deposits of Ore Altai are localized in the
Devonian volcanic block extent area, are closely connected with them, and form a family of
leadzinccopperbarite pyrite deposits of volcanogenic origin. The main deposits of copperlead
zinc ores are as follows: Korbalikha, Stepny, Talovsky, Nikolaevka, Belousovo, Berezovo, etc.;
of leadzinc ores: RidderSokolnoe (Leninogorsk), Zyryanovo, etc. Altai is long famous for rich
marble beds and valuable industrial stones (jasper, porphyry, etc). Four groups of thermal water
discharges: Abakan, Arzhan, Belokurikha (to the south of the town of Biysk), Rakhmanovo and
Dzhumala springs, are confined to Cenozoic faults.
Mining & metallurgical industry
The region is rich in oil and gas, hard coal, turf, iron and nonferrous metals ore, mining
& chemical raw materials, building materials.
The nonferrous metals deposits are the base of the Leninogorsk Polymetallic, Irtysh
Polymetallic, Belogorsk Mining & Concentrating, Zyryanovo Lead Complexes. The key ore
71
mining areas are Southern Ural (copper, gold, mercury, lead, zinc), Ore Altai (lead, zinc, copper,
barite), Mine Altai (mercury, tungsten, gold) (Fig.2.7 & 2.8).
2.2.4.5. Eastern Siberia
The EastSiberian economic region includes Buryatia, Tuva, Krasnoyarsk Krai, Irkutsk
and Chita Territories. The area is 4.1 mln km 2 . The population is about 9 mln people (as of
January 1, 1987).
Transbaikalia and the Baikal area are the mining regions of Southern Siberia which
covers Buryatia, the Chita and partially Irskutsk Territories.
A considerable part of Eastern Siberia is situated in the socalled zone of Arctic North. It
is limited by the Polar Circle in the south (66 o 33’ of north latitude). It features a wide abundance
of morains and permafrost zone which is up to 400 m in thickness and a seasonal defrosting layer
of less than 70 cm which means specific conditions for construction and mining operations.
The region is rich in oil and gas, coal, turf, iron ore, nonferrous and noble metals,
different nonmetallic valuable materials.
Mineral resources
The Siberian platform takes up a large part of the territory. Coppernickel sulfide deposits
are associated with traps in the Norilsk ore area, and cupreous sandstones are mature in the
Udokan series in the Aldan shield.
Deposits of pyritepolymetallic ore in Proterozoic greenstone blocks (Kholodny), gold
(placers and small ore deposits) are of primary importance in the Baikal mine country. There are
fluoritepolymetallic deposits in carbonate blocks (Barva, Tabor, etc.), manifestations of nickel,
molybdenum, tungsten, rare elements. Gold, hard coal, copper and iron are the most important
for the Aldan shield. Besides gold ore deposits (the Aldan area) there are numerous placers.
Cupreous sandstone beds are in the west of the Aldan shield (the Udokan deposit). The deposits
of coppercobalt ore with platinoids (Chiya), rare elements were found. Gold mining is of
commercial value; formations of molybdenum, cupreous sandstones, polymetallic ores, mercury,
rare elements were identified. The MongolianOkhotsk system and the Bureya massif show
numerous placers and small gold ore deposits, tinpolymetallic ore and molybdenum
manifestations.
In the south the Siberian platform is framed by the AltaiSayan folded region.
Deposits of copper, molybdenum, tungsten and other ores are associated with the West
Sayan Paleozoic structures; of copper ore, gold and other materials with WendCambrian
structures.
Deposits of titanium, aluminium, leadzinc ore, gold, rare and rareearth metals are
known in Eastern Sayan. Large titanomagnetite deposits (Lysan, Kedran) are associated with
Upper Proterozoic basic rocks. Aluminium ores are represented by bauxites of geosynclinal type
(Bokson deposit), urtites connected with alkaline intrusives of Paleozoic activization of Pre
Cambrian structures (the Bogotol deposit), and by sillimanitecontaining Proterozoic shales (the
Bazybay and Kitoy deposits).
An abundance of cupreous sandstone deposits and hydrothermal gold, copper,
manifestation of tin and tungsten ore deposits are associated with Baikal folding.
Transbaikalia and the Baikal region are rich in various mineral resources: cupreous
sandstones (the Udokan deposit), leadzinc ore, nickel (the Chay deposit), aluminium raw
materials (the Mukhal deposit) and mercury ore (the Kiya deposit); deposits of tungsten
molybdenum and leadzinc ore, potassiumalumina raw materials (the Synnyr deposit) are
connected with Paleozoic and Mesozoic magmatic rocks.
In the east of the VerkhneChukotka folded region granite magmatism is connected with
the stage of marginal volcanic belt formation. Tin, gold, mercury, polymetallic ore deposits are
associated with it.
Mining & metallurgical industry
72
Copper ore mining in the South Siberian regions is traced from ancient times (the
Khakassian deposits). The largest Udokan deposit of cupreous sandstones was explored and is
being developed for mining in the Chita territory.
The raw materials base of the nickel industry is coppernickel deposits of the Norilsk
district (the Krasnoyarsk Krai) where the Norilsk Mining & Metallurgical Complex, a powerful
centre of nonferrous metals industry, is in operation.
The KhovuAksy deposit of cobalt ore is being mined by the Tuvacobalt Complex.
Leadzinc ore is mined in Transbaikalia. The Nerchinsk Polymetallic Complex mines the
Vozdvizhenskoe, Pokrovka, Savinskoe, Novochirokinsky and other deposits.
In the Krasnoyarsk Krai the Gorevsky Mine & Concentrator exploits a cognominal lead
zinc deposit.
In Buryatia the Kholodny deposit has been prepared for operation.
Tin ore is mined from the Sherlovaya Gora and Khapcheranga deposits in the Chita
Territory. The mining of the Shakhtama, Davenda and other deposits of tungstenmolybdenum
ore in Transbaikalia was of a large value to military industry during World War II. In Eastern
Siberia the Dzhida TungstenMolybdenum Complex is in operation in Transbaikalia (the
Kholtoson and Inkur deposits), and the Sorskoe Molybdenum Complex works based on
molybdenum deposits in Khakassia. The steeplydipping vein ore bodies of the Kholtoson
deposit are worked by a cognominal underground mine.
The molybdenum deposits in the Chita Territory are being prepared for mining (the
Zhireken Complex). Rare metal ore is mined in Transbaikalia (the Orlovka Mine &
Concentrator) and in the Irkutsk Territory, the Terligkhay mercury deposit is mined in the Tuva
republic. Native and placer deposits of gold are in operation in the Chita (Baley, Darasun) and
Irkutsk (the Bodaibo District) Territories, in the Yenisei taiga, Khakassia and Tuva (Fig.2.9 &
2.10).
2.2.4.6. The Far East [10,23,25]
The Far East economic region includes the Primorski and Khabarovsk Krai, the Amur,
Magadan and Sakhalin Territories, Yakutia. The area is about 63 mln km 2 . The population is 7.8
mln people (as of January 1, 1987).
The Far East region is of particular importance to the Russian mining future as this area
was the USSR leading producer of gold and diamonds as well as tin, antimony, and other
minerals. The Far East region which is considered by many to be a new field for investment is
richly endowed with natural resources and advantageously positioned from the geographic
viewpoint over the northwest Pacific Ocean belt. It borders China, Korea and Japan (already its
biggest partner), and is also quite accessible to the North American market (Fig.3.1). It is a vast
area covering about 37 per cent of the Russian territory.
However only 5.4 per cent of population live here. This results in poor development of
the territory, shortage of labour for industrial advance.
Minerals and mining
From the geological viewpoint the region encloses over 70 mineral types, including gold,
diamonds, tin. zinc. The Far East though vast in territory and scarcely populated is fairly well
mapped geographically, with 1:50,000scale or better maps available for a lot of mineral
producing districts. In the last three fiveyear plan periods, the geological survey operations more
than doubled in this region. The high quality maps commonly comprise prospecting and mineral
evaluation data.
The Far East, with major reserves of nonferrous, rare and noble metals, mercury and
other minerals, has long been a key provider of mineral resources for the former USSR. Non
ferrous and precious metals are found in metallogenic zones along the Pacific Ocean coastline.
Only a limited number of deposits have been sufficiently identified, evaluated and mined though
some notable exceptions include large deposits of tin, antimony, tungsten (24 % of reserves and
73
37 % of output), lead (8 % of reserves, 49 % of output), zinc (4 % of reserves, 14 % of output).
The Far East gold and precious stones are mined in abundance in the Kolyma, Indigirka and
Upper Amur River basins. Over 90 per cent of Russian diamonds are extracted in the Far East or
Yakutia (Fig.2.11 & 2.12).
In the Sikhote Alin system the leading role belongs to tin mining (the Komsomolsk,
Badzhal and other districts), there are also gold and tungsten ore deposits.
In the Magadan Territory tin has been mined since 1937. Native and placer deposits are
being mined. There are in operation the Pevek Mine & Concentrator, the Omsukchan and Iultin
Mines & Concentrators in Chukotka, the Khrustalnoe Mine & Concentrator in Primorye, the
Deputatskoe Mine & Concentrator in Yakutia, the Khingalovo Complex and the Solnechny Mine
& Concentrator in the Amur region. The Pevek Mine & Concentrator mine the vein ore bodies of
the Valkumey deposit by an underground method.
Tungsten ore is mined as associate material from the Iultin Mine & Concentrator
deposits. The Primorski Mine & Concentrator develops the Vostok2 tungsten deposit.
Leadzinc ores have been mined in Primorye since late in the 19th century. The
Dalpolymetal PO (Production Association) undertakings produce zinc metal, zinc concentrate
and several associate metals. The association incorporates four underground mines which work
on nine deposits.
After new deposits (the Sadovoe, Nikolskoe and other deposits) were found in the 30s
60s, the raw materials base of the Far East Mine & Concentrator was essentially expanded. The
complex comprises an open pit, a concentrating plant, and a zinc smeltery. The Sarylakh
antimony ore deposit is being mined by an underground method in the north of Yakutia. Mercury
ore deposits (West Palyana, Tramvatney) have been prepared for working.
Gold ore and placers are mined in Yakutia. In the Amur region (the oldest goldbearing
region) gold is mined by dredges and partially by hydromonitors of the Amurzoloto Production
Association. In the Magadan Territory mining operations are performed by Severovostokzoloto
Production Association. Gold was first found there in 1928, and in 1931 five fields were already
in operation. In 1958 the first goldmining undertaking was put on stream in Chukotka. Shovels,
dozers, dredges and other equipment are applied in the fields while electric bulldozers are used
in underground mines. The location of goldmining undertakings is of seat nature (mainly by
field groups) and depends on aerial extent of deposits under working as well as on united
services, power stations, building and other facilities established for this or that group of fields.
Gold is mostly mined by an underground method.
The richest zinc deposits were discovered, in particular, in the Sikhote Alin Mountains of
Primorye, southern districts of the Khabarovsk Territory, Yakutia and Chukotka. Tin ore
(cassiterite) found is of special interest, as is copper ore at Udokan of Southern Yakutia and
bauxite deposits of the Khabarovsk Territory. Tin discovered here indicates that the region will
be a suitable target for commercial tin mining. Dozens of tin deposits have been in successful
operation in the area.
The region also plays a vital role in tungsten production. On an equivalent basis, the Far
East mineral industry is more developed than this sector in the USA Alaska. The Far East can be
easily divided into four mining areas:
the southern zone which incorporates parts of the Khabarovsk Territory and the Amur
region (tin, gold and coal);
the Pacific Ocean zone which includes Primorye and Sakhalin with Kamchatka
(polymetallic ores and tungsten);
the northern central zone which covers Yakutia, the Magadan territory and part of the
Khabarovsk Territory (precious and nonferrous metals, diamonds, coal, iron ore);
the Far North zone which embodies the Chukchi National District (nonferrous metals,
gold).
Coal and diamonds are mostly mined in the Kolyma and Indigirka River basins and
Yakutia as well as in the Upper Amur river basin. As an example of the gold mining scope in the
74
Far East, approximately 13 dredges and up to 200 openpit placer mines are operating at
Susuman of the Kolyma mining district, about 150 km to the north of the town of Magadan. Vein
mining also takes place based mostly on stockworks in diorite and sheeted shear zones, and the
mineralization is similar to that in the Juneau gold belt and the Valdez Creek mining district of
Alaska. The total output in the Susuman area is about 350,000 tr.oz/y or approximately 35 per
cent of the total annual output of the whole Kolyma region. Less than 10 per cent of gold
resources of the Magadan region are reported to be currently worked.
The mining potential for numerous mineral deposit types found in the Far East is shown
in Table 2.7. Below are enlisted several very promising deposits: Udokan stratiform copper
sandstone body, Bugdain tungstenmolybdenum stockwork, Agylkin copper tungsten scarn,
Katugin tantalumniobium body, Bolshoy Seyim titanium body.
Table 2.7. Subjective evaluation of Far East deposit mining potential by mineral
deposit type [22]
Mineral type Development potential
Present Future
High Mediu Low High Medium Low
m
Norilsk CuFePGE X X
Alaskan PGE X X
Placer PGEAu X X
Diamond pipes X X
Lowsulfide Auquartz X X
veins
Porphyry Cu X X
Scarn Cu deposits X X
Porphyry CuMo X X
Sedimenthosted Cu X X
Volcanichosted X X
CuAsSb
Algoma Fe X X
Superior Fe X X
Scarn Fe deposits X X
Sn veins X X
Scarn Sn deposits X X
Scarn W deposits X X
Polymetallic veins X X
Sedimentary exhalative X X
ZnPb
SouthEast Missouri X X
PbZn
Sandstonehosted PbZn X X
Polymetallic X X
replacement
deposits
Scarn ZnPb deposits X X
Simple Sb deposits X X
Serpentinehosted X X
asbestos
Volcanogenic Mn X X
Sedimentary Mn X X
75
Upwelling type X X
phosphate deposits
Lateritetype bauxite X X
deposits
Laterite Ni X X
Carbonatite deposits X X
Shoreline placer Ti X X
2.3. Mineral Resources of Ukraine
Ukraine is situated in the SouthWest of the FSU. The area is 603.700 sq km. The
population is 51.7 mln people (1989).
2.3.1. Geological Structure and Mineral Resources
The Ukrainian shield located in the Central part of the country is bedded by very
dislocated Archean and Lower Proterozoic metamorphic, intrusive and metasomatic formations.
Iron, titanium, nickel ore, graphite and other deposits are associated with them.
Mercury deposits are connected with the Donets folded region. The Black Sea
depression contains bauxite, polymetallic and manganese deposits.
The Transcarpathian internal deflection with volcanogenicsedimentary formations
contains mine salt, zeolite, barite, alunite, mercury deposits (Bolshoy Shayan, Borkut), as well
as vein goldpolymetallic and barite (Begansky) deposits. Stratiform pyritepolymetallic, copper
pyrite, barite and ironmanganese ores are manifested in the metamorphic complex.
Small deposits of silicate nickel ores (Kapitanovka, Derenyukha, Ternovsky) are
identified in the Bug region (Pobuzhye). They are associated with serpentinite weathering crust.
The ore deposits are bedded by nontronites, limonites and ochre with 1 % Ni and 0.1 % Co in
average.
Leadzinc ore manifestations are available in the Transcarpathian region (Beregovoe,
Begansky), in Donbas (Nagolniy Kryazh) and the Ciscarpathian region. Transcarpathian
volcanogenic hydrothermal deposits are of commercial value. Here the mineralization is closely
connected with MiocenePannonian volcanic zones and massifs, characterized by knot
distribution and confined to the internal volcanic arc. The deposits are bedded by various
volcanites (andesites and their pyroclasts) together with their subvolcanic derivatives. The
orebody distribution depends on fracture structures, explosive breccia development sections,
intensive permeability and porosity zones. The vein ore bodies are up to 5 m thick, and contain
up to 2 % Pb, 34 % Zn, as well as silver. There are tin and copper ore manifestations.
Mercury ores are presented by hydrothermal volcanogenic deposits in the Donets ore
province (the Nikitovka ore field deposits). In the Trancarpathian region the mercury
mineralization is associated mostly with hypabissal intrusives (dioriteporphyrites and
granodioriteporphyrites). The ore bodies are columns elongated on dip, flattened lenses and
nests. The mineralization is for the most part complex mercurypolymetallic, more seldom
mercury and mercuryantimony with arsenic. The Donbas deposits are confined to roof parts of
anticlines. The subconcordant beds in sandstone layers and the nests match the intersecting
bodies in the anticline fold nuclei. The ores are virtually monomineral (cinnabar) with slight
antimonite content.
Titanium ore deposits are presented by native, residual and placer types. The native ores
are connected with olivine gabbroid intrusives. Small dykes or stocks are confined to abyssal
fracture zones. Ilmenite and apatite in them amount to 25 and 12 %, respectively. The residual
deposits are spatially and genetically connected with essential rock weathering crusts. The ore
layer is up to 2530 m thick, with an ilmenite content of 150200 kg/m 3 . Besides ilmenite,
76
alluvial (the Irsha and other deposits) and coastalmarine (the Malyzhevo deposit) beds are
available. The alluvial placers are up to several kilometres long. The productive layer (up to 10
m in thickness) contains up to 300 kg/m 3 . The coastalmarine placers feature layer or lensshaped
ore deposits which thickness is up to several tens of metres with length of several tens of
kilometres. The productive layer is bedded by quartzite sands. There are rutile and zircon,
besides leucoxenized ilmenite.
2.3.2. History of Nonferrous Metal Deposit Mining
First copper tools appear at the end of the 5th and in the beginning of the 4th millennium
B.C. when the Tripolian archeological culture of the Copper Age was developed on the right
bank of the Dnieper River and Western Ukraine. The mineral products for their manufacture
were delivered from the mining & metallurgical centres of the BalkanCarpathians. In the
Copper Age (the middle of the 4th and the beginning of the 2nd millennium B.C.) copper and
antimony bronze entered Ukraine mainly from the Caucasus and partially from the Balkan
Carpathians. In the middle of the 2nd and the beginning of the 1st millennium B.C. surface
outcrops of copperbearing deposits were widely mined in the Donbas territory. Numerous pits
and shallow mines were initiated for extraction of malachite with downstream pyrometallurgical
processing (the area of Kartalysh, Pilipchatino, Klinovy Khutor, etc.).
Fullscale mining trials of iron ore deposits are attributed to the middle of the 19th
century when gold which reserves were exhausted after a short time period was produced. Lead
zinc ore deposits near the Truskavets town have been known since 1836. In the Ciscarpathian
region potash salt has been mined since the 19th century. The Borislavky oil field considered one
of the Europe’s largest fields has been known from the 2nd half of the 18th century. In 1879 the
commercial mercury mineralization was discovered in Donbas.
2.3.3. Mining & Metallurgical Industry
Ilmenite and zirconrutileilmenite deposits are open pit mined by the Irsha Mine &
Concentrator and the UpperDnieper Mining & Metallurgical Complex using bucketwheel and
chain excavating machines and draglines. Sands are gravity separated at concentrators with a
mineral recovery rate of 8090 %.
Nickel ores are openpit extracted by the Pobuzhskoe Nickel Plant. The oxidized ore of
the Pobuzhskoe deposit group is mined and downstream processed by electric melting.
Ukraine accounted for a considerable part of the allunion mercury production. Mercury
ore output was focused on Donbas at the Nikitovka Mercury Works which mined the likenamed
deposit by a combined method. The mercury ore was processed in fluidizedbed furnaces, with
mercury recovery of about 85 %. Nowadays the deposit has already been depleted for the most
part and is reminded only owing to large mercury pollution of the environment (Fig.2.13 &
2.14).
2.4. Mineral Resources of Georgia
Georgia is situated in the central and western part of Transcaucasia. The area is 69,700 sq
km. The population amounts to 5.17 mln people (as of January 1, 1984).
2.4.1. Geological Structure and Mineral Resources
The Late Alpine tectonicmagmatic activation process of the Big Caucasus completed
foldness regions is of great importance to metallogeny of Georgia. Formation of barite and
baritepolymetallic mineralization widely abundant in the GagraDzhava and OkribSachkher
zones must be considered the beginning of the above activation process. The Kvaisy near
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fracture leadzinc zone, rare metalarsenic belt of Racha and Svanetia and echelonlike
alternating mercury belts of Abkhazia, Svanetia, Racha and Southern Ossetia are confined to
next activization stages.
Manganese, copper, arsenic, lead and zinc ores, some rare and noble metal ores are the
most important mineral resources of Georgia.
Copper ores are focused for the most part in the Bolnisi ore region where complex
copperbaritepolymetallic deposits (Madneul, Tsitelisopelsky, KvemoBolnisi, Tamarisi and
others) are located. They are confined to the Upper Cretaceous volcanogenicsedimentary strata;
the orebodies are shaped as metasomatic beds of solid and veinimpregnated ores, more seldom
stocks and columns. Vertical zonality is typical, the lower deposit horizons have mature sulfur
and copperpyrite ores overlapped by copperzinc, polymetallic and barite ores. The key
minerals are pyrite, barite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galenite. The average copper content is 11.5
% with up to 24 % in separate areas. The Magneul deposit is being mined. Vein copper
polymetallic deposits connected with PreUpper Eocene intrusives of syenitesiorites are
abundant in the AdzhariaTrialeti zone. The explored Merisi ore knot contains up to 50 steeply
dipping quartzsulfide veins. Several vein fields are identified in the area of about 180 sq km.
The copper content in veins is 1.52 % in average. Copperpyrrhotite and pyritepolymetallic
mineralization is widely abundant in the Jurassic black shale strata in the southern slope of the
Big Caucasus. Ore fields (Adangey, Artan, Akhalsopelsky, etc.) with very uneven, sometimes
high, copper concentrations are being explored.
Leadzinc ores are available in the above types of pyrite and vein copperpolymetallic
ores and are also independent in leadzinc and polymetallic formation deposits. The Kvaisy
deposit is confined to the Late Alpine fracture zone traced up to 8 km along the strike and more
than 1 km down the dip. Columnar bodies of leadzinc ores are bedded in Bajocian porphyrite
suite rocks and Upper Jurassic limestones. The zinc and lead content in the ores is 5.77.8 and
1.92.6 %, respectively, in the Upper Kvaisy and Nadarbazi areas. The Valkhokh and
Varakhkom orebearing structures have been explored, the Pb to Zn ratio is 0.4.
In the Bolnisi region barite mineralization is an associate to copperleadzinc
mineralization; barite is extracted as associate at the Magneul deposit.
The ore reserves amount to about 1 mln t, the barite content is 3253 per cent.
Mercury ore deposits and numerous cinnabar mineralization manifestations are located
over the southern slope of Big Caucasus. The Akhey and Avadkhar deposits in Abkhazia are the
most essential ones. They are represented by a hydrothermally changed zone confined to
sandstones and clay shales. The metal content is 0.49.1 and 0.270.41 % in the first and second
deposits, respectively. The Ertsoy deposit has been discovered in Southern Ossetia.
Antimony ore deposits are located over the southern slope of the Main Range of Big
Caucasus. The Zopkhito deposit in Upper Racha is of commercial value. It is represented by
numerous quartzantimonite veins confined to Lias clay shales and Paleozoic granitoids. The
metal content is 717 %.
Arsenopyrite and realgarorpigment veined deposits of hydrothermal type are widely
abundant in the southern slope zone of Big Caucasus. The Lukhum deposit in Upper Racha and
the Tsan deposit in Lower Svanetia are of commercial value. The former is presented by rich
realgarorpigment ore and relatively poor ore as individual nests, interlayers and impregnations
in lateral rocks (shales and limestone of the Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous periods). Five
ore bodies have been identified, with metal content from 3.613.3 %. The Tsan deposit ores are
arsenopyritecontaining quartz in metamorphized clay shales, with an arsenic content from 3.32
to 29 %.
Nonferrous metals ores are under fullscale mining at the Magneul copperbarite
polymetallic and Kvaisy leadzinc deposits. The Magneul deposit has been mined since 1974 by
an openpit method. The ore is processed by flotation at the Magneul Mine & Concentrator.
78
The Kvaisy deposit has been mined by an underground method since 1949. The heavy
bulge (up to 810 m) of a steeplydipping (8285 m) ore body of the Nadarbazi area is being
worked.
Steel is made at the Rustavi Steel Works. There is also a chemical complex producing
arsenic and other preparations (Fig.2.15 & 2.16).
2.5. Mineral Resources of Armenia
Armenia is situated in the south of Transcaucasia. It borders Georgia on north,
Azerbaijan on east, Iran on south and Turkey on west. The area is 29,800 sq km. The population
is 3,222,000 people (1983).
Despite small land area the country is rich in various mineral resources which permitted
setup of projects to mine copper, coppermolybdenum and goldbearing ores.
There are ore mining undertakings in Armenia. They are Arm Gold (which operates the
Zodsky underground mine and open pit), and Arm Nonferrous Metals (copper and molybdenum
stockworks and veins).
The copper ores of the hydrothermal genesis of the Kafan deposit are represented by the
vein and veinletimpregnated mineralization in the Middle Jurassic volcanogenic rocks. In the
north of Armenia there are the Shamlug and Alaverdy veintype copper ore deposits bedded in
the Middle Jurassic volcanogenic rocks.
Armenia is one of the CIS leaders in molybdenum ore reserves. In the Kafan region there
is the Kadzharan deposit presented by a stockwork with veinletmolybdenum ores containing
rhenium, selenium, tellurium, bismuth, etc. as associates. The hydrothermal deposit is confined
to the monzonite intrusion of the northern part of the Megrin pluton. The Agara hydrothermal
coppermolybdenum deposit confined to the same pluton is situated in the southeastern part of
Armenia (Fig.2.15).
History of mineral resource mining
The mining operations in this region are attributed to the most ancient ones in the history
of the mankind.
In Armenia there was one of the largest copper ore mining and copper smelting centres in
the Bronze epoch (the middle of the 4th and the beginning of the 1st millennium B.C.). The
Middle Ages and current openings destroyed the majority of the earliest shallow funnelshaped
pits and holes. However there are still certain evidences that the most ancient workings were
focused on the regions of Northern Armenia: the AlaverdyKirovokan deposit group (Alaverdy,
Shamlug, Akhtala, etc.), probably, Antonovka as well, and on the regions of Southern Armenia:
the Zangezur deposit group (Kafan, Kadzharan, etc.). Arsenic ores (the Metsdzor, Solvartin,
Daridag deposits) which were used as master alloys in bronze production have been mined since
the middle of the 4th millennium B.C. For the same purpose antimony ores (maybe, Angekhtun,
Manaskert) have been mined since the middle of the 3rd millennium. A relatively large number
of tin articles from the Lchashen grave on the Sevan Lake shore of the middle of the 2nd
millennium B.C. brings about a supposition on probability of local tin ore sources. From that
time on tin bronze has become the dominating alloy type. At least from the beginning of the 1st
millennium B.C. iron ore deposits (probably, Agartsin, Varazhnunik, etc.) have been used on a
large scale. Alongside this, the operation of the above copper ore deposits have not been
terminated up to the Middle Ages and new times. In the Middle Ages the Akhtala silverlead
deposit, the Zangezur polymetallic deposits and the Alaverdy group copper deposits were mined.
The regular development of the Akhtala, Alaverdy and Shamlug deposits are attributed to the
middle of the 18th century. In 17601770 the Akhtala and Shamlug Copper Smelteries were set
up. During the invasions of OmarKhan Lezginsky in 1785 and AgaMahometKhan Persian in
1795 the Akhtala, Alaverdy and Shamlug open pits were destroyed. After the Caucasian territory
79
was included into the Russian state (early in the 19th century) specialized expeditions were sent
there in order to explore mineral resources. From 1886 on the French company of Akhtala open
pits resumed the working of the Alaverdy and Shamlug copper deposits. In 1900 this company
transferred their rights to the Caucasus industrial & metallurgical society which leased the
Privolnoe polymetallic deposit as well from 1912 and owned the DragilZami and Gyumush
Magara polymetallic open pits in Zangezur from 1915. The ore entered the Manes Plant at
Alaverdy. Besides, in the 19th century polymetallic deposits in Southern Armenia (Agarak,
Kafan, Pirdoudan (Kadzharan) and others) were also intensively mined. The Agarak, Pirdoudan,
Kafan and Galidzor Copper Smelteries were built. In 18471867 eleven new cooper smelteries
(among them, 7 in Zangezur) were set up in Armenia. In the 1860s Armenia occupied the
leading position in Transcaucasia as copper producer (up to 99 %).
Mining & metallurgical industry
The raw materials base for copper and molybdenum concentrate production is the copper
molybdenum ores of the Kadzharan and Agarak deposits as well as the copper ores of the Kafan
and Shamlug deposits. The Zangezur CopperMolybdenum Works has been in operation since
1952 based on the former. The Agarak deposit has been in operation since 1963. Owing to a
small overburden rock mass the Kadzharan and Agarak deposits are mined by an openpit
method, the Kafan deposit both by openpit and underground methods. Copperleadzinc ores are
mined by an underground method at the Akhtala open pit of the Alaverdy Mining &
Metallurgical Complex and dressed at the concentrating plant. More than 90 per cent of non
ferrous metal ores are mined by an openpit method. The ore is concentrated by flotation.
The Kadzharan deposit is one of the world’s largest coppermolybdenum deposits which
profitable reserves explored can be mined for more than one hundred years at the current output
level while the indicated reserves will afford mining for more than two hundred years. Another
similar project is the Agarak Copper Mine & Concentrator which reserves are limited to
approximately 15 years. Only high grade ores of the Kadzharan deposit are mined presently
while the lower quality ores are dumped and lost despite their being economically acceptable.
Ironically the recovery value of these “poor” ores is above the average recovery value of the
Agarak deposit which is located 30 km from the Kadzharan field.
The Kadzharan and Agarak Concentrators produce copper concentrate, besides
molybdenum concentrate. Copper concentrate is also made at the Kafan Concentrator where the
copper ores of the Kafan deposit are processed.
In the last decades Armenia has emerged as on of the world’s noteworthy goldbearing
provinces. About ten gold ore and gold complex fields have been discovered. Extractable
reserves of six gold fields have already been proved, two of them are now under extensive
evaluation. The large Zodsky deposit in Eastern Armenia is worked by combined openpit and
underground methods. Underground mining is carried out by a cutandfill stoping method.
Zodsky is a mediumsized mine which annual output is 80,00095,000 troy ounces.
The gold ores of the Zodsky deposit are processed at the Ararat Plant. The process
flowsheet includes gravity and flotation dressing and hydrometallurgical processing with cyanide
solution and downstream sorbtion gold extraction (Fig.2.16).
2.6. Mineral Resources of Azerbaijan [10,23]
Azerbaijan is situated in the eastern part of Transcaucasia. It is washed by the Caspian
Sea in the east, borders Dagestan on north, Georgia on northwest, Armenia on west, Iran and
partially Turkey on south. The area is 86,600 sq km. The population is 6,303,000 people (1982).
80
Azerbaijan is an industrializedagricultural republic and the main oilproducing district of
Transcaucasia. The key sectors of the heavy industry are machinebuilding (manufacture of oil
field equipment, electronic, electrical and instrument making branches) and metal working, fuel,
chemical and oil chemical industries, power generation, iron & steel and nonferrous metals
industry, etc. Mining industry is presented by oil and gas production, iron ore, alunite and lead
zinc ore mining. Oil and gas sector occupies the leading place in the nation’s industrial structure.
Copper ores are presented by copperpyrite and copperporphyry beds. Copperpyrite ore
bodies are available in the Kedabek region where they are placed as stockworkshaped bodies in
upper horizons of Bajocian quartz plagioporphyry thickness. The upper stockwork horizons are
bedded by copper and copperzinc ores, the lower ones by sulfurpyrite ores. The essential
minerals are chalcopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite, galenite, arsenopyrite, etc. Copperporphyry ores are
focused in the Ordubad ore district and are spatially connected with apical and peripheral parts of
PaleogeneMiocene MegriOrdubad granitoid batholith. The essential minerals are chalcopyrite,
molybdenite and pyrite. The ores oxidized on the surface contain 0.21 % Cu, with 0.30.6 % in
average in deed horizons. Several manifestations of virgin copper which form a band extended
for about 60 km are located in the Araks zone over the line of the Nakhichevan fracture, the area
of OligoceneLower Miocene volcanite development; separate copperbearing layers are 0.59 m
in thickness.
Leadzinc ores are connected with pyritepolymetallic deposits of BelokanScheka
metallogenic zone of the southern slope of Big Caucasus (Filizchay, Katsdag, Katekh,
Dzhikhikh, Cheer, Katsmala, etc.). The Mekhmana leadzinc deposit in the Middle Jurassic
volcanogenic thickness is available in the SomkhitAgdam zone of Small Caucasus. There are
two small deposits of leadzinc ores in the Nakhichevan Territory: Gyumushlug confined to
MiddleUpper Devonian limestones and Agdara confined to Eocene volcanites.
The most important manifestations of cobalt mineralization are available in the
Dashkesan and Ordubad ore regions. The former being superimposed on scarnmagnetite ores is
genetically connected with the Dashkesan granitoid intrusive, the latter is in the scarn zone of the
MegriOrdubad pluton. The key minerals are cobaltite, alloclasite, glaucodot, safflorite, cubanite,
cobaltpyrite.
Aluminium ores are presented by beds of alunites and bauxites. Alunite deposits are
available in the Dashkesan, Shamkhor and Ordubad regions. The most famous deposit is Zaglik
confined to Middle and Upper Jurassic volcanicsedimentary strata broken by the Dashkesan
intrusive. Alunite is associated with kaolineite, quartz, hematite, limonite, chalcedony, opal, etc.
The bort alunite content is 25 per cent. The stratiform beds are 20m thick, the ore mass (alunite
and quartz) accounts for 95 per cent, clay minerals amount to 5 per cent. The Zaglik deposit (on
stream since 1960) is the raw materials base of the Kirovabad Aluminium Plant. Bauxite
manifestations are discovered in the Nakhichevan Territory in DevonianPermian terrigene
carbonate sediments as stratiform and lensshaped bodies of 213 m in thickness and 1.52 km in
length. The silicon modulus is of 2:1 type (allites and siallites).
Molybdenum ores are associated with copper and lead in the Temiruchandag
Bagysarkhsky deposit (the Kelbadzhar region). The Paragachai molybdenum deposit is being
mined. It contains 0.21.1 % Mo, 0.0022.1 % Cu, 0.04 % Re in molybdenite, 0.006 % Se, 0.02
% Fe.
Tungsten ore manifestations are available in the Nakhichevan Territory and in the
Kelbadzharsky District; scheelite is noted in quartz veins. Tungstenbearing ore bodies are
confined to Upper Eocene hornfels in the contact zones of the MegriOrdubad and Dalidag
plutons.
Arsenic ores are presented by the Bittibulag deposits (enargite) in the Kedabek District
and the Darrydag (orpigmentrealgar) deposit in the Dzhulfa District (in operation prior to 1941).
Mercury ore deposits were identified in the central part of the SevanKarabakh zone
(Levchay, Shorbulag, Agyatag, Agkay, and Narzanlik).
81
Antimony is observed in the Lev and Kesandag (the Nakhichevan Territory) mercury
deposits.
As to nonfuel minerals, Azerbaijan produces aluminium, coppermolybdenum, iron ore,
lead and zinc. Cobalt associated with magnetite deposits has been also mined since the 19th
century. Azerbaijan is one of the four former USSR republics which export aluminium.
Nonferrous metals ores are mined at the Zaglik (alunites), Paragchay (molybdenum and
copper), Gyumushlug and Agdara (lead, zinc) deposits. Aluminium plants operate based on the
Zaglik alunite deposit. Besides alumina, sulphuric acid and calcium sulfate are produced from
aluminite. The deposit is mined by an opencut method.
Minor mining operations are carried out in Nakhichevan, an autonomous republic
separated from the rest of Azerbaijan by Armenian territory. In the last decades silver, lead and
zinc, molybdenum, gold and mercury were extracted from various deposits throughout the
republic. The Paragchay molybdenum mine located in the southeast and mined since World
War II is related to the more significant deposits located across the Armenian border.
Coppermolybdenum ores have been mined since 1952 by an underground method in the
Paragchay deposit. The dressing operation is flotation.
Leadzinc ores have been mined since 1954 by an underground method in the
Gyumushlug and Agdara deposits (Fig.2.15 & 2.16).
2.7. Mineral Resources of Kazakhstan [10, 38, 48, 50]
2.7.1. Regional Geology and Deposits of Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan is situated in the southwest of the Asian part of the former USSR. The area
is 217,000 sq km, the population amounts to 15,250,000 people (1984).
Kazakhstan, like the Russian Federation, Ukraine and Tajikistan, is richly endowed with
mineral and energy resources. Mining has historically been considered critical to the nation’s
economy. The nonferrous metals industry comprises the primary metallurgical sector, involving
production of copper, lead, zinc, titanium, aluminium, tungsten, gold, silver, tantalum, uranium,
plus minor metals which include antimony, rhenium, tellurium, scandium and many others. The
UstKamenogorsk and Leninogorsk Lead & Zinc plants, the Irtysh Chemical & Metallurgical
Plant and the UstKamenogorsk Titanium & Magnesium Plant are all located in the Altai region;
lead and zinc are also produced at the Chimkent plant, and copper is made at Dzhezkazgan and
Balkhash plants. Pavlodar is a centre of alumina production, and all of these facilities for the
most part use local raw materials as their base.The current estimates of the country’s mineral
production output and capacity are shown in Tables 2.8 & 2.9.
Sulfuric acid production is centred at the nonferrous metals smelteries in Balkhash,
Chimkent, UstKamenogorsk and Leninogorsk. Kazakhstan is a significant producer of iron &
steel, nonferrous and precious metals, including aluminium, chrome, copper, gold, iron ore,
leadzinc, molybdenum, silver, steel, titanium and tungsten. Thirtysix ore mines, besides seven
major metallurgical plants, operate in the country. The republic which accounted for about 6 %
of the USSR gold output is the third largest gold producer among the CIS countries.
Kazakhstan is a leader in the former USSR in key economic minerals both in terms of
explored reserves and scope of extraction and processing. Namely, the republic accounts for
great shares of the FSU strategic mineral mining and processing as follows: chromites, 97 %;
bismuth, 95 %; tungsten, 52 %; lead, 47 %; zinc, 40 %; copper, 36 %; bauxites, 25 %.
Kazakhstan’s mineral deposits are unique in amount and quality, and can support highcapacity
industrial facilities.
Table 2.8. Kazakhstan’s mineral resources and production output as a
percentage of the CIS total
82
Table 2.9. Estimated output of Kazakhstan’s mineral products (metals)
Large areas in the west and north of Kazakhstan are overlaid by Hercynian platform
cover deposits (the Turan and West Siberian plates). The platform cover of three plates was
formed during the TriassicNeogene. It is 24 km thick (locally 68 km). The Archean and Lower
Proterozoic crystalline basement of the Ciscaspian basin is overlaid by a thick (up to 20 km)
succession of Pipheanmodern sedimentary deposits.
The eroded surface of the folded and heavily metamorphized crystalline basement was
covered in the Late Proterozoic with the deposition of both sedimentary and volcanic formations
which represented the protoplatform cover. This cover was studied in the outcrops of a few small
massifs of PreCambrian age. The breakup of the protoplatform began in the Middle Riphean
but did not take place simultaneously over the whole territory of what is now Kazakhstan.
Separation zones with new areas of oceantype crust and associated islandarc zones, were
formed along the faults.
The UralMongolian folded belt was generated as a stable continental block between the
Wendian and the Permian. The study of the belt evolution has not been completed as yet from
the viewpoint of uptodate tectonic concepts as many important structures are buried beneath
the platform cover or overlapped by thrusts. Repeated stages of tectonic movement occurred
during Caledonian and Hercynian orogenies and were related to the displacements of the nearby
East European, Siberian and Tarim platforms which resulted in intensive folding, volcanism and
intrusive magmatism. Three geosynclinal folded systems can be identified by nature and
evolution of tectonic structure: the UralTien Shan system in the west and southwest, the
Kazakhstan system in the centre and southeast, and the IrtyshAltai system in the northeast of
the country.
Relatively small massifs of PreCambrian rocks (measured by a few tens or hundreds of
kilometres) were found within the Paleozoic structure in many regions. They are exemplified by
the East Ural, Kokchetav, North Tien Shan and AtasuDzungar massifs among others. The Pre
Cambrian assemblage consists of porphyries and various heavilymetamorphized greenschist
rocks, calcalkali islandarc volcanic rocks, reef carbonates, diabase and siliceouscarbonaceous
shales. Granitoid magmatism is widely abundant.
An ocean crust area was developed in what is now NorthEast Kazakhstan from the Late
Wendian to the Cambrian, with cherts, jasper, carbonates and diabasespilite rocks deposited.
Elsewhere from this basin rifttype complexes were formed which contain basalts, carbonaceous
siliceous and carbonate rocks, and often carry metalliferous deposits. These areas include the
Kokchetav massif, the Karatau and Dzungar Ranges, and other places. Islandarc volcanism
(from basalt to rhyolite) and intrusive magmatism (gabbro, granite, and syenite) originated from
the Middle Cambrian.
The UralSouth Tien Shan and ZhungarBalkhash basins with gabbro hyperbasite
basement as found in the Kempisari massif in Ural and the Kenterlau block in the north of the
Balkhash region, originated from the Ordovician. Formation of thick flyschoid successions and
andesitebasalt volcanic rocks is typical of that time. The DzungarBalkhash basin was formed
by volcanic arcs from the east and northeast (the Chingiz Range) and from the west (the
StepnyakBetpak Dala area) with andesitebasalt volcanism. The Ural basin was also formed
from the east by a zone of islandarc volcanism.
The formation of basalts, carbonaceoussiliceous slates and jaspers occurred in the Altai
basin in the Ordovician, and thick turbidites were deposited in the more easterly areas of Altai,
as in the Cambrian.
Active tectonic movements during the Silurian resulted in the creation of the orogenic
folded massif between the UralSouth Tien Shan and DzungarBalkhash ocean basins. Heavy
deposits of siliciclastic (terrigenic) sediments were deposited in the central part of the Dzungar
Balkhash basin while flysch, basalt and andesite were formed around the basin margins where
overthrust sheets also appeared. The volcanism level in the Ural region decreased during the
Silurian as a result of tectogenesis.
84
Orogenic movements during the Late Silurian were responsible for wide distribution of
terrestrial sedimentation and volcanism in the Devonian. The greater part of the massif which
divided the Ural and DzungarBalkhash paleobasins dried up, and a wide belt typified by active
andesitebasalt volcanism and thick red molasse was formed around the massif. Meanwhile in
the basins a sedimentation pattern similar to that of the Silurian was kept. In the Middle
Devonian intensive thrusting transformed the western part of the DzungarBalkhash basin into an
orogenic area with widespread basaltrhyolite volcanism and granite intrusions. Red molasse was
also widely distributed, and marine metalbearing claycarbonate and black shale sediments were
deposited locally. Devonian volcanic and sedimentary formations (some saltbearing) were
widely distributed from the residual basin, and nowadays they have been found in the locations
like the Karatau Range and ShuIli Mountains, and the Teniz, ShuSarysay and Turgay
depressions.
In the Ural region active tectonic movements commenced in the Middle Devonian which
resulted in folding and closure of some basins while marine sedimentation and underwater
volcanism went on in the others. To the east the Valeryanovsky zone exhibited islandarc
volcanism while a deep water trough in the Altai region between the Chara ophiolite belt and the
Irtysh folded zone featured jasper and basalt depositions. Basalt and chert accumulation also
occurred in the area to the west of the islandarc environment while the eastern active margin of
the Altai basin, the Ore Altai islandarc system, was overthrust in the central part to the south
west along the Irtysh folded zone. Kazakhstan’s tin, tungsten, molybdenum, gold, copper,
tantalum and other mineral deposits are related to Devonianaged volcanic rocks and granites,
and sulfide deposits containing copper, lead, zinc and gold are associated with andesites and
basalts.
The Hercynian tectonic period began in the Late Devonian (Famennian). Basal volcanism
was reactivated in the DzungarBalkhash basin, and a new volcanic arc appeared some 100150
km to the south of the Devonian arc. This system was incorporated with rifting, including the
Uspensky and Spassky rifts. Deepwater sediments were formed in these rift structures with
basalttrachiterhyolite and ultrabasite deposits and with polymetallic and ironmanganese
mineralization while the Caledonides of the western part of Central Kazakhstan were almost
universally covered by shallowwater seas.
The ocean evolution phase in the Ural and Altai regions continued virtually uninterrupted
for the Famennian and Early Carboniferous although terrestrial sedimentation areas gradually
increased. Shallowwater carbonate and alternating siliciclastic or carbonate sediments were
deposited in the Early Carboniferous outside the ocean basins in the western and southern
country’s areas. Coalbearing sediments (the Karaganda and Ekibastuz coalfields) and
multicoloured copperbearing sediments (Dzhezkazgan) were deposited in continental
environments. Tectonic movement intensity increased highly in the Middle to Late
Carboniferous and resulted in Paleozoic folding and closure.
The main tectogenesis phase occurred late in the Late Carboniferous which resulted in
active folding and orogenesis, and granite intrusion to which many of metalliferous deposits of
Central and Eastern Kazakhstan are related.
Continental volcanism was very active in the Permian and Triassic during which time
both the western BeltauKuraminsky and southeastern BalkhashIli (or CisbalkhashIli) belts
were formed. Multicoloured molasse was formed in the western ShuSarysay depression during
the Permian, and coalbearing formations were deposited in some grabens in Eastern and North
East Kazakhstan; examples are the Kenderlyk and Pavlodar coalfields.
The intrusion of alaskite or alkaline granite is recorded in some places in the Early
Triassic, and trap effusions of basalt took place in the Turgay depression and in the Irtysh area
(Irtyshye). The active tectonicmagmatic evolution of the UralMongolian belt was completed,
and it was transformed into a stable continental block, the young platform. The paleoids of the
UralMongolian belt form a distinct arc, with folded zones of various geological ages which
stretch for many hundreds of kilometres and curve from the north to the south and southeast.
85
North and northwest directions predominate in the north end of the arc while it changes to sub
latitudal (Mongolian) in its south end.
During the Mesozoic and Cenozoic the western and northern parts of the belt were
covered by 25 km of platform sediments of marine and terrestrial origin to which deposits of oil,
phosphorite, coal, iron, strontium, uranium, bauxite and other mineral resources are related.
Altogether, more than 3,000 occurrences of various economic minerals have been
explored in Kazakhstan, with about 815 of them under mining.
2.7.2. NonFerrous Metals Ores
Ores out of which sixty chemical elements are extracted are mined out of the
Kazakhstan’s interior. Complex ore composition and high quality are the valuable features
(Fig.2.17).
Copper ores.
Five deposit types are known to exist: copper porphyries, cupriferous nidstones, massive
sulfides, scarns and veintype deposits.
Cupriferous sandstones.
Deposits of this type include Dzhezkazgan, ZhamanAibal and the deposits of the
Zhelandy group, all of which are located in the ShuSarysay basin in Central Kazakhstan. The
deposits here are hosted in grey sandstones and conglomerates within Upper Palaeozoic red
formations, the stratiform mineralization occurring as lenses and bedded deposits.
The ores are complex, containing an average of 1.24 % Cu with associated lead, zinc,
silver and rhenium. Ore minerals include bornite, chalcocite, chalcopyrite, galenite, sphalerite,
native silver and leadrhenium sulfide (dzhezkazganite). Copper, copperzinc, copperlead, zinc,
leadzinc and lead ores are all recognised, the copper ore being the most important. The
alteration around the ore zones is represented by discolouration of the epigenetic grey colour of
the host rocks through the loss of iron, along with the presence of silica, albite, chlotite and
sericite.
Potential for new discoveries of cupriferous sandstones remains greatest in ShuSarysay.
Five workable fields (Central Dzhezkazgan, Itauz, Kipchakpay, Saryoba, AkchiSpassky)
have been identified and explored in the Dzhezkazgan deposit group. They are bedded in the
variegated Dzhezkazgan suite of MiddleUpper Carbonaceous age (700 m in thickness). The
mineralization is confined to greycoloured sandstones, its section is multilevel. The orebodies
are laminated, veneershaped, banded concordant to enclosing rocks. The ores are complex. The
essential minerals are chalcocite, bornite, chalcopyrite, galenite, sphalerite.
The mineralization of the Zhelandy group is monometal (1.0 % Cu). The Tachor,
ZhamanAibat deposits and several big manifestations are associated with this formation in the
ChuSarysay depression. Several hundreds of smallscale manifestations along with the Kenek
deposit are known in the Tangos depression in the DevonianPermian redcoloured sediments.
Several hundreds of small manifestations associated with the Paleozoic and Permian
Triassic redcoloured complex are known in the Turgay deflection, Karatau, Ulutau, Sarysay
Tengiz, Aktyubinsk Ural region, Mine Mangyshlak and Caspian depression.
Massive sulfides.
Massive copperbearing sulfide deposits are grouped on three districts: the Kazakhstan
Irtysh region, the Chingiz Range and the Mugodzhary Mountains. They are found in paleo
volcanic structures represented by lavas and tuff formations, and occur as lenticular and tabular
orebodies of massive or disseminated sulfides. Orebody dimensions amount to hundreds of
metres in length and tens of metres in thickness.
The Sredneorsky, Domarovsky and Verkhneorsky ore regions are singled out. Copper
pyrite, copperzinc and zincpyrite ores are identified. Some manifestations are also available in
the Sakmar and Irgiz zones of Mugodzhary. In the ChingizTarbagay folded system pyrite
deposits are distributed in Cambrian, Ordovician and Devonian volcanic rock masses. The
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essential minerals are pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite. Single manifestations of pyrite type are
known in the North Balkhash region, the Agadyr and Ulutau districts.
The Orlovka and Nikolaevka deposits in the Irtysh district are related to Devonian
terrestrial volcanic rocks while the Akbastau, Kosmurun and Mizek deposits in the Chingiz
Range are associated with Ordovician volcanic arcs. The Priorsky and other deposits in the
Mugodzhary Mountains are located in Lower Paleozoic greenstones. In each case, the ore is
similar, being composed of three main types: massive pyrite, disseminated pyrite and vein gold
baritepolymetallic.
The copper content is 12%, zinc up to 57%, lead 0.51%, and gold 12 g/t, locally rising
by an order of magnitude. The predominant minerals are pyrite, chalcopyrite and sphalerite, and
ore structures include massive, brecciabanded, banded and colloform.
Copper porphyries.
Copper porphyries are distributed throughout Kazakhstan, and are usually associated with
upper Paleozoic volcanicplutonic belts or with Early Paleozoic rift zones. The copper
porphyries of Central, NorthWest and Eastern Kazakhstan fall into the former category, while
those found in the north of the country and in the Spas district are located in paleorifts.
In both cases, copper mineralization is found in large magmatic structures in which
volcanic deposits have been intruded by moderately acid granitoids. Small porphyry intrusions or
breccia pipes are surrounded by wide hydrothermal alteration zones, the stockworks being pipe,
cup or cylindershaped.
The mineralization typically consists of pyrite, chalcopyrite, molybdenite and magnetite,
either disseminated or in veinlet systems. The copper content varies from 0.2 to 0.7%, with
associated molybdenum, gold, silver, selenium, tellurium, rhenium and, in some cases, platinum.
In some cases a cementation zone has been developed which caused two or threefold ore
enrichment (Kounradsky, Benkalinka, Sokyr). The Mo content is 0.10.005 %.
The size of the deposits varies from those like Aktosay, Aidarly, Kounradsky, Boschekul,
Koksay, Samarsky, Kaskyrmys and Kokraszhal which have large resources to those like Borly,
Kenkuduk and Kaskyrkazgan. Only the Kounradsky deposit out of them is currently in
operation. Outlook for discovery of further copper resources of this type is good.
The Chingiz Range and the Mugodzhary Mountains are considered to offer the best
promise of new massive sulfide discoveries.
In Northern Kazakhstan some deposits are bedded in Lower Paleozoic rock masses cut by
big fractures and younger granitoids (Bozshakol, Odak, Satpak). The orebody shape is solid or
hollow cylinder, overturned cone or separate fragments of these configurations.
Scarn deposits.
Of commercial value are vein copper deposits of the Kendyktas Mountains.
Scarn copper deposits are typified by the Sayak group in the Northern Balkhash region
which, together with the Kounradsky porphyry copper deposit, provide the feed for the Balkhash
Copper Refinery. Other scarntype deposits include Irisu in the TalasAlatau Range in Southern
Kazakhstan and Karatas in the NorthWest Balkhash region.
The features of this type of deposit are relatively high copper content (13 %) and
associated mineralization 0.01 % Mo, cobalt, 0.51.0 g/t of gold, silver, bismuth, selenium,
tellurium and iron ore. In some places, molybdenum ore with 0.10.2 % Mo, goldcobalt ore with
510 g/t of gold and 0.10.2% Co, and borates (1012 % of boric anhydride) are of independent
commercial value.
The Sayak deposit is typical of scarn copper, and is the most important economically. It
is located at the boundary between Middle Carboniferous limestones, interbedded with
tuffaceous mudstone and sandstone, and Late Carboniferous granitoids. Faults that run through
the zone are often filled with diorite and porphyritic dykes, scarns and metasomatic
mineralization, partly or completely replacing the limestone nearfault zones and igneous
contacts.
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The ore occurs as lenticular and tabular bodies between the scarn zones, the intrusives
and the unaltered limestones. Individual orebodies can be 1,0001,500 m long, 600700 m wide
and normally 1015 m thick, sometimes as much as 3050 m. The predominant minerals in the
original ore are magnetite, chalcopyrite, bornite and molybdenite, with occasional pyrite,
pyrrhotite, cobaltite and boron minerals. The ores can be massive, in stacked veins or
disseminated.
Outlook for further discoveries of scarn copper deposits is good, promising results having
been achieved from drilling at a depth of 6001,500 m in the Sayak area and at the Irisu copper
magnetite deposits in the TalasAlatau Range.
Of commercial value are vein copper deposits of the Kendyktas Mountains. They are
represented by echelonlike steeplydipping zones composed of quartzcalcite aggregates.
Vein copper deposits.
The Chatyrkul and Zhaisan deposits in the Kendyktas Mountains in Southern Kazakhstan
are representative of this type of mineralization, being located in the central part of the Chatyrkul
Caledonian granite massif. The Chatyrkul deposit consists of three large vein systems hosted in
extensively hydrothermally altered
syenodiorites and granites. The veins dip at 4580°, and converge in the southern part of the
intrusives.
Ores consist of quartzsulfidemagnetite, quartzcalcitesulfide and disseminatedvein
assemblages, occurring in lenticular bodies of up to 1,000 m long, 300700 m wide and 638 m
thick. The predominant minerals are magnetite, chalcopyrite, molybdenite and uranite. The
average Co content is 3.64.5 %, but can locally reach 20 %, with 0,02 % Mo, 52 % Fe, I g/t Au,
and 20 g/t Ag. Rhenium, bismuth, selenium and tellurium are often associated.
The deposit has been explored only to a limited extent, and the potential exists to increase
both the reserves and the copper content substantially. About 30 per cent of the currently
identified and developed ore reserves are available for openpit mining.
Lead and zinc.
Kazakhstan has large lead and zinc resources with the main deposit types as follows:
stratiform (in carbonate and terrigenecarbonate rocks), pyrite and scarn (in Devonian and
WendianPiphean stratigraphic levels). The Karatau group of stratiform deposits are localized in
the terrigenelimestonedolomite formation of the Famennian stage (the Mirgalimsay, Achisay,
Baizhansay, Shalkiya deposits). Cadmium, barite, along with lead and zinc (4.5 % in total), are
of commercial value in the deposit ores. The Atasuy group of stratiform deposits is localized in
siliconcarbonateterrigene formation of the Famennian stage. The orebodies are laminated beds
in conjunction with intersecting veins and zones. The ores are complex, leadzincbarite, the total
leadzinc sum is 4.8 %, 3050 % of barite. The impurity elements are Cd, Bi, Se, Te, In. The
deposits of Southern and Central Kazakhstan are related to the FamennianTournaisian stage.
The ore beds are shaped as heavy lenses, interrupted interformational bodies, intersecting zones.
Pyritepolymetallic deposits are grouped on the oldest Kazakhstan’s ore region of Ore Altai.
Altaitype deposits are found in Eastern Kazakhstan, forming the Leninogorsk,
Zyryanovo and Irtysh ore fields which have laid the basis for major mining operations. The
deposits in operation include Orlovka, Nikolaevka, Kamyshin, NovoBerezovo, Irtysh,
Belousovka, RidderSokolnoe, Tishin, Zyryanovo and Grekhovo. The deposits which have been
evaluated but not brought into operation include Maleevka, NovoLeninogorsk, Chekmar,
Artemievka, YubileinoSnegirikhinsk and Strezhansky. Table 2.10 lists typical grades for these
deposits.
The ore is hosted in Devonian volcanic formations, occurring mainly in downwarps in
basaltic and rhyolitic lavas, and in limestones and sandstones. Orebodies occur in various shapes,
reaching up to 3,000 m long by 100 m thick. Reserves in individual orebodies can be as much as
4.5 mln t. The mineralization includes galenite, sphalerite, pyrite and chalcopyrite, the average
content being 0.77.4 % Pb, 1.511.9 % Zn and 0.12.0 % Cu. Gold, silver, cadmium, barite,
selenium, mercury, antimony, bismuth, gallium, indium and germanium are often present.
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Atasuytype base metal deposits are found mainly in Central Kazakhstan in the Atasui,
Agadyr and Karkaraly ore fields. Deposits in production include Zhairem, Ushkatun, Akzhal and
Karagaily while those evaluated but still unworked include Uzynzhal, Besrubinsky and
Alashpav.
Deposits of this type are typified by grouping of minerals on claysiliceous carbonaceous
rocks, with a tight spatial association between lead, zinc, barite, iron and manganese ores. The
predominant mineral varies at different deposits; hence in the Karazhal deposit iron and
manganese are more important, while at the Besrubinsky deposit bariteleadzinc ores
predominate. The leadzinc ores underlie the ironmanganese ores stratigraphically, the
mineralization occurring in lenticular deposits of sedimentary and hydrothermalsedimentary
origin. Metasomatic leadzinc, bariteleadzinc and barite ores also occur.
The ores contain barite, galenite, sphalerite and pyrite, the lead:zinc:copper ratio being
1:2:0.1. Individual orebodies measure 7001,600 m along strike and 200600 m wide. Their
thickness varies from 2 to 100 m and the reserve in individual orebodies can be as high as 5.0
mln t. The lead content varies from 1.5 to 15 %, with that of zinc from 1.0 to 10 %. The other
metals normally present are silver, cadmium, barite, copper, mercury, indium, germanium,
selenium, and tellurium.
Table 2.10. Metal content and reserves of selected leadzinc deposits
Deposits in the Karatau district in Southern Kazakhstan are of Mirgalimsay type which is
stratiform leadzinc occurrences hosted in dolomite limestones. Jointing often exercises
structural control on ore zones, and deposits frequently exhibit multiple alternation of ore
bearing horizons. Orebodies measure up to 2,000 m along strike and 1,000 m in width, up to 100
m in thickness. Individual orebodies can contain up to 5 mln t. In some places, galenite is the
basic mineral where the lead to zinc ratio is 34:1 while elsewhere sphalerite predominates. The
lead and zinc content is 0.64 and 0.97 %, respectively. The DzungarAlatau district in Southern
Kazakhstan is the only location where TekeliKholodnytype leadzinc deposits have been
found. Hosted in dolomite limestones, the orebodies are banded and brecciated, having
undergone hydrothermal and contact metamorphism. Lead, zinc, copper, silver, cadmium and
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antimony are contained in the ores which have 0.52.5 % Pb and 2.55.5 % Zn. The individual
orebodies contain up to 0.5 mln t.
There is a potential for polymetallic deposits being hosted in PreCambrian metamorphic
rocks, although there has been little exploration for them as yet. The Kokchetav district is known
to have stratiform copperleadzinc mineralization. Other exploration targets include areas where
MesozoicCenozoic weathering has produced secondary enrichment above primary ores, and
outlook for this type of deposit exists on both edges of the Turgay basin and in the Karatau
foothills.
Nickel and cobalt.
Kazakhstan’s nickel deposits of nickelsilicate type are predominantly associated with the
weathering of ultrabasic rocks. Nickel sulfide deposits have never been discovered in
Kazakhstan. About 40 nickelsilicate deposits have been investigated, and nickel is produced
from the Kempirsay massif in Southern Ural.
Typically, the nickelbearing zones form an eluvial blanket over primary rocks and
comprise nontronitic (ironrich clay) and leached serpentine zones. Highest nickel concentrations
are associated with nontronite, average values being 1.01.2 % Ni and 0,020.06 % Co.
A cobaltnickel silicate deposit has recently been identified at Shevchenkovsky, in the
western part of the Turgay basin. The orebodies vary from 1 to 100 m in thickness, containing up
to 0.95 % Ni and 0.06 % Co. Other areas of similar nickelcobalt mineralization are found in the
EkibastuzBarnaul region, and in the Char and Gomosray ultramafic belts in Eastern Kazakhstan.
Tin, tungsten and molybdenum
Although there is the evidence of historical tin production in several areas of the country,
the current output is limited to the byproducts of tungsten and tantalum mining at five locations:
Karaoba (tungsten) and Belogorsk, Bakerny, Yubileiny and Akhmetkino (tantalum). Four types
of tin occurrence have been identified in Kazakhstan: pegmatites, scarns, greisen quartz
stockworks and placers.
Tin ores are identified in the KalbaNarym, Kokchetav, ShuIli, SarysayTengiz, Ba
Yankol and other regions. There are distinguished cassiteritesilicate, cassiteritesulfide and
scarngreisen tinore formations. Morphologically they are veins, mineralized zones, stockworks.
The associate components are tungsten, bismuth, etc. The majority of manifestations are
Caledonian, partially Hercynian. Tin placers (alluvial, deluvial) are known in Southern Altai,
Northern Kazakhstan, Ulutau. Some of them were mined previously.
Examples of stockworktype occurrences are the Syrymbet and Donets deposits.
Syrymbet, 100 km to the west of Kokchetav in Northern Kazakhstan, is hosted in Middle
Devonian granites which have intruded Upper Proterozoic rocks. The unique deposit consists of
stockworks of quartzcassiterite veins with associated tourmaline, topaz, fluorite and sulfides.
The average tin content is 0.10.5 %. The ore also contains tungsten, copper, bismuth and
molybdenum. The primary stockwork is overlain by the weathered crust in which the tin grade is
enhanced to 0.23 %. The Donets deposit exhibits a similar structure, and has 0.22% Sn.
Tinbearing pegmatites are found in the Altai district in the east of the country, tin being
produced as a byproduct from tantalum and niobium mining at the Bakenny and Yubileiny
deposits. The tin content of the pegmatites varies from 0.01 to 23 %. Scarn tin deposits have
been located in the ShuIli district, but have not proved to be commercial. Promising areas for
further discoveries of tin mineralization are centred in the Kokchetav and Altai districts. The
OngevskoBakenny area of the Central Kalba district also has a potential for tin.
Kazakhstan has the world's largest reserves of tungsten and substantial molybdenum
resources. The first discoveries were made in 1936, and until recently all commercial deposits
have been comprised of either stockworks or greisen quartz veins. Recent exploration has
revealed tungstenbearing scarns and deposits hosted in weathering crusts.
Above 300 deposits of tungsten ores (hydrothermal quartzgreisen stockwork and scarn
greisen deposits associated with Hercynian postorogenic granites) are known. The ores of the
first two types are complex molybdenumtungsten with associate bismuth, more seldom tin.
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Molybdenum, copper, bismuth, besides tungsten, are contained in the scarngreisen deposits. The
1st and 3rd type deposits have a relatively high WO3 content (0.250.65 %), while the stockwork
deposits have a relatively low value (0.10.2 %). The morphology of the orebodies is as follows:
veins, lenses, stockworks, mineralized zones. There were identified promising stratified
metamorphogenic deposits (new for Kazakhstan) of scarnoids with scheelite among the
Proterozoic rocks (tactite type) and tungstenbearing weathering crusts developed in hypogenic
ores. Bismuth, copper, zinc, together with tungsten, are contained in the crusts.
Molybdenum ores are concentrated in quartzgreisen and stockwork deposits. It implies
that a part of molybdenum reserves is also in copperporphyry, copperscarn ores as well as in
vanadiumbearing shales (Talas Alatau, Karatau). The molybdenum deposit ores also contain
tungsten and bismuth. The morphology of the ore bodies is as follows: stockwork zones, veins,
lenses. The average Mo content (%) is 0.150.50 in quartzgreisens, 0.050.12 in stockworks,
0.0050.05 in molybdenumcontaining copper, 0.02 in vanadiumbearing shales. The major Mo
reserves are in the stockwork and copperporphyry deposits.
The predominant tungsten deposits are stockworks which hold over 90% of the country's
tungsten and molybdenum reserves. Tungstenbearing deposits include Karaoba, Akmaya and
Bainazar while those in which scheelite is the main mineral include Bogut (Figure 5.7),
Verkhnee (Upper) Katrakty, Batystau and Cherdoyak. Molybdenumbearing stockwork deposits
include Koktenkol and Shalgiya while Boschekul, Kounradsky, Aktogay, Aidarly, Koksay and
Borly are coppermolybdenum deposits.
Some of these orebodies (for example, Verkhnee Kairakty, Bogut and Koktenkol) are
substantial, typified by containing complex, lowgrade mineralization. Bismuth, copper,
rhenium, selenium and tellurium are also present. Principal features of this type of deposit are the
absence of clearcut boundaries, the depth of mineralization (up to and in excess of 1,000 m) and
the development of lowtemperature metasomatism in the surrounding rocks.
Typical of this type of deposit is Verkhnee Kairakty, which is predominantly a tungsten
deposit with subordinate molybdenum. The stockwork lies above a leucogranitic intrusion and
consists of an elliptical, sheetlike body. The mineralization is contained in exocontact zones, the
tungsten content being dependent on veining density. The minerals present include sericite,
quartz, feldspar, pyrite, scheelite, tungstenite, bismuth minerals, molybdenite and chalcopyrite.
The average content is 0.13% WO3, and 0.005% Mo.
Typical of scarntype tungsten and molybdenum deposits are Bayan in the Kokchetav
district, and Severny (Northern) Katpar and the Promezhutochny (Intermediate) Koktenkol
Uchastok (Section) in the Dzhezkazgan district. Scheelite and molybdenite are associated with
bismuth and copper minerals, with silver, rhenium, tellurium, indium and germanium also
present. The composition has 0.20.35 % WO3 and 0.040.07 % Mo in average. The KaratasI
deposit in the northwest of the Balkhash district is a molybdenumrich scarn with the ore
containing 0.050.7 % Mo and 0.60.7 % Cu, which is found in lenses and veins associated with
quartz diorites and granodiorites.
Greisen vein tungsten and molybdenum deposits contain a small proportion of the
country's total reserve. The deposits are typically small but have higher metal content than
elsewhere (0.30.8 % WO3 and 0.140.42 % Mo). The veins are usually found above granite
domes or within granites proper. In addition to tungsten and molybdenum, tin, bismuth,
tantalum, niobium, scandium, silver, selenium and tellurium also occur in this type of deposit.
Tungstenbearing weathering crusts sometimes overlie scarns and greisen veins, and
exhibit enhanced tungsten, bismuth and copper content. Tungstenbearing placers are also found,
but they generally contain only small resources.
Koktenkol is primarily a molybdenum deposit containing 46 per cent of the country's
reserves. The stockwork lies within volcanogenic sediments above the Permian granite intrusion.
The essential ore minerals are molybdenite, tungstenite, scheelite and bismuth and copper
minerals, average metal content being 0.071 % Mo and 0.057 % W03. The molybdenum content
of coppermolybdenum porphyry deposits varies from 0.005 to 0.01%.
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Titanium
While a number of titanium deposit types are known, only placers and eluvial deposits
are potentially viable. Economically expedient deposits occur in the Irtysh, Kokchetav, and
Turgay districts, and in the North Aral and Ciscaspian regions.
The magmatic type is a dominating one (ilmenitetitanomagnetite deposits: Velikhovo,
Karaoba; titanomagnetite: Masal, Irisuy; schorlomiteilmenitetitanomagnetite: Krasnomaiskoe).
Of narrower distribution are titaniumbearing pegmatites and greisens in granitoids and rutile
mineralization in secondary quartzites. Their orebodies are presented as isometric and lens
shaped schlieren and beds of hundreds and thousands of metres in length. The exogenic titanium
manifestations are localized near projections of Caledonides and Hercynides. Clay titanium
bearing weathering crusts are developed in gneissic amphibolites, gabbro and granitoids (the
Kundybay, Karaotkel and other deposits). The ilmenite content is from tens of kilograms per
tonne and more. The orebody form is laminated, the contacts are gradual. In the north and north
west of Central Kazakhstan there are identified and explored complex ilmenitezircon, zircon
rutileilmenite placer deposits where they are associated with buried coastal sands of Mesozoic
Cenozoic mantle (Tobol, Obukhovo, Kumkol, Alasor, Zayachiy, etc.). The ore sands are up to 25
m thick, the shape is laminated, lenticular or banded. Titanium placers are also known in the
North Aral region, the Pavlodar Irtysh region and in the Zaisan depression.
In Northern Kazakhstan, Eocene placers extend along the edge of the Kazakh shield from
the Ishim River to the Irtysh River. Small and mediumsized deposits of ilmeniteleucoxene
zircon are found, usually close to the surface and I to 8 m in thickness. The content is 2050
kg/m 3 of ilmenite and somewhat less for zircon.
Small ilmenite deposits of Oligocene age are found in the Turgay district, with grades of
up to 40 kg/m 3 , and averaging 12 m in thickness. Much larger are the Oligocene placers in the
Aral region, where the content is are up to 50 kg/m 3 of ilmenite and 10 kg/m 3 of rutile in 515 m
thick horizons.
Placers in the East Ciscaspian basin are connected with Eocene sands, and are found in
synclines and troughs associated with salt dome structures. The deposits are compact and have
high ilmenite content with lesser rutile, leuxocene and zircon.
The Shokhash deposit in the Martuk district is the most promising titaniumrich placer in
the country. Measuring 4,500 m by 700 m, it is located in a syncline associated with the Shaida
salt massif, and represents a nearshore marine placer deposit. There are two ore horizons, of
which the upper, 1.07.5 m thick, contains 90% of the resources. Average content is 122.5 kg/m 3
of ilmenite, 7.9 kg/m 3 of rutile, 5.1 kg/m 3 of leucoxene and 14.7 kg/m 3 of zircon. The content in
the lower horizon, 28 m thick, is about onetenth of these.
Kundybay, in the Zhetygara district, is an example of an eluvial deposit, formed through
the weathering of primary mineralized rock. The deposit measures 20 by 2 km, with ore horizons
of up to 5 m in thickness. The ilmenite content is from 40 to 120 kg/m 3 with 210 kg/m 3 of rutile
and 510 kg/m 3 of monazite. The deposit also contains kaoline and churchite.
Promising areas for placers exist in the OrTemirEmba River system, and in the Irtysh
River district while the potential for Kundybaytype eluvials exists in the South Mugodzhary,
Ulutau and Kokchetav districts.
Vanadium ores are represented by complex titanomagnetite, placer (ilmeniterutile and
magnetitezirconilmenite), infiltration, copperleadzinc deposits. They also form independent
deposits in black shale rock masses. The V2O5 content is 0.10.6 % titanomagnetites
(Mugodzhary, Transural), and lower in brown iron ores (Ayat, Lisakovsk and other deposits).
Vanadiumblack shale (coalysiliceous clay) rock masses are known in NorthEast Karatau,
Talas Alatau, Ulutau, Dombralytau in the west of the Balkhash region. In Talas Alatau the
vanadiumbearing bench belongs to the Cambrian coalysiliceousshale formation. The V2O5
content is up to 3.643.93 %. In the Balasaushandyk ore field (NorthWest Karatau) the V2O5
content is up to 1.22 % in individual interlayers of coalysiliceousclay shales of vanadium
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bearing bench. The vanadium reserves in the Cambrian shales of Kazakhstan are very significant
but they are not involved into mining operations.
Tantalum, niobium, rare earths, strontium
Tantalum and niobium resources occur in both pegmatites and greisen quartz veins, the
former being the more important. Economic pegmatitehosted resources are concentrated in
Altai, in the Kalba district of Eastern Kazakhstan where five such deposits have been evaluated.
Tantalum deposits, raremetal granite pegmatites and raremetal granites with complex
mineralization (tin, niobium, caesium, feldspar, mica, quartz, etc.), are associated with acidic
magmatism of DevonianCarboniferous and Permian ages of orogenic and postorogenic zones.
Niobium manifestations are represented by columbitezircon late magmatic, rare metalgranite
(gagarinitepyrochlorezircon type), raremetal pegmatite (pyrochloremonazitezircon,
monaziteorthitefergusonite types) and alkalinefeldspar metasomatic (columbitefergusonite
bastnasitexenotimezircon type) formations. Zirconium, raremetal elements, etc. associate with
niobium and sometimes form independent manifestations (scarn, albitite, carbonatite, raremetal,
apatitegreisen, hydrothermal, volcanogenic formations) which are connected with Caledonian
and Hercynian magmatic formations. Weathering crusts and deluvialalluvial placers containing
niobium and tantalum are known in Northern and Eastern Kazakhstan.
Typical of the above is the Bakenny deposit which is situated in a vein structure in the
central part of the pegmatite belt. The orebody is located at the edge of the Permian granitic
batholith, the mineralization distributed irregularly throughout the deposit. Some 70 minerals
occur in the pegmatite veins, the main ones being albite, microcline, quartz, muscovite,
columbitetantalite, spodumene and cassiterite. The average content is 0.0082 % Ta2O5 and 0.23
% Nb2O5. In addition to tantalum and niobium, the other minerals produced are beryllium,
feldspar, muscovite and quartz.
Outlook for further pegmatite discoveries is high, as even in the Altai district much
exploration remains to be undertaken. Other possibilities include albitegarnet formations in the
Kokchetav, Altai, ZharmaSaur and Tien Shan districts which, although lowgrade, also contain
zirconium and rare earths.
Kazakhstan has an excellent potential for the development of rare earths production, with
five genetic deposit types identified in the country. Primary rare earth production has yet to
commence, output in the past having been obtained from uranium ore processing.
The Verkhnee Espe deposit in the Semipalatinsk district is genetically connected with an
alkaline granite mass, and contains niobium, zircon, yttrium, rare earths and beryllium. The
deposit although incompletely evaluated, is considered to have the greatest potential. The
orebodies are contained in alkaline pegmatites and in fenites, the average content being 0.4% of
rare earths, 0.2 % of yttrium and 0.1% of cerium. The main minerals present are zirconium,
pyrochlore thorite, gadinolite, monazite and xenotime. Similar deposits are known at Chingiz
Tarbagaty in the Kokchetav district, and in other places.
The other potential rare earth sources of significance include uraniumbearing deposits in
the Ciscaspian basin of Western Kazakhstan which also contain yttrium and ceriumgroup rare
earth elements; carbonatite occurrences which contain complex zircon, tantalum, niobium and
rare earth mineralization (an example is the Krasnomaiskoe deposit in the Kokchetav district);
weathering crusts which contain rare earths absorbed by clays.
Strontium ores are concentrated in sedimentationdiagenetic and epigenetic deposits. Of
commercial value are epigenetic deposits (Mangyshlak). The ores are mostly celestite which
implies a barite impurity; they are bedded among Miocene claycarbonate sediments as layers
and lenses of 0.58.0 m in thickness and up to 10 and more km in length.
Kazakhstan possesses considerable strontium resources, although there are no mining
operations at the moment. Six deposits have been delineated in the Mangyshlak Peninsula in the
west of the republic. One, the Auyrtas deposit, has been evaluated.
Here celestite is contained in lenticular and interbedded deposits within Upper Miocene
coquinas, marls, clays and sands. The ore horizon lies on the base of shelly limestone, and
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consists of a sheetlike deposit of some 10 km in length and an average thickness of 4 m. In
addition to large celestite reserves, the deposit also contains significant barite resources. Lying
within 25 m from the surface, and virtually horizontal, it has a good potential for supporting
openpit mining operations.
Aluminium ores
Bauxite deposits are related to a single platform type and are connected with Mesozoic
Cenozoic continental sediments of the EpiHercynian platform of Central Kazakhstan. In
Kazakhstan bauxite accumulation took place from the Upper Triassic to the Paleogene inclusive.
Economically important bauxite deposits are found around the edges of and in the uplift
zones of the Turgay basin. The Arkalykskol, Krasnooktyabrsk, Ayat and other deposits are the
main raw materials base of the Pavlodar Aluminium Plant.
Most of them are platformtype deposits resulting from CretaceousPaleogene lateritic
weathering and formation of continental sediments. Viable deposits are eluvialsedimentary and
fall into two categories: karst which comprise 95% of Kazakhstan’s reserves, and slope
morphological.
Bauxite production is centred on the east and west edges of the Turgay basin. In the West
Turgay area 12 karst deposits have been delineated, with six in the eastern Turgay area. One
viable karst deposit is known in the central Turgay basin, and further two in the Mugodzhary
district, but these have yet to be developed.
Kazakhstan’s karst bauxite deposits are usually compact, up to 5060 m thick, and
suitable to openpit mining. The deposits are located along the boundaries of limestones and
aluminosilicate rocks, and are represented by ironkaolinegibbsite formations.
A typical example of the karst deposits is the Krasnooktyabrsk property in the western
Turgay bauxite zone. Bauxite is found at the boundary between carbonates and volcanic rocks in
which a thick weathering profile has been developed. The karst holes in the limestones were
filled with clays and bauxite.
The orebodies are linear, up to 1,000 m long and 100200 m wide. The bauxite thickness
is 5060 m. The essential aluminium mineral is gibbsite, with associated kaoline, iron oxide,
titanium dioxide and siderite. The average content is as follows: 4044 % Al2O3, 11.014.0 %
SiO2, the modulus is 3.64.1.
Slopetype bauxite deposits, which are widespread in the Central Turgay area and in the
Mugodzhary district, are typically thin and of lower grade than the karst deposits, with higher
silica content. They are generally unfeasible from a commercial viewpoint. Bauxite deposits are
also identified in the Tselinograd, Chimkent and Pavlodar Territories. Bauxites of geosynclinal
type are also available.
In Kazakhstan there is a significant outlook for mining deposits of nonbauxite
aluminium raw materials (alunites, lowferriferous kaolines, nepheline syenites, etc.).
Two main areas of kaoline occurrences have been evaluated, in the Kokchetav and
Mugodzhary districts, where commercial eluvial deposits have been formed through weathering
of acid and intermediate intrusive rocks. Evaluation has been carried out on the Alekseevka and
Eltay deposits in the Kokchetav region, and on the Soyuzny, Yaroslavsk and Koshensay deposits
in the Aktyubinsk region. The proven reserves of primary kaoline total 940 mln t, with the
Kokchetav and Aktyubinsk districts holding 400 and 540 mln t, respectively.
Alekseevka contains highgrade kaoline in 18 beds which vary in areal extent from
20,000 to 2,500,000 m 3 . The average thickness of the kaoline layer is over 21.9 m, with less than
5 m of overburden. Kaoline is derived from the weathering of plagiogranites and diorites. In
terms of iron and titanium oxides content, the quality of kaoline is comparable to that developed
in West European countries, and while finely dispersed mica in the final concentrate restricts the
use of this type of kaoline in ceramics, it makes it eminently suitable for paper coating.
Soyuzny was formed through the weathering of granodiorites, resulting in a kaoline
deposit which measures 4,300 m long, from 250 to 1,700 m wide and 1314.5 m thick beneath 5
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m of overburden. Kaoline from both Soyuzny and Yaroslavsky is suitable for ceramics
production.
Kazakhstan has a good potential for further discoveries of highquality kaoline in both
the Kokchetav and Mugodzhary districts. The former already has a kaoline industry aimed at
producing paper coating and fillergrade material, while the latter has the potential for producing
highquality kaoline needed for ceramics production, for domestic use and for export.
Gold
Gold deposits occur throughout Kazakhstan, particularly in the eastern and northern
regions. Geologically, the republic possesses nearly all types of the precious metal resources,
except goldbearing conglomerates. The various types of gold resources are grouped on regions,
including goldrich sulfides, scarn deposits and epithermal gold in the east, goldbearing quartz
in both the north and south, and pyritic gold in Central Kazakhstan. There are estimated 1520
large or world class gold deposits in Kazakhstan, in addition to hundreds of small and medium
sized occurrences.
Endogenic goldbearing deposits are distributed in Paleozoic rock masses. Exogenic
deposits (for the most part, alluvial Quaternary placers) are arranged in foothill valleys, more
seldom in plain river valleys. Placer manifestations of CretaceousPaleogene age are known.
Endogenic deposits are presented by goldquartz, goldsulfide, goldscarn, goldmetasomatic
(bersite, listvenite), goldquartzadular, goldsulfidequartz, goldsulfidecarbonaceous
formations. The gold probe is from 450 to 900, and higher in oxidized ores. The orebodies are
veins, lenses, lenses of complex configuration, linear zones, stockworks, etc.
The basic goldore mineralization took place in the orogenic and postorogenic stages of
the regional development. As to formation time, gold was settled in the PreCambrian period
(Ulutau) but the main part of the deposits was generated in the Caledonian and Hercynian
metallogenic epochs.
In goldcontaining complex deposits gold is encountered primarily as finedispersed
inclusions in sulfide minerals and is extracted as byproduct.
There have been gold mining operations in Kazakhstan since the Stone Age, the earliest
open pit workings having been dated to 4,000 B.C. Following a long gap, in 1725 the production
was resumed from coppergold ores in the Altai district, and the discovery of alluvial gold in the
Aganakty River valley in Eastern Kazakhstan in 1778 prompted production from placers in the
Altai rivers. By the start of the 20th century, gold output was around 2,500 kg per year.
Since the 30s, there has been systematic prospecting for gold deposits throughout the
republic, and the Kazzoloto and Altaizoloto enterprises were established to produce gold in the
north and east of the country, respectively. In the early 90s they were combined to form the
Kazalmazzoloto organisation which in 1993 was reorganized into Altynalmaz, the national gold
company. Altynalmas is focused on gold production from primary deposits, byproduct gold
from polymetallic mines being the responsibility of other organisations.
The main types of primary gold deposit found in Kazakhstan are quartz veins,
stockworks, and mineralizations associated with black shales, which hold about 65 per cent in
total of the republic's gold resources. Gold deposits associated with surface weathering and
recently identified are believed to hold a great potential. Alluvial gold deposits are of limited
significance.
Vein quartz deposits
Typical of these occurrences are the Akbakay, Beskempir, Akbeit, Aksu and Stepnyak
deposits which are associated with small diorite or granitodiorite intrusives. The mineralization
is restricted to the metamorphized contact zone between the intrusives and the country rocks and
to the altered rocks nearby.
The orebodies consist of quartz veins and vein zones with low sulfide content. The gold
content varies from a few to hundreds of grammes per tonne: the gold distribution within the
veins is heterogeneous, and the gold to silver ratio varies from 1:2 to 1:50.
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A typical example of this deposit type is Akbakay, in the ShuIli gold belt of Southern
Kazakhstan. The mineralization is hosted in Upper Ordovician sediments intruded by
granodiorite massif. Lamporphyre and porphyry dykes play an important role in the ore control
and distribution.
Two series of faultcontrolled quartz veins occur, dipping at 7080° and 2540°. Gold
occurs native and in association with sulfides, the content ranging from 7.8 to 17.6 g/t.
Other potential areas for discoveries of this deposit type include areas around Akbakay in
the ZhalairNaiman and Sarytum districts of Southern Kazakhstan, and in the AksuBailusty
district of Central Kazakhstan. Nearsurface goldsilver mineralization potential exists in the
south, as well as in the North Dzungar and North Balkhash districts.
Black shale associations.
Gold mineralization occurs in association with black shales in Lower and Middle
Carboniferous sediments intruded by small diorite and porphyry bodies. Discrete orebodies with
high carbon content are found in folded and metamorphized rocks, the mineralization being
associated with pyrite and arsenopyrite. Delineation of the orebody limits is possible using assay
data.
Gold is finely disseminated within sulfides, with the content ranging from 4.6 to 9.6 g/t.
Antimonite is sometimes present, and the ores can be difficult to process because of arsenic
presence.
Deposits of this type include the Bakyrchik, Bolshevik and Vasilievka properties. The
Bakyrchik deposit, located in the Kyzyl folded district of the West Kalba gold belt in Eastern
Kazakhstan, occurs in Lower and Middle Carboniferous sediments intruded by porphyry dykes.
The host rocks have been extensively altered to schist, with some silicification and sericitization.
The orebodies occur as bands and lenses, with an average content of 8.4 g/t; assaying is required
to determine orebody limits.
Other areas with this deposit type potential include the Kyzyl, AkzhalBokon, Murur and
ZhananChinrau districts of Eastern Kazakhstan, black schists of the Kokchetav massif, and
carbonaceous formations of the ShuIli gold belt in the south of the country.
Stockworks
Goldbearing stockworks are generally contained within diorite or granodiorite intrusive bodies,
with gold occurring native in quartz veins or in association with sulfides. Arsenopyrite, pyrite
and chalcopyrite are commonly present, with galenite, antimonite, grey copper ores and bismuth
also found. The gold content varies from 3.6 to 7.0 g/t, and the ores are often difficult to be
processed because of arsenic presence. The Vasilkovo deposit, on the northern margin of
the Kokchetav massif in the North Kazakhstan gold district, is typical of this type of occurrence.
Contained in Ordovician gabbrodiorires, the deposit occurs at the intersection of two major
faults. The arsenic content varies from 1.28 to 8.5 %, and two distinct types of gold
mineralization are found.
Uranium
Kazakhstan is one of the principal areas of uranium resources in Asia, the country
holding an estimated 65 % of the total resources of the former USSR. The current production is
about 40 % of the CIS total. Two types of uranium deposits have been located: hydrothermal
veins and sedimentary hosted. Hydrothermal vein deposits have been discovered in the
Kokchetav massif in Northern Kazakhstan, and are associated with linear zones of alkaline and
acid metasomatism in Devonian volcanogenicsedimentary complexes.
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The principal source of uranium is from sheetinfiltration deposits contained in Mesozoic
and Cenozoic platform sediments in Southern Kazakhstan. Two large uraniumbearing provinces
have been discovered in which the ore occurs in sheetlike form in aleuite sandstones. The
deposits were formed at the coincidence of acidic and alkaline geochemical barrier zones in the
path of underground water migration.
In the ShuSarysay district, almost all of the deposits are confined to Paleogene and
Upper Cretaceous sediments, forming up to six ore horizons separated by clay strata. In the Syr
Darya district, deposits occur in Lower Cretaceous, Upper Cretaceous and Paleogene sediments,
of which the Upper Cretaceous ones are the most productive. The uranium content is about 0.1%
throughout, and the minor constituents include rhenium, scandium, yttrium, selenium and rare
earth elements.
The favourable geological conditions in both districts mean that uranium can be produced
by insitu leaching with minimal environmental impact.
2.7.3. History of Nonferrous Metals Ore Mining
The history of mining and metals production in Kazakhstan dates back to the period prior
to the 2nd millennium B.C., by which time the area was already one of the key centres for CuSn
bronze output in Eurasia based on numerous local copper deposits (Dzhezkazgan, Kenkazgan,
AltynTyube, etc.) The mining scale in Dzhezkazgan and Kenkazgan reached approximately 1
mln t and 800,000 t, respectively. Oxidized copper ores were mostly mined. Workings are
represented by openings of up to several hundreds meters long, small mines, adits and trenches.
Ancient mining operations of tin ores (cassiterite) are known first of all at deposits of the Kalba
and Narym Ranges in Ore Altai. They are also dated by the second half of the 2nd and the
beginning of the 1st millennium B.C. Copper and tin mines were operated by the population of
the Andron culturalhistorical entity. Markings of developed metallurgical operations are often
encountered in the territory of their settlement (Atasu, etc.). At the same time a significant gold
output took place. Cutdown in copper ore mining was stated at the beginning of the 1st
millennium B.C. owing to commissioning of numerous iron ore mines.
Archeological digging led to the discovery of Dzhezkazgan, an ancient copper mine of
the Late Bronze epoch, in the north of the Betpak Dala desert. The copper ores in the oxide
enrichment zone were mined in which malachite and partially asurite dominated. They were
extracted by openings of up to 500 m long, 140 m wide and 17.5 m deep. Thirtyfifty thousand
tonnes of copper were melted. The most active mining operations were carried out in the second
half of the 2nd millennium and at the beginning of the 1st millennium B.C.
The relics of ancient mining provided a guide to later exploration, and by the 19th
century a number of largescale deposits of various metals have been discovered. The 18th and
19th centuries marked the start of industrial mining of Kazakhstan's minerals, based on deposits
of copper, lead, gold and silver which were found both by commercial circles and local people.
In connection with joining of Kazakhstan to Russia and working of nonferrous metal
ores and gold deposits in Eastern and Central Kazakhstan which began under the decree of Peter
the Great, mining of ore deposits in the northwest of Altai started up in the 1st half of the 18th
century.
In the 2nd half of the 19th century the interior of Central Kazakhstan was mined by
S.Popov. an industrialist who arrange several mines (at the Berkara, Kushoka, KzylEspe,
Besshoka deposits, Maikyuben coal mine, etc.) and a smeltery in the Kuu tract. From the middle
of the 19th century the mining of Karaganda’s hard coal began, with that of oil in Embe late in
the century. In the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century small and
mediumsize mines, gold pits and hard coal fields were in operation throughout the Kazakhstan’s
territory, with their significant part being in the hands of foreign concessionaires in 19051920.
In the 1920s, responsibility for both exploration and mining passed under state control,
with high priority afforded to mining of mineral deposits. Local geological organisations were
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set up with the responsibility for geological and geophysical surveying, prospecting and
exploration.
Deposits in Altai, Dzhezkazgan, Karatau, an open pit at the Kounradsky deposit, a copper
smeltery at Balkhash operated in the prewar 30s.
The first copper porphyry bed discovered in the Soviet Union was located at Kounradsky.
In 1928 the Balkhash Mining & Processing Plant, which was constructed on the basis of this
deposit, produced its first ore. The Dzhezkazgan Mining & Metallurgical Plant was built after
World War II and is now the largest CIS copper producer.
During World War II manganese ores of the DzhezkazganUlutau region, chromites of
the Kempirsay deposits, tintungsten ores in Kalba and Central Kazakhstan, a number of lead
zinc deposits in Southern and Central Kazakhstan were actively mined.
At present Kazakhstan is one of the most developed regions in the field of mineral
products for nonferrous metals industry.
The level of geological, geophysical and geochemical knowledge of Kazakhstan is
satisfactory. Annotated geological and geophysical maps are available for the whole country at
scales of 1:200,000, 1:500,000 and 1:1,500,000, and smallscale tectonic, metallogenic,
paleogeographical and other maps have been published. Over 40 per cent of the country’s
territory are covered by surveys at 1:500,000, these being primarily the areas of metalliferous
potential in Central, Southern, Eastern and Western Kazakhstan. Today Kazakhstan produces
about 4.4 % of the total world copper, and 29 % of the CIS copper output.
.
2.7.4. Mining & Metallurgical Industry
Kazakhstan's mining and metallurgical complexes occupy a key position in the country's
industrial sector due to their economic significance. There is also an extensive oil and gas
industry. The ratio of the Kazakhstan’s mining industry is about 15 per cent of industrial output.
Surface workings were found near extensive copper, gold or polymetallic deposits delineated by
drilling in modern times. Exploration geologists still use the occurrence of ancient workings as a
guide to the possibility of orebodies being found at depth nearby. Copper, copperlead and lead
deposits such as those at Dzhezkazgan, Kurgasyn, Berkara, Uspensky, Aleksandrovka,
Chatyrkul, Maikain, Tekely, etc. were discovered by following the evidence of such prehistoric
workings.
Twenty per cent of ore are mined by an openpit method and 80 per cent by an
underground one.
The Kazakhstan's reserves of specific minerals are frequently close to the top of the
world "league", in terms of actual output Kazakhstan falls into the range of 1020 in the table,
indicating the excellent potential for expansion of the mining industry. The majority of reserves
is contained either within existing operations or in deposits ready for exploitation. Table 2.11
shows the status of Kazakhstan’s mineral reserves on a productbyproduct basis.
The Kazakhstan's nonferrous metals sector is one of the largest industrial contributors to
the country's economy. It is divided into seven subsectors which comprise 28 large production
organisations. Kazakhstan’s nonferrous metal products are of world standard, and the republic
currently exports them to over 30 countries.
The copper subsector is centred on two production complexes, Dzhezkazgantsvetmet
NPO (Scientific & Production Association) which comprises open pit and underground mines,
concentrators and a smeltery, and Balkhashmed PO (Production Association), with similar
facilities. Finished products of these operations include refined copper, sulfuric acid, lead,
bismuth, gold and silver, molybdenum concentrate and calcium molybdate.
Table 2.11. Status of commercial mineral deposits in Kazakhstan
The leadzinc subsector encompasses ten integrated mining and processing complexes,
the biggest amongst them are the Leninogorsk and Irtysh Polymetallic Works, the Syryanovo
Lead Plant, the East Kazakhstan Lead & Chemical Plant and the Zhezkent Mine & Concentrator
(Mining & Dressing Plant). In Central Kazakhstan, the production operations are centred on the
Zhairem, Karagaily and Akchatau Mines & Concentrators, and in the south at the Tekely Lead
Zinc Plant and the Achisay Polymetallic Works. There are also three nonferrous smelteries, in
Leninogorsk and UstKamenogorsk, where they are constituents of leadzinc complexes, and at
the Chimkent Lead Plant. These plants can process hundreds of thousands of tonnes of lead and
zinc concentrates annually, obtaining raw materials produced from lead, leadzinc and copper
zinc ores, both local and imported, and from secondary resources.
Bauxite is produced by the Krasnooktyabrsk and Turgay Mining Works and is processed
at Pavlodar. Gold production is the responsibility of the Altaizoloto, Kazzoloto, Bakyrchik,
Akbakay and Vasilievka Mines & Concentrators, and of the Maikainzoloto Integrated Complex.
Tungsten and molybdenum are produced at the Akchatau Mine & Concentrator. Rare metals and
uranium are produced by the Belogorsk Mine & Concentrator and by the Ciscaspian and
Tselinny Mining & Chemical Complexes with rare metals being smelted at Irtysh. The Ust
Kamenogorsk TitaniumMagnesium Plant is amongst the world's largest.
Most of the country's coal production comes from two large associations, Karagandaugol
and Ekibastuzugol. Oil and gas production is the responsibility of six companies, which are
located in Aktau, Atyrau, Kulsary, Aktyubinsk and Kzyl Orda.
Copper
Kazakhstan ranks seventh amongst world copper producers, with 17 deposits in active
operation, three being copper mines and the remainder being copper polymetallic operations. In
1992 domestic consumption amounted to just 8% of output, with 22% exported to the other CIS
countries and 70 % to other countries.
The copper industry is presented by the Dzhezkazgan and Balkhash Mining &
Metallurgical Complexes, Zherikent Mine & Concentrator, Eastern Kazakhstan Copper &
Chemical Complex, Bozshakol Mine & Concentrator, Irtysh Smeltery, etc. Copper ore is mined
both by underground (50 %) and openpit methods.
There are two main areas of copper production, Northern Balkhash and Betpak Dala.
Two large copper mining and smelting complexes have been established in the centre of the
country, while there is also a group of smaller polymetallic mines and a smeltery in the Ore Altai
district. Huge copper deposits, including those at Dzhezkazgan and Kounradsky, have been
mined for years.
The Dzhezkazgan Mining Complex is the country's largest copper producer, working
cupriferous sandstone deposits. It comprises three underground mines, two open pits, three
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contains both nickel and cobalt. The deposit is located 50 km to the southwest of the Zhetugara
Mountains on the western edge of the Turgay basin.
Lead and zinc
There are numerous leadzinc polymetallic mines in Eastern and Southern Kazakhstan
which are supported by a lead smeltery and two zinc smelteries. Kazakhstan's importance as a
base metals source is highlighted by its having accounted for 56% of the CIS zinc ore output in
1991, and 64% of its lead, and it ranks amongst the top five world miners in runofmine lead
and zinc ore.
Kazakhstan exports 56,000 tpy of lead and 73,000 tpy of zinc outside the CIS. The future
of the industry is, however, obscure as few of the mines have above 5 per cent of combined lead
and zinc, and unless there are associated precious metals, not all of these mines will be viable
in market economy conditions. Production of lead and zinc is the responsibility of 12 mining
and processing complexes.
UstKamenogorsk Lead & Zinc Works (UKLZW)
Leninogorsk Polymetallic Processing Works (LPMW)
Irtysh Polymetallic Processing Works (IPMPW)
Zyryanovo Lead Metallurgical Works (ZLMW)
East Kazakhstan Copper Chemical & (EKCCC)
Metallurgical Complex
Zhezkent Mine & Concentrator (ZhMC)
Chimkent Lead Metallurgical Works (CLMW)
Achisay Polymetallic Processing Works (APMPW)
Tekely Lead & Zinc Metallurgical Works (TLZMW)
Zhairem Mining & Concentrating Works (ZhMCW)
Karagaily Mine & Concentrator (KMC)
Akchatau Mine & Concentrator (AMC)
LPMW is located in the town of Leninogorsk in Eastern Kazakhstan and obtains raw
materials from three ore zones. The RidderSokolnoe zone is worked by three underground
mines while the Tishin and Shubin zones each have one underground mine. Development of the
NovoLeninogorsk open pit in the Chekmar district has been delayed because of lack of finance,
and production startup is now expected by 2000.
Chekmar located 45 km from Leninogorsk consists of three deposits, Guslyakovo, Yugo
Vostochny (SouthEast) and Chekmar. Access is via a dry weather road, and the narrowgauge
LeninogorskSinyushonok railway is 15 km from the site. Overburden stripping and construction
of surface facilities is currently under way, with the ore produced being treated at Leninogorsk
Concentrators Nos.1&2. An underground mine is also planned, with a total capacity of 2 mln tpy
of ore.
Concentrators Nos.1&2 produce lead, zinc and copper concentrates. Selenium, tellurium,
thallium and mercury are associated with zinc concentrate while cadmium, indium, germanium
and gallium are recovered with lead one. Gold and silver mainly adhere to the copper
concentrate, and the pyrite concentrates are also known for their high content of precious metals.
The concentrates are treated at the Leninogorsk and UstKamenogorsk plants while the gold
bearing concentrates are delivered to the Dzhezkazgan Copper Smeltery for treatment.
IPMPW operates three underground mines, Irtysh, Belousovo and NovoBerezovo, of
which the two latter are approaching the end of their reserves. The company is setting up joint
ventures to develop the YubileynoSnegirikhinsky and Anisimov Klyuch deposits. The facilities
include two concentrators with a combined throughput of 400,000 tpy of goldbearing
polymetallic ore.
ZLMWoperates the Zyryanovo and Grekhovo mines and is proceeding with the
development of an underground mine at the Maleevka deposit. Its plant produces copper, lead
and zinc concentrates. Selenium and tellurium are recovered with copper, cadmium and indium
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adhere to the zinc concentrate, and bismuth is recovered from the copper and lead concentrates.
The operations currently run at 3040 % capacity only.
In Eastern Kazakhstan EKCCC mines polymetallic ores containing lead, zinc, copper,
precious metals and a range of minor metals from three deposits, Nikolaevka, Shemonaikha and
Kamyshin, and develops the Artemovka deposit for production. ZhMC operates a similar deposit
at Orlovka and is currently in the process of constructing its own concentrator.
The Nikolaevka open pit commissioned in 1968 has a design capacity of 1.5 mln tpy of
ore. Actual production was 1.3 mln tpy in 1991 and 1.1 mln tpy in 1992, the shortfall being
largely a result of the limited demand for the types of concentrate produced. The pit,
conventional shovel and truck operations, has reached a depth of 180200 m, with a final design
depth of 420 m. The ore is processed at the Nikolaevka concentrator to produce copperzinc and
copper concentrates delivered to the Irtysh and Balkhash smelteries for downstream treatment.
In 1992, the output at the nearby Shemonaikha open pit reached 312,000 t of ore,
somewhat higher than the design capacity. The mine was put into operation in 1986, and has a
design depth of 270 m. The ore is transported to the Nikolaevka concentrator.
In Southern Kazakhstan APMPW works the Mirgalimsay, Shalkia, Turlan (Achilay) and
Baidzhansay deposits near the town of Kentau. The ores are processed in two concentrators at
Kentau and Mirgalimsay where lead, zinc and barite concentrates are produced. Silver is
recovered in the lead concentrate. The Achisay underground mine works lead carbonate deposits
which ores are used to produce Waelz oxides; the capacity of the plant now significantly exceeds
the mine output.
TLZMW produces polymetallic ore from the Tekely, West Tekely, Koksu and Central
Suuktyube deposits. The former two have separate underground operations, and the company has
its own concentrator for ore processing. The Koksu underground mine is now completing the
extraction of the other two deposits.
ZhMCP is located in Central Kazakhstan and operates open pit at the Zhairem and
Ushkatyn deposits. The ores are shipped to the Kentau and Tekely concentrators for processing,
to produce lead, zinc and barite concentrates.
KMC produces lead and barite from the Karagaily deposit. In addition, the ore contains
zinc, copper, silver and cadmium; the operations have their own concentrator.
AMCC operates open pits at the Akzhal leadzinc deposits, with the output of both lead
and zinc concentrates. Precious metals in the ore adhere to the lead concentrate, and cadmium is
recovered with the zinc concentrate.
Tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum
Tungsten output is relatively low in comparison to the country's resources of the metal. It
is produced by two associations, Kazvolfram and Balkhashmed. Kazvolfram has two mines in
the Akchatau district, the YugoVostochny (SouthEast) one which has been operating since
1941 at the Akchatau deposit, and Zhambyl which has been using the Karaoba deposit since
1951. Both deposits are veined and greisentype quartz deposits. Kazvolfram produces tungsten,
tin molybdenum and bismuth concentrates which also contain the other metals like tantalum,
niobium, scandium and tellurium.
Mining projects include opening of mines at the unique Verkhnee (Upper) Kairakty and
Koktenkol deposits, and the construction of a pilot plant at the Verkhnee Kairakty stockwork
deposit. The ores are complex and, in addition to tungsten, contain recoverable amounts of
molybdenum and bismuth as well as a range of minor metals.
The Belogorsk mining complex produces tantalum from three deposits: Belogorsk,
Ognevka and Yubileiny. The ore is processed to produce crude tantalitecassiterite concentrate
which is then treated to yield separate tantalum and cassiterite products. The tantalum is
recovered at the Ulba Metallurgical Works which also produces niobium from beryl ores found
in pegmatite deposits, as pure metal and niobium compounds.
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The Belorogsk Complex was the leader in tantalum production in the former USSR. It
accounted for about 40 per cent of the total output. The current production is lower owing to
demand fall.
Bauxite and alumina
Kazakhstan has two associations responsible for bauxite production, at Arkalyk in the
Turgay Territory and near Oktyabrsk in the Kustanai Territory. Bauxite is transformed to
alumina at the Pavlodar Alumina Plant, its products being exported to Russia for smelting. The
Turgay operations, in the Amangeldy District, covers four deposits: Arkalyk, VerkhneAshut,
NizhneAshut and Severny (Northern). Currently the Ushtoba deposit containing both bauxite
and fireclay, and another, Aktas, deposit are being evaluated. The deposits have limited reserves
to afford an increase in bauxite output, but have a sufficient resource of highalumina fireclay to
support the development of the refractory industry. This will assist in supplies of raw materials
and finished products to domestic and export markets while there is also an opportunity for their
use in ceramics production and as fillers in rubber and plastic making.
The Krasnooktyabrsk operations produce bauxite from the Belinsk and Krasnooktyabrsk
deposits in the west of the Kustanai Territory. Open pit mining is applied, the bauxite being
mostly of caking quality. The association produces about twothirds of the raw materials for the
Pavlodar Plant.
Gold
Kazakhstan was the former USSR third gold producer after the Russian Federation and
Uzbekistan. In 1991 Kazakhstan produced approximately 5.3 % of the total CIS output, and 50
% of silver. Commercial gold mining is carried out in Central and Eastern Kazakhstan. In
addition to underground mines, some part of output is provided by diggers’ teams and dredge
operations.
Gold deposits are found throughout the country, particularly, in the east, south and north.
The major goldmining centres include Akbakay, Aksu, Zholymbet, Bestobe, Maikain, and
Bakyrchik. The river beds and terraces of the Dzungar and Altai Mountains have also been
shown to contain alluvial gold, and gold is recovered as a byproduct of polymetallic ore
processing in Eastern Kazakhstan.
In mid1991 the government established a state diamond and gold fund, and in 1993 a
consortium (Altynalmaz), with the purpose of increasing gold production, was set up. A new
gold processing plant has been commissioned at the UstKamenogorsk Lead & Zinc Complex.
Together with the National State Bank of Kazakhstan, Altynalmaz has drawn up a programme
aimed at quadrupling gold production by 1997. This would enable Kazakhstan to have a stable
gold reserve for support of the national currency, the tenge, as well as a possibility of
encouraging industrial use of gold and of establishing an exportoriented jewellery industry.
Most of the current country's gold output comes from the areas of Northern, Eastern and
Southern Kazakhstan, and the MaikainBoschekul region. The principal producer is the
Kazzoloto company which, in 1992, alone produced nearly half of the country's gold. Other
companies include Altaizoloto (16% of 1992 total output), Maikainzoloto (15 %), Akbakaisk (12
%), Bakyrchiksk (4 %) and Vasilkovsk (3 %). About 55 % of Kazakhstan's gold are derived
from primary deposits, with the remainder coming from the processing of polymetallic ores from
the Ore Altai deposits. Smelting of gold concentrates is undertaken at the Balkhash, Chimkent
and UstKamenogorsk metallurgical plants.
Kazzoloto operates four mines, Bestobe, Zholymbet, Aksu and Akbeit each of which has
its own concentrator. Other deposits mined by this company include Kvartzitovy Gorki, Bailusty,
Tokhtarov, Severny (Northern), Karasu, Ushshoki, Dolinny and Pustynny of which the latter
three support open pits while the remainder are underground operations. Virtually all the gold is
recovered by gravity concentration and flotation.
Altaizoloto produces gold from the Vasilievka, Zherek, Taskora, Bolshevik, Suzdalskoe,
Akzhal and Mizek deposits, and from a number of gold placers. Suzdalskoe, Zherek, Akzhal and
Bolshevik are open pits, the remainder being underground mines. While easily separable quartz
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vein ores are mined in most of the deposits, the Bolshevik and Vasilievka deposits contain gold
bearing sulfides which are further processed at the Akzhal concentrator.
The Suzdalskoe open pit mine is located 70 km from Semipalatinsk and has an output of
100,000120,000 tpy of direct shipping ores. The mine uses conventional shovels and 40t
haulers to work a steeplydipping oxidized orebody which varies in thickness from 1 to 20 m.
Output is shipped to nonferrous metals smelteries in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Russia for the
recovery of gold and silver. Future plans include the construction of a concentrator on site.
Production from the Maikainzoloto Mining Board's operations comes mainly from open
pit mining of the Alpis, Abiz, Souvenir and Mizek deposits. The Maikain operations are
underground. In addition to gold, there are recovered silver, copper, zinc, cadmium and other
minor metals, together with barite.
Located 320 km from Semipalatinsk, the Mizek deposit contains goldbarite and gold
quartz mineralization. The orebodies consist of a series of steeplydipping lenses which vary in
thickness from 10 to 17 m. An oxidized zone extends to a depth of 40 m. Open pit mining is
used, with production in recent years averaging about 110,000 tpy; the planned capacity is
200,000 tpy. Gravity and flotation processes are used to recover gold at the Maikainzoloto’s
Tortkun Concentrator.
During 1994 at Bakyrchik a company was formed by the Australian firm, Minproc
Resources, and Chilewich International Corporation of the USA to work in partnership with
Altynalmaz. Located in Eastern Kazakhstan, the Bakyrchik mine was commissioned in 1965 on
the basis of a major gold resource. In recent years, it has been producing about 80,000 tpy of
gold ore from underground and openpit operations. At the first stage of the planned expansion,
it is intended to increase underground mining to 150,000 tpy, to build a smallscale
demonstration plant to treat sulfide ore using the Redox (nitric acid oxidation) process to
produce approximately 27,000 oz/y and to develop 200,000 tpy heap leaching or other oxide
operations to produce further 11,000 oz/y. A gold refinery capable of producing London good
delivery bars is also planned.
At the second stage of the expansion programme, to be funded in late 1994, the goal is to
invest about $100 million in order to raise sulfide ore output to approximately 1.0 mln tpy and
gold output from these ores to 221,000 oz annually. Incorporation of the oxide operation would
result in a combined annual output of 230,000 oz of gold.
Production from the Akbakay company is centred on the Akbakay and Arkharly mines,
both of which are underground operations. Gravity and flotation are used to produce concentrate
from the finer ore sizes, while the remainder is shipped as selffluxing ore to the Balkhash and
Irtysh Metallurgical Plants.
The Vasilkovsky mine is located 17 km to the northwest of Kokchetav and has been
under development since 1979. The pilot operations were carried out in 19801987, with some
1.5 mln t of ore and 1.2 mln t of lowgrade material being mined from an open pit. About 30,000
t of material was stockpiled for potential heap leaching. The project was shutdown between 1988
and 1993 due to financial constraints, work being resumed on the construction of a concentrator
in 1993. The mine is a conventional shovel and truck operations, using 75t haulers. The design
capacity is 2.2 mln tpy to be processed by gravity concentration and cyanidation. Fullcapacity
production is scheduled for 2000 (Fig.2.18).
2.8. Mineral Resources of Uzbekistan [10,23,34,37]
Uzbekistan is situated in the northern and central part of Central Asia. It borders
Kazakhstan on northeast, Turkmenistan on southwest, Kyrgyztan and Tajikistan on northeast
and southeast, and Afghanistan on south. The area is 477,400 sq km. The population is 19.9 mln
people (as of January 1, 1989).
A variety of metals and minerals is produced in Uzbekistan. They include copper,
molybdenum, tungsten, uranium, in addition to gold, lead and zinc. The Almalyk Integrated
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Copper Complex based on a big open pit is one of the CIS largest. The huge Kalmakyr openpit
reserves amount to 1 bln tonnes of lowgrade ore having 0.4 % Cu, plus some molybdenum. In
1990 Uzbekistan accounted for 8 per cent, or 81,220 t of the USSR copper output.
Uzbekistan produces a reported quarter of the former USSR total annual gold output,
with about 80 per cent coming from the mines in the Navoi desert in the northwestern part of
the country. Uzbek officials are actively seeking foreign assistance in order to expand and
modernize ten primary gold mining undertakings as the country loses at least 10 per cent of
annual gold production owing to waste from the application of outdated and inefficient
extraction technology. Leaching process will be used to treat the estimated 165 mln short tons of
stockpiled materials at the Muruntau gold mine which gold content is 0.034 ounces per ton.
Mining operations are scheduled to start in the near future at three silver deposits in the
Kyzyl Kum area which will mark the first example of silver production in the country. Openpit
mining will be applied with an output of silver, in addition to gold, nickel, platinum and cobalt
ore.
More than 850 deposits of 1,600 ore manifestations have been found in the Uzbekistan’s
interior.
There are essential reserves of natural gas, gold, copper, lead, zinc and tungsten ores,
salts, aluminium raw materials, nonmetallic building materials.
2.8.1. Deposits of Nonferrous Metals Ores
There are about 900 deposits and manifestations of copper ores of different genetic types.
Copperporphyry deposits in the Almalyk district of the Tashkent Territory are of commercial
value. The copper content is as follows: 0.31.0 % in the commercial ore, 0.323.0 % in the
oxidized ore, 0.34.0 % in the secondary sulfide enrichment zone, the Mo content is up to 0.01
%. Moreover, the ores contain higher concentrations of gold, silver, rare metals, etc.
Manifestations of cupreferious sandstones of Neogene and Cretaceous age are abundant in the
Fergana and Surkhandarya Territories. Copperpyrite type ore manifestations are available in the
southwest spurs of the Gissar Range and Kyzyl Kum.
Leadzinc ores are presented by plutonogenic scarnhydrothermal polymetallic,
volcanogenic stratiform deposits. The scarnhydrothermal deposits are confined to contacts of
carbonate rocks with intrusions of syenitediorite compositions. The veinletimpregnated,
sometimes massive sulfide ores are composed of galenite, sphalerite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, grey
ores, hematite, magnetite. Rare metals, besides Pb and Zn, are available. Commercial
volcanogenic stratiform deposits are identified in rhythmicallyalternating Devonian
volcanogenicsedimentary rocks. Laminated and lensshaped orebodies are bedded by galenite,
sphalerite, pyrite, more seldom by chalcopyrite, marcasite, covellite, bornite; barite, calcite and
dolomite out of nonmetallic minerals. Besides Pb and Zn, Ba, S and rare metals are available in
commercial concentrations. The Pb to Zn ratio is 1:1.5. The large pyritepolymetallic deposits in
the Lower Carboniferous volcanogenicsedimentary rocks (the Gissar Range) contain Pb, Zn,
Cu, Ag, Bi and rare metals in commercial quantities. The Pb to Zn ratio is 1:2.2. Vein deposits
are available in the Kuramin Range.
A problem of the Angren coalfield kaolines to be applied for aluminium production was
regularly posed.
Primary kaolines bedded in the coalfield soil and secondary kaolines bedded in
overburden are used as raw materials for production of cement and ceramic ware, they are also
considered to be alumina raw materials in future.
Germanium, which extraction out of flue gas and dust emissions of a power station in
operation in Angren is put into practice, is contained in some coal seams.
Above 40 manifestations and deposits of strontium ores of sedimentary origin are known.
The only commercial deposit has been identified in the Paleocene sulfatecarbonate sediments
(the Bukhara Territory).
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In Uzbekistan the gold and silver ore reserves are available in goldore proper and
complex deposits where fine Au and Ag inclusions are impregnated into sulfide, more seldom
vein minerals and are extracted as associates. Endogenic goldore proper and goldsilver deposits
are represented by postmagmatic formations of volcanic and plutonogenic types. The
volcanogenic type of hydrothermal deposits is associated with volcanic and subvolcanic rocks of
andesite, trachyandesite and daciteandesite composition of the Middle CarboniferousEarly
Permian age (the Kuramin zone), the plutonogenic type in terrigene rocks is connected with
stocks and dykes of dioritegranodiorite formation of the Late CarboniferousEarly Permian age
which break the metamorphic coaly shales of the Ordovician and Silurian (the Southern
Bukantau, TurkestanAlai and ZarafshanTurkestan zones). Free gold accounts for about 70 per
cent, the rest is associated with sulfide minerals. The average gold probe is 890910. The
exogenic deposits are alluvial and proluvial, more seldom eluvial Quaternary placers (Fig.2.19).
2.8.2. History of Mineral Resources Mining
Mining of ores out of which arsenic, antimony and other copperbased alloys were
produced started in the Bronze Age. Mining of noble metal ores and turquoise has been known
since the 1st millennium B.C. Saki tribes used turquoiseencrusted gold and bronzemade arms.
Working of tin and magnetitehematite ores along with tin smelting and ironmaking was
attributed to the same time. Specialized smelting centres appeared in the 3rd7th centuries. In
Uzbekistan mining operations feature primitive labour implements, and lowproductivity
domestic undertakings prevail. For the most part smallscale ores with rich metal content were
worked, with mining operations carried out in zones of fragmentation, fractures, thin lenses.
The mining operations peak fell on the 10th11th centuries. More than 10,000 mines were
in operation in the Chatkal and Nuratin Mountains, in Karamazar, the Fergana and Sultanuizdag
suburbs. They included silver mines: Lashkerek, Kandzhol, Taboshar, Kansai, Kanimansur,
Aktepa, Rizak; gold mines: Kyzylalma, Chadak; polymetallic mines: Dugan, Kenkol; iron ore
mines: Akhangaraut, etc.; copper mines: Aktau, Sheikhdzheli; lead mines: Uchkulach, Ilanchi;
turquiose pits: Ungurlikan, etc. Besides, there were produced copper vitriol, mercury, tin,
antimony, resin, asphalt, oil, coal, ammonium chloride, sulfur, mineral paints, potters’ clay,
alum, serpentine, buhrstone, soapstone, amethyst, various building materials. Openpit mining
was combined with underground working. Mines which depth was over 300 m were equipped
with ventilation chambers and sophisticated roofing systems, up to a full set. The mining
technology incorporated flame or wedgehammer breaking, roofing by pillars, timber props,
frames, dragnet delivery to hoisting shafts, timber or metallic capstan winding.
Beginning from the end of the 11th century owing to state decentralization mineral
mining output fell, and in the 13th18th centuries mining operations were in depression because
of the TartarMongolian invasion. Gold, polymetallic and iron ores together with turquoise,
building stone, sand and clay were fragmentarily mined. Only late in the 18th century mining of
copper ores, mineral paints, coal, oil and some other minerals was resumed in small proportion.
The mining operations were concentrated mostly in the Fergana valley.
2.8.3. Mining & Metallurgical Industry
The proportion of mining industry in the total industrial output of Uzbekistan was 9.9 %.
Oil production and nonferrous metals ores mining were sectors of allunion value in the FSU.
Tungsten (Chargandon, Oigaing, Lyanga, Karatyube) and tin (Karnab, Lapas) ore
deposits have been mind since the 40s, and by now the greater part of them have been already
exhausted. Beginning from the 70s bismuth ore is mined at the Ustarasay deposit, tungsten ore is
mined at the Ingichka and Koitash deposits from the 40s. The mining operations are by an
underground method with horizon stripping by adits and shafts. A gob road battery breastand
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pillar system is applied, minedout space is supported by pillars. The ore is delivered to local
concentrators by dump trucks.
Copper and molybdenum ores are mined at the Kalmakyr and Sarychek deposits while
lead and zinc ores are produced at the Uchkulach deposits. The Almalyk Mining & Metallurgical
Works carries out openpit mining operations. The leadzinc ores are delivered to the Almalyk
Concentrator by railway in order to produce metal concentrate. The plant also processes dumps
of offbalance ores of the depleted Kurgashinkan leadand zinc deposit.
Gold ore is fullscale mined in Western and Eastern Uzbekistan by the Uzbekzoloto
Complex. The mining operations are openpit, using shovels and draglines without
transportation, flotation dressing is applied. The largest deposit under mining is Muruntau where
uranium and tungsten concentrates are produced as byproducts. Moreover, gold is extracted out
of coppermolybdenum ore (Fig.2.20).
2.9. Mineral Resources of Kyrgyzstan [10, 23, 34]
Kyrgyzstan is situated in the northeast of Central Asia. Its borderline is with Kazakhstan
in the north, with Uzbekistan in the west, with China in the southwest and east. The area is
198,500 sq km. The population numbers 3,886,500 people (as of 1/01/84). Bishkek is the capital.
Kyrgyzstan was the USSR principal producer of antimony and mercury metal, one of the
primary sources of uranium ore and concentrates, and a major supplier of coal for Central Asia.
Kyrgyzstan accounted for 55 per cent of the USSR production of mercury which sometimes
occurs in conjunction with fluorite. The main deposits are located along the northern foothills of
the Alay Mountain Range which extends along the southern regions of the Fergana valley.
Kyrgyzstan has sizable reserves of antimony and mercury, in addition to smaller reserves of tin
and tungsten.
Other Kyrgyzstan minerals include gold, lead, salt and arsenic. Kyrgyzstan recently
announced that Canadian Cameco Corp., a big lowcost integrated uranium producer, may soon
participate in the mining of the significant Kumtur gold deposit located approximately 50 km
from the Chinese border. Kumtur Co., a Cameco’s whollyowned subsidiary, is carrying out a
C$10 mln feasibility study at the deposit and has reportedly confirmed the earliermade Soviet
estimates of a 500tonne gold reserve. On completion of the evaluation in November 1993,
Cameco was to decide whether or not to proceed with raising over C$300 mln required to mine
the deposit. Most of the investments will be needed for construction of a gold mine which could
take three to four years to complete.
2.9.1. Geology of Deposits
Tin, mercury, antimony, polymetallic and raremetal deposits are of commercial value;
deposits of pyrite and sedimentary iron ore are available; molybdenumvanadium mineralization
was identified; there are oil, gas and coal fields.
Copper ore is presented by different commercialgenetic types: copperporphyry (the
TaldyBulak, Andash, Karakol deposits) and scarn (the KuruTegerek deposit); ore
manifestations of cupreferious sandstones, hydrothermal vein bodies, and as ore zones are
usually of small size. The copperporphyry deposits are associated with intrusions of Paleozoic
diorite porphyrites and granodiorites. The Cu content varies from 0.2 to 0.6 %. The associate
components are molybdenum and noble metals. Scarn deposits are represented by complex ores
with 0.61.0 % Cu.
Leadzinc deposits of stratiform type are abundant in the Hercynian structures of Middle
Tien Shan (the Chatkal Range, the GavaSumsar region, the MoldoToo Range). The average Pb
content is 23 %. Crevicemetasomatic bodies in magmatic sedimentary formations (Boorda, Ak
Tyuz, Granitogorsky, AkKul, Kurgan, Shanyk, Shyrgyi, Arsa, etc.) are widely distributed in
some Caledonian structures of Northern Tien Shan which were activized in the Hercynian time.
107
Antimony ore is abundant in the ChatkalKuramin and FerganaKakshaal structurefacies
zones of Southern Tien Shan. In the former antimony deposits are confined to the TerekKassan
ore region (the TerekSay and Kassan deposits), in the latter to the South Fergana mercury
antimony belt (the Kadamdzhay, Northern AkTash and Abshir deposits). The antimony
mineralization is controlled by deeplybedded fractures. The deposits are represented by
jasperoidantimonite ore formation. The essential metallic mineral is antimonite. The
Kadamdzhay, TerekSay and other deposits compose the raw materials base of the Kadamdzhay
Antimony Complex. In the eastern district of the Alay Range there is the IrkeshSavoyarda ore
region where antimonypolymetallic mineralization represented mainly by quartzcarbonate
jamesonite ores is mature in steeplydipping fracture zones among the SilurianDevonian shales.
Mercury ores mature in the Kyrgyzstan territory occupy the central part of the Central
Asian mercury province. The mercury mineralization is located in two mercury belts: Southern
Fergana and ZarafshanGissar. The South Fergana mercuryantimony belt features the following
major mercury deposit types: jasperoid (Khaidarkan, Chauvay), listvenite and carbonate (Aldyr
Koo, Kursala, Birksu, Symap). The mercury mineralization is often associated with the antimony
one. The essential ore minerals are cinnabar, sometimes metacinnabarite, livingstonite. Mercury
and complex (mercuryantimonyfluorite) ores are distinguished in mining. Kyrgyzstan occupied
the leading position in the USSR in explored mercury reserves. The raw materials base of the
Khaidarkan Mercury Complex are the explored Khaidarkan, Chauvay and other deposits.
Mono and polymetallic arsenic ore deposits and mineralizations are known in
Kyrgyzstan; arsenic is available in considerable quantity as impurity in ores of polymetallic and
other deposits where it can be extracted as associate to essential components.
Tin ores are available in all the folded regions of Kyrgyzstan. The ores represent virtually
any known formation types of tin deposits. The Turkestan Range manifestations, where many
hundreds of pegmatite veins containing tin and mica are known, are attributed to the tinbearing
pegmatite formation. The typical representatives of the greisen formation are the ChonKyzylsuy
deposit in the TerskeyAla Too Range and the UzunBulak deposit in the Chatkal Range. The
greisen body shape is zones, lenses, nests of different size. Wolframite, scheelite and other
minerals occur alongside cassiterite. Numerous tin ore manifestations of scarn formation are
mature in the western end region of the Kyrgyz range (Beregovoe, Chirkanak and others).
Several tens of orebodies are identified in metasomatites by higher cassiterite concentration.
Chalcopyrite and magnetite are mature alongside cassiterite. The ChatKaragay deposits in the
Talas Range and the SaryBulak deposit in the Kakashaal Too Range are attributed to the
cassiteritesulfide formation. At the ChatKaragay deposit tin is identified in conjunction with
lead and zinc in vein bodies. The SaruBulak deposit is of tubular shape (up to 500 m in depth)
of fullyoxidized complex (tin, copper, zinc, lead) jacobsite ores in the Devonian limestones in
contact with the like granitoid intrusion. Numerous quartztourmaline veins with cassiterite,
wolframite, scheelite and fluorite which are developed among granitoids and terrigene
formations in the east (in the SaryDzhaz tungstentin ore region) are attributed to the cassiterite
quartzsilicate formation.
Tungsten ores are mainly represented by two types: contactmetasomatic (scarn) and
hydrothermal. The scarn orebodies with scheelite are the most mature in Middle Tien Shan (the
Kumbel, KashkaSuy, Turegelda, KenSuy deposits) where they are developed in exocontact
parts of granitoid massifs as lensshaped metasomatic beds with impregnated mineralization. The
hydrothermal tungsten ores (wolframite and scheelite) are associated with tin in the quartz
tourmaline and quartz veins of the southeastern part of Southern Tien Shan, in the SaryDzhaz
tungstentin ore region.
Aluminium ores are represented by ore manifestations of bauxites, deposits of nepheline
syenites, andalusitesillimanite shales, alunites and kaolines. Middle Carboniferous and Late
TriassicEarly Jurassic bauxites are known in the mountain frame of the Fergana valley, in the
Turkestan and Alay Ranges.
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The ore quality is satisfactory, the silicon modulus is 1.012.0. The average percentage in
the bauxites is as follows: about 40 % Al2O3, 30 % SiO2, 12 % FeO, 2 % Fe2O3. Nepheline
syenites are known in all the folded Kyrgyzstan’s regions. Nephelinecontaining rock massifs
have been explored at the Sandyk and Zardalek deposits. The areas of higher alumina
concentration (19.2 and 22.6 % at the Sandyk and Zardalek deposits, respectively) are identified;
the silicon and alkaline moduli are 2.8 and 0.91, respectively. Andalusitesillimanite shales are
developed among the Proterozoic Talas rock masses but have not been studied as alumina raw
materials. Alunites and kaolines are available in many Kyrgyzstan’s regions but have not been
regularly studied on alumina content (Fig.2.21).
2.9.2. History of Ore Deposits Development
Archeological finds from the ancient mines of Northern Kyrgyzstan testify that mineral
deposits were mined in its territory in the ancient epoch and Early Middle Ages (the 3rd5th
centuries). According to written sources, in the mountains, in the suburbs of the Sheldzhi town,
situated in the eastern part of the Talas valley, there were silver mines. More than one hundred of
MiddleAge mines were identified in this region in the mountains of the Talas Alatau and in the
southern slopes of the Kyrgys Range; there were at least six open pits with largescale mining
(for that time). Openings were filled with account of ore body bedding conditions. The ore
extracted was crushed and dressed. Silver was extracted by cupellation. In the Sheldzhi district,
besides silverlead ore, which mining was essential, deposits of native and placer gold were
worked (the largest open pit was in the Chonur River head). The Sheldzhi open pits were most
actively mined in the 9th11th centuries. The ore mining went on in the 12th14th centuries,
judging from archeological sources. In the 10th12th centuries open pits in the mountains of
Southern Kyrgyzstan, in the Fergana region, were in active operation. Written sources reported
the mining of mercury as well as lead, oil, etc. in this area. Ancient mine openings, slag
accumulations and big oremelting centres were found throughout the whole Turkestan and Alay
Ranges. A sophisticated process with sublimation and condensation of mercury metal from ore
in ceramic vessels was applied for mercury metal to be produced. Like in the rest regions of
Central Asia, the boom in the mining sector in the Kyrgyzstan’s territory falls on the 9th12th
centuries. Beginning from the 13th century, a noticeable depression occurred in the mining
operations. For the period from the 9th century and up to the 19th century, with some
interruptions, the most various metallic and nonmetallic deposits have been mined. Copper
mining was focused on the deposits of the Chu River basin (for example, no less than 20 tilted
pitlike openings of up to 35 m in length were identified at the BalaTegerek deposit). The Ak
Tash and KaraKyshtan (the Kyrgyz Range) copper deposits, at which ancient mines of 2060 m
in depth were reported, operated. In the Middle Ages leadsilver ore mining increased (the Talas
region deposits, the KenShanyk deposits, the DzhangizArcha open pit). Slags were also
detected in the KenShanyk region. Mercury, antimony and sometimes arsenic were mined at
several deposits of Southern Kyrgyzstan (the Chauvay deposit where ancient aditlike openings
were deepened up to 120 m in the mountain slopes, the GalbitKamar deposit on the
Shakhimardan River, in the Altynbishik Range where ancient openings were noted at an
elevation of up to 6 km, in the Adygen Too Mountains near the BirkSuu River, the Khaidarkan
deposit). Gold was mined over the Chatkal River slopes, near Santalash.
2.9.3. Mining & Metallurgical Industry
The proportion of the mining industry in the total industrial output of the republic is 4.8
%. Raremetal oxides, antimony and its compounds are exported to over 50 countries.
Nonferrous metal ores have been mined since 1941. From 1942 on the Kadamdzhay
antimony and Khaidarkan mercury deposits have been in operation. In the 50s the explored
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Chauvay mercury, TerekSay antimony, AkTyuz, AkKul, Boorda, Sumsar and Kiya
polymetallic deposits were included into the mining operations.
New mercury (Symap, etc.) and rare metalpolymetallic (AkTyuz) deposits started up
operation in the 60s. The Kadamdzhay Antimony, Khaidarkan Mercury and Kyrgyz Mining &
Metallurgical Complexes operate on their base. The Kyrgyzstan’s ore deposits were initially
mined by an underground method owing to their mining and geological condition features (small
scale, rangy relief, dispersion of ore deposits), and by an openpit method from the beginning of
the 50s. Underground stripping is by adits (the TerekSay open pit), by vertical shafts (the
Khaidarkan Complex mines), combined by adits and vertical shafts (the Kadamdzhay mine). The
mining systems are shrinkage breastandpillar, sublevel undercutting, sublevel caving. The ore
is delivered to concentrators and metallurgical plants by dump tricks, exclusive of the
Kadamdzhay mine (locomotive haulage).
The AkTyuz and partially Khaidarkan deposits (complex mercuryantimonyfluorite ores)
are mined by an underground method. The working system is transport, mining equipment is
shovels and dump trucks. Methods of joint blasting of embedded rocks and ores, controlled
caving as well are applied. The ore is delivered to the concentrator by dump trucks through
blending storage yards. The ore is crushed by jaw and cone crushers, ground by ball mills, and
dressed by flotation. The monometallic mercury ores are processed by roasting in rotary kilns,
with the mercury concentrates processed by electric vacuum roasting and in fluidized bed
(Fig.2.22).
2.10. Mineral Resources of Tajikistan
Tajikistan is situated in the southeast of Central Asia. It borders Uzbekistan and
Kyrgyzstan on west and north, China on east, Afghanistan on south. The area is 143,100 sq km.
The population is 5,112,000 people (as of January 1, 1989).
Mining operations in Tajikistan are active, including a wide range of energy and mineral
resources. Tajikistan has a variety of nonfuel minerals, among them, silver at the Bolshoy (Big)
Kanimansur deposit, mercury, molybdenum and precious metals in the North Karamazar
Mountains. Lead, zinc, silver, bismuth and copper concentrates are processed at the Adrasaman
Complex while there exists placer gold in the Darvaza district at YakhSu and vein gold deposits
at Taror in the West Zarafshan Mountains. Antimony output has been particularly high in recent
years, ranking second among the fifteen exSoviet republics. Tungsten has been mined since the
middle 40s in Tajikistan where the major ores are scheelite (calcium tungstate) and copper, with
molybdenum and columbium as byproducts.
Tajikistan is one of a few CIS states which export aluminium, approximately 150,000 t in
1992. This country accounts for about 15 per cent of the CIS aluminium output and exports
amount to more than 60 per cent the country’s foreign trade revenues. Aluminium production at
the Tajikistan huge Tursunzade smeltery reached an estimated 360,000 t in 1992, slightly below
370,000 t produced in 1991. The Tursunzade plant near the Uzbekistan border has an annual
output of 517,000 t, and is now dependent on Russian alumina as Azerbaijan cut down supplies
after several payment disputes.
In Tajikistan gold (or “tilo” in Tajik) has been mined for centuries though no data on
output was ever released by the USSR government. Tajik officials hoped in increase gold output
to 1.5 t In 1993 and 4 t in 1994. The 1993 estimate falls short of an official target of 1.8 t of gold.
The primary gold concentrate production centre is the city of Kansay just 40 km to the
north of Khojend. The Kansay plant was commissioned in the 1920s for processing of
polymetallic ores. In the 80s the plant was retrofitted; the plant now processes only gold ores
from placer and vein deposits in the Kara Kum area. The plant has 40 concentrating tables, each
with a 3.2 cu m/hour capacity. It is the second largest concentrator in Tajikistan, with the largest
near Pendzhikent at Taror in the southwest.
110
2.10.1. Geology of Deposits
The territory is at the junction of the UralMongolian geosynclinal belt and the
Mediterranean Sea geosynclinal belt.
Northern Tajikistan (Karamazar) includes the southern slopes of the Kuramin Range and
the Mogolau Mountain. There are polymetallic, gold, silver, bismuth, tungsten, molybdenum ore
deposits identified in the region.
NorthEast Tajikistan occupies the western part of the Fergana intermontane depression.
Oil and coal fields are associated with the latter. Central Tajikistan is attributed to Hercynides of
the South Tien Shan folded system. Deposits of antimony, mercury, tungsten, tin, gold ores,
fluorite and coal were identified in the region.
Deposits of oil, combustible gas, rock salt, celestite, placer gold have been found in
SouthWest Tajikistan. SouthEast Tajikistan incorporates Pamir where deposits of tin ore,
borosilicate, rare metals, magnesia raw materials and gemstones were discovered.
The main reserves of copper ores are connected with polymetallic (AltynTopkan, Taror,
etc.), tungsten, goldbearing and copperbismuth deposits of Karamazar (Kaptarkhon) which
contain 0.31.0 % Cu. Moreover, in the Darvaza area two stratiform manifestations of
cupreferious sandstones and conglomerates of the Upper Permian age which contain 12 % Cu
have been identified (Ravnous, Daraitang).
Three manifestations of nickel ores are identified in Pamir. The mineralization is
confined to hyperbasites. The ores are impregnated massive and brecciated pyrrhotiteviolarite
composition complex coppernickel. Besides Ni, Cu and Co are contained.
Leadzinc ore reserves are associated with complex polymetallic deposits widely
distributed throughout the Tajikistan’s territory. The major part of the explored reserves is
grouped on the Karamazar ore province. The ore fields of Western Karamazar (AptynTopkan,
Kurusay, Kansay, etc.) contain mainly scarntype deposits. The orebodies of lens and column
shaped form with high Pb, Zn and low Cu, Ag content occur in the contact of weaklyacidic
granitoids and Devonian carbonates. The essential metallic minerals are galenite, sphalerite and
pyrrhotite; minor ones are chalcopyrite, galenobismuthite, etc. Crevicevein hydrothermal
deposit type (Kanimansur, Zambarak, Chukurdzhilga, etc.) with veinletimpregnated nest and
aggregative ores is typical of the ore fields of Eastern Karamanzar. Telethermal deposits
(Iokundzh) are typical of Darvaza.
Tajikistan occupied one of the USSR leading positions in antimony ore reserves. The
deposits and manifestations are confined to the ZarafshanGissar mercuryantimony belt. The
greater part of them, stratiform beds of laminated lensshaped form, is connected with brecciated
jasperoids and related to the quartzfluoriteantimonite formation. The ores are antimony and
mercuryantimony (the Dzhizhikrut deposit, the ShingMagiansky deposit group). Of smaller
abundance are hydrothermal veined and stockwork deposits (the Konchoch ore field) where Au,
more seldom fluorite are available as associate components. Antimony as associate component in
complex polymetallic ore is of no commercial value.
Celestite (Sr) deposits were identified in the southwest of the republic.
Tin ores of different genetic types are known in Pamir (TrezubetsZarechny) and in
Central Tajikistan (Maikhura, Tagobikul). Of greatest interest are quartzcassiteritesulfide and
scarn ore types. Stannite ores (the KaznokMushiston ore field) are typical. Moreover, cassiterite
is an associate mineral in some tungsten ore deposits.
Molybdenum ores are available in scarn deposits of the Mogoltau Mountains, in Central
Tajikistan and Pamir. Of commercial value are the YuzhnoYangikan molybdenum (proper)
deposit which columnshaped ore bodies are bedded by molybdenite, pyrite and scheelite as well
as the ChorukhDairon tungsten deposit where molybdenumtungsten ores are replaced with
coppermolybdenum ores in scheelite scarns from a depth of 100150 m.
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2.10.2. History of Nonferrous Metal Ore Resources Mining
Neolite marked the beginning of mining metallic ores, and first melting shops appeared
in that period. Later on metallurgical operations were proliferated throughout the territory,
mainly oxidized ores of copper, tin, antimony and other metals were used for smelting. Mining
of gold ore and lazurite in Darvaza and Badakhshan has been known from the 3rd millennium
B.C. In the Tajikistan’s territory mining industry reached its fullest flower in the 9th11th
centuries which is testified by the markings of ancient mining openings and metallurgical
operations in the Karamazar Mountains (Kanimansur the Mansura mine), in the northeast of
Central Tajikistan (the Kondara Ore Gorge, the Koninukra Silver Mine), Pamir, Darvaza (“the
Ruby Mountain”: Kukhilal, the Lyadzhvardara Lazurite Gorge), etc. Ore mining and metal
112
producing operations incorporated excavation of pits; sinking of adits, slopes, shafts; flame and
wedgehammer breaking; roof support by pillars, timber props and frames; ore delivery by
leather bags, dragnets, separation grading by crushing and grinding; natural ventilation, lighting
with slivers, water reflux, smelting in opentype furnaces. Goldbearing sand was mined by
animal skin washing over the valleys of the Zarafshan, Sauksay, Pyandzh Rivers and in the
Darvaza Mountains. About 1,500 open pits and mines with up to 300 sq m chamber area, shafts
of up to 200 m in depth were arranged at the Kandzhol silver deposit in Karamazar. The total
volume of removed rocks amounted to 3.5 mln cu m. The same scale mining operations were
carried out in the area of the Darvaza goldbearing placers, in the Akdzhilga ore field of Pamir at
an elevation mark of 4,0005,000 m and in other districts. Alongside metallic minerals, different
building rocks, mineral paints, glass raw materials, etc. were actively produced which is testified
by architectural monuments in Pendzhikent, Gissar, KurganTyube and other places. In 13th
19th centuries mining arrived to a depression. Scarce local industries: mining of rock salt, iron
ore, placer gold in Darvaza, went on functioning. Commercial mining of placer gold was
resumed late in the 19th early in the 20th centuries in a small scale.
2.10.3. Mining & Metallurgical Industry
The proportion of mining industry in the total industrial output of the country is 6.4 per
cent (1988).
Tajikistan occupied a significant position as producer of some nonferrous metals in the
CIS and world.
Nonferrous metal ore mining operations have been on stream since the 1930s, with
grouping on the northern and central districts. Beginning from the 40s, the Chalata, Sardob and
AltynTopkan Polymetallic Mines are in operation in Karamazar which raw materials base is
used for the Adrasman Mine & Concentrator, the Almalyk Mining & Metallurgical Complex (in
Uzbekistan). The Anzob Mine & Concentrator carry out mining of the Dzhizhikrut antimony ore
deposit in Central Tajikistan. The Leninabad Rare Metals Works which made use of the
ChorukhDairon tungsten ore deposit from the 30s has been operating on the base of the
Yuzhno(South)Yangikan coppermolybdenum deposit since the 60s. The deposits are mined by
an underground method.
Separation is performed by flotation in pneumatic and mechanical cells, etc. Copper,
lead, zinc, mercury, antimony concentrates together with molybdenum middlings were delivered
to Kazakhstan and other places. Bismuth concentrate was processed by the Isfar
Hydrometallurgical Plant.
In Tajikistan commercial ore mining has been on since the 50s by diggers’ artels (teams)
in the Darvaza and Rankul mines. From 1968 on goldbearing deposits have been explored and
mined by the Tajikzoloto Mine & Concentrator. The native deposits of Northern and Central
Tajikistan are mined by underground and openpit methods, respectively. In Southern Tajikistan
placer gold is mined by an openpit method, with dredges applied in 19721980 which were later
on replaced by hydromonitors. Smallscale placers are mined by the Pamir diggers’ artel.
Battery, level caving, and pillarandchamber systems are applied in underground mining of
goldbearing quartz ore. The ore is broken in shallow blastholes, delivered by cars to the surface
with downstream gravitational and flotation separation and cyaniding (Fig.2.24).
2.11. Mineral Resources of Turkmenistan
Turkmenistan is situated in the southwest of Central Asia. The country borders
Kazakhstan on north, Uzbekistan on northeast, Afghanistan on southeast, Iran on south and is
washed by the Caspian Sea in the west. The area is 488,000 sq km. The population is 3,534,000
people (as of January 1, 1989).
113
The most important mineral resource are oil and combustible gas, mining & chemical and
other industrial raw materials, as well as nonmetallic building materials. The mineral product
base of the nonferrous metals industry is not developed, and, consequently, the industry is
smallscale.
Copper ore manifestations are represented by sedimentary and hydrothermal genetic
types. The former is distributed in the GaurdakKugitang district and is confined to Upper
Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous red colours. The mineralization forms lenses of 0.10.15 m in
thickness, more seldom up to 1.55 m. Horizons are traced throughout the district territory. The
essential rockforming minerals are malachite and azurite. The Cu content is 0.150.58 %. The
numerous hydrothermal manifestations in Western Kopetdag are represented by small veins with
small Cu concentration and are associated with baritewitherite and leadzinc manifestations.
Smallscale leadzinc ore deposits and numerous ore manifestations are known in
different republic districts. The Kugitang and Bazartyube deposits are bedded in Upper Jurassic
limestones. Beds of 1601,200 m in length have the form of slightlytilted ore shoots, more
seldom lensshaped or crevicevein. The ores are almost fully oxidized. The essential metallic
minerals are smitsonite, cerussite, etc. The average Pb and Zn content is 2.776.21 and 1.74.08
%, respectively. The ores also contain Ag.
The sand massifs of Meshed and Geirdzhany, the Tedzhen and Mergab River deltas, the
Kushka and Kashana interfluve and the Kushka downstream are famous for titaniumzircon
placers with commercial concentrations of ilmenite, zircon, leucoxene.
Molybdenum ores of hydrothermal genesis are known in the zone of tectonic dislocation
in the Upper Jurassic limestones of Bolshoy Balkhan. The Mo content is more than 1 %.
Commercial Mo concentrations have been identified in the Triassic sandstones of the Tuarkyr
district. Abnormal metal concentrations are connected with Paleogene clays and combustible
shales.
Numerous mercury ore manifestations are controlled by zones of dislocations with breaks
in continuity in terrigenecarbonate sediments of the Lower Cretaceous period; the ore bodies are
0.22.5 m thick, the mercury content is 0.130.58 %.
Hydrothermal manifestations of tallium ores are known within the Cheleken brachy
anticline. Celestite (Sz) mineralization is widely distributed in sedimentary deposits from the
Jurassic to Neogene age. The commercial celestite concentration is associated with Paleocene
sulfatecarbonate deposits. The major reserves are concentrated in sedimentaryepigenetic
deposits where laminated and lensshaped beds run to 1525 m in depth. The ores are continuous
and veinletimpregnated. Sedimentaryepigenetic manifestations of laminated celestite are
observed in Lower Cretaceous lagooncontinental deposits of South Karabogaz region. Celestite,
jointly with barite, is found in a significant concentration in Neogene and Quaternary placers and
modern Cheleken hydrothermas.
Chapter 4. Mineralurgy. Ore Dressing
4.1. Technological Systematization of Minerals
4.1.1. Technologocal Definition of Mineral
Unluckely we cannot make use of numerous definitions of a mineral from reference and
text books on mineralurgy which are oriented to diagnostics or genesis of
minerals.[13,14,56,59,61]. Our concern is the notion of a mineral as an industrial raw material
selected from ore using technological processes.
Numerous native mineral types and variants are accosictaed with variability of chemical
composition at one and the same crystalline structure. Rich natural diversity of such variations
(up to continuous transitions from one chemical formula to another with different extremes)
predetrmined that mineralogists failed to come to a unique definition of mineral type.
114
From the viewpoint of mineralurgy the definition of mineral type must meet the
following conditions:
1. Distinctions in chemical composition of mineral type should not lead to different
technical assessment of selected minerals. From this standpoint potassium and sodium feldspars
are related to different mineral types. Scheelite (CaWO4) and povellite (CaMoO4) which form a
continuous isomorphous series are also assigned to different mineral types, with mineral
assigned to the type which dictates the industrial value of the ore in molybdenum or tungsten,
depending on the Mo to W ratio in the Ca [W, Mo] O4 series in the deposit. On the contrary,
hubnerite (MnWO4) and ferberite (FeWO4) related to the wolframite group ([Fe, Mn] WO4) are
among the same mineral type from the viewpoint of mineralurgy.
2. Minerals of one type must have similar processing properties and be concentrated in
the same products in technological processes:
a) in gravitational, magnetic and electrical fields;
b) have close nechanical properties: hardness, fragility, elasticity;
c) have close adsorption properties with respect to solute chemical reagents;
d) feature similar solubility in process solutions.
From this standpoint, sphalerite (a- ZnS), wurtzite (bZnS) and marnolith ([Zn, Fe]S) are
assigned to different mineral types. Pyrite and marcasite (FeS2), chalcopyrite and cubanite
(CuFeS2) differing in floatability are differentiated.
In so doing, one mineral type incorporates minerals of monotype structure which
composition is in conformity with individualized chemical compounds (among them, extremes
and means of continuous solid solutions and may vary within the limits determined by:
1) impossibility of equilibrium existence of two or several phases in the temperature and
pressure ranges of natural physicochemical process,
2) continuity of change in useful component value within the limits of technical vale of
this or that mineral,
3) invariability of processing properties: physical, mechanical, chemical amd adsortion,
involving concentrating of all variants of this process type in the same processing products.
From the viewpoint of this definition, optical properties, colour (?) of minerals, for
instance, are of no great value in the process, and they are essential only as a reflection of
quantity and composition of isomorphous impurities. Just like in mineralogy, minerals of one
composition bur different stricture, polymorphous modificaitons, are assigned to different
mineral types.
For example, graphite diamond, calcite aragonite, etc. Here the physicochemical field
of stability, within which it is impossible for one modification to exist at genesis of mineral type,
corresponds with the physicochemical field of technological process.
Less dramatic, gradual structural changes, polytype modifications, which show identical
parameters of elementary cell in two directions and a variable one in the third direction, may
cause changes in mineral type or not. Most often polytypes of layer minerals do not change
processing properties of mineral type since crystalline lattice elements are shifted relative to each
other between layers while the structure inside the elements separated during ore crushing is
preserved. Polytypes of different degree of order of ion arrangement in the lattice, for example,
feldspar orthoclase, are assigned to ifferent mineral types.
Morphology of minerals which is governed by their internal structure, genesis and
conditions of crystal growth leads to formation of different forms and agrregates differing in
processing properties. Morphological variants are characterized by crystal habit, monocrystalline
formation size, and, at last, mutual orientation of minerals in mineral aggregates, and
consequently in growths.
Dislocations on margins of monocrystal concretions in blocks of one mineral or mineral
aggregate substantially affect ore preparation and dressing processes. Breaks of ideal periodicity
of monocrystals, scarps, pinching out of atomic plane, distortion of mutual parallelism of atomic
planes are dictated by growth conditions. Intrusion of foreign particles, isomorphous substitution
115
of ions, complexes and impregnations of other minerals are also possible. Dislocation of crystals
is characterized not only by type but also by density.
Mineral nonuniformity id most greatly influenced by different type impurities governing
composition and. to some extent, properties of mineral variants. Nonuniform mineral
composition may be connected with different types of deflections from idealized chemical
formula.
Microinclusions of solid heterogenic mineral phases are trapped from the environment
during crystallization due to coprecipitation, disintegration of solid solutions, crystallization of
colloids during desprption. The microinclusions involve individual microparagenesis for each
mineral which does not necessarily coincide with macroparagenesis. In particular, some minerals
of dispersed elements (indium, rhenium, platinoids, etc.) may be encountered only as
microinclusions. It is these heterogenic microinclusions that are responsible for value of nickel
and platinumbearing pyrrhotites. Flotation properties of minerals may be substantially
dependent on these microinclusions. Here the classic example is sphalerite containing
chalcopyrite inclusions. Floatability of this sphalerite is similar to to that of chalcopyrite which
controls problems of selective flotation of copperzinc ore and low parameters of
separation.[14,56,58].
Microinclusions of liquid, gasliquid, gas salt solutions ans melts being residuies of
crystallization medium also have an effect on flotation and, if in substantial quantities, an
leaching as well.
Nonstructural ion and molecule microimpurities located in crystalline lattice defects, in
dislocation areas and on the borderlines of lattice blocks can be leached without distortion of
crystalline lattice of minerals. Grinding and conditioning of sludge before flotation always brings
about a large quantity of the socalled “inevitable” ions appeared in the liquid phase which have
a substantial effect on the process. In some cases it is required to resort to special jigging by
water, alkalies or acids for removal of “inevitable ions”, as, for instance, in flotation separation
of beryllium ore, final dressing of scheelite concentrates, flotation of quartz, etc.
Finely dispersd and colloiddispersed minerals and minerals with mature surface (coal,
zeolites, clays) can sorb impurity elements, especially, with large ion radii. For example,
sorbtion processes are respensible for great losses of platinoids with iron hydroxides during
processing of nickelbearing pyrrhotites. In flotation natural sorbents are sometimes specially
introduced into sludge for trapping of gold, solute copper, etc.
Impurity elements in radioactive ores may be of radiogenic origin, with concentration as
a function of mineral age. Thus, radiogenic lead is always present in uranium ores, calcium in
potassium ores, strontium in rhubidium ores, and osmium in rhenium ores. Radiogenic impurities
also influence flotability and solubility of minerals.
Many minerals forming isomorphous series behave in dressing processes depending on
substitution degree. Thus, for instance, molybdoscheelites are floated the worse the larger is the
degree of substitution of isomorphous molybdenum for tungsten , here povellite is flotaed much
worse than scheelite. The similar is the difference in floatability of tantalite and columbite,
potassium and asodium feldspars, etc. The like discrepancies are also observed in electricl
separation processes. The rate of iron recovery in the hematite magnetite series has a
substantial influence on magnetic properties of ironcontaining minerals.
The cation anion ratio is responsible for the type of conductivity (ionic or hole) for
semiconductor minerals, for example, sulfides, sulfo salts, etc. Control of conductivity type using
electrical sludge processing permits substantial improvement of selectivity of floration
separation minerals and higherrecovery to concentrate.
The enlisted forms of mineral composition variants along with polytype modifications,
morphological variaties, nature and density of crystals lead to large number of variants of one
and the same mineral type. From the viewpoint of mineralurgy, varians of one and the same
mineral at similar behaviour, i,e., with concentrating in one product during mineral processing,
may differ in recovery rate to this product, i.e., in intensity of concentrating process.
116
4.1.2. Isomorphism and Mineral Variants
The notion of isomorphism, i.e., ability of substances similar in chemical composition to
be jointly crystallized in identical forms, is the most essemtial to parametric description of
mineral composition with respect to processing properties.[13,14,42,58].
According to ideas of crystal chemistry, isomorphism is the ability of chemical lements
atoms and ions to substitute one for another provided the dimensions of atoms, ions and their
groups composing crystalline lattice are close, charge signs are identical, and polarization values
are relatively close. Isomorphism of native compounds is ersponsible for affinity of chemical
formula, closeness of geometric type of lattice structure and chemical bond type.
The concept of isomorpous elements or components forming isomorphous mixtures or
solid solutions are widely used in mineralurgy at present. The extremes of isomorphous mixtures
are called isomorphous minerals and form isomorphous series. In accordance with degree of
miscibility in isomorphous series the following isomorphism types are distinguished: unlimited
(perfect) and limited (imperfect). Examples of the former are the isomorphous series of
wolframite (hubnerite MnWO4 ferberite FeWO4) and the series of olivine (forsterite Mg2[SiO4]
fayalite Fe2[SiO4]). Imperfect isomorphism between Zn and Fe in sphalerite has been
established.
Considerable flexibility of chemical mineral composition causes a regular change of
structural and processing parameters, density, hardness, refractive indices. Effect of smaller
isomorphous impurities on physical properties is insignificant but sometimes a sharp change in
electrical properties, emergence of colour and luminiscence are connected with such impurities.
Their effect on surface properties of minerals is also significant.
Heterovalent isomorphism with retention of general number of atoms can be manifested
in various ways: (1) conjugate replacement of pairs: for example, in fluorite there is a
replacement of Ca 2+ ionsby TR 3+ ions and of F ions by O 2 ions according to the pattern: Ca1n
(TR 3+ Ca2+)n F2n (O 2 F ) 1 n, (2) replacement of two similar atoms by two atoms of diferent elements
of different valency with retention of summary charge of the type 2R 4+ R 2+ + R 4+ , for example,
in cassiterite, according to the pattern: Sn 4+ 12n (F 4+ Sn4+) 11 n∙ (W 6+ Sn4+) •• n O 2 2 , (3) replacement of
two pairs of atoms of different elements with retention of summary charge of the type R + + R 4+
R 2+ + R 3+ , for example, in plagioclases according to the pattern: Na + 1n (Ca 2+ Na+)n [Si 4+ 3n
Al (Al 3+ Si4+) 1 n O 2 8].
3+
Under heterovalent isomorphous replacements accpompanied by changes in atom number
in mineral structure, compensation redundant charges occurred in some cases is marked off by
formation of atom vacancies of the type R 2+ 3 R 3+ 2(VR) 1 ),
as is the case with ferberite: Fe 13n (Sc Fe2+)2n (Vfe2+) 11 n W 6+ O 2 4.
2+ 3+
In other cases isomorphous replacements take place with filling of interstitial positions,
for example, in fluorite by replacing Ca 2+ ions by TR 3+ ions by synchronous entering of F i ion
into interstitial position according to the pattern: Ca 2+ 1n (TR 3+ Ca2+)n F 2 (F i) 1 n.
The isomorphism conditions, proximity of dimensional parameters of isomorphous
components or volume of an elementary cell of isomorphous mineral and atomic radii of
isomorphous elements and ions, difference of ionic radii of isomorphous ions to radius of smaller
ions (Dr/r) should not exceed 15 % with <40 % for more complex compositions. Similarity of
electronic structure of isomorphous elements, proximity of chemical properties and consequently
character of chemical bond in isomorphous minerals. The rule of polarity, according to which the
entering of the ion of smaller radius or greater charge is more preferrable than that of the ion of
larger radius or smaller charge. The examples of polar isomorphism are the heterovalent seriesof
Li + (0.069) Mg 2+ (0.075) Sc 3+ (0.081) Zr 4+ (0.082) in magnesiam micas and Na + (0.098)
Ca 2+ (0.105) Y 3+ (0.106) in pyrochlore and other rareearth minerals where the value of ironic
radii in nanometres is fiven in brackets. We come across unilateral isomorphism for the pair
of elements with one and the same radius, for example, Zn 2+ and Fe 2+ . In ZnS (sphalerite) zinc
117
permits entering of up to 20 % Fe, but their is absolutely no Zn in FeS. The reason for this is that
Fe can have both a quaternary and hexad coordination while Zn always has a quaternary
coordination in sulfides.
At high temperature the limits of isomorphous miscibility for many minerals of variable
composition are higher . often up to formaion of perfect solid solutions with unlimited
miscibility (feldspars). The extremes of isomorphous mixtures are called isomprphous minerals,
they form isomorphous series. Unlimited (perfect) and limited (imperfect) isomorphism are
distinguished depending on degree of miscibility in isomorphic series.
... Limitation of isomorphous miscibility is in many cases connected with concentration of
impurities. For example, commonly low conetent of Cd in sphalerite, Ni in olivine, Cr in
beryllium is first of all predetermined by low content of these impurities in the mineralforming
medium. In some cases isomorphous miscibility depends on the ratio of concnetration of ions of
one and the same element of different valence which is connected with redox conditions of
mineral formation. In so doing. the Mo content in molybdoscheelite (Ca[(W, Mo) O4]) in many
cases is a function of not only temperature but also in what form, oxidized or reduced, it is
present in mineralforming solutions.[42]. ...
Though an effect of small isomorphous impurities on physical properties is slight.
sometimes a sharp change in electrical properties alon with colouring and luminiscence are
associated with impurities. ... In so doing, for instance, paraneters of hexagonal elementary cell
of apatite permit an evaluation of the content pf, on one part, ions of F , CL , (OH) , O 2 and
attributition of apatite to fluorapatite, chlorapatite, hydroxylapatite, oxyapatite, and, on the other
part, an evaluation of the content of ions substituting for Ca 2+ , Ba 2+ and Sr 2+ .[56].
Isomprphism is a more general notion than isonic exchange running in channel and layer
compounds, for instance, between particles in zeolite channels or in intelayer cavities of silicates
and alumosilicoates. Substitutions prohibited rfrom the viewpoint of thermodynamics of
macroisomorphism may take place in ionic exhange. In so doing, cations differing in dimensions
and properties, for example, Ca 2Cs in zeolites, may substitute for one another.
In general there are gradual transitions between isomorphism, microisomorphism,
formation of interstitial solid solutions and ionic exhange.[14].
In so doing, during parametric description of mineral varients the foolowing is identified:
(1) nature of substitution, i.e., naming of substituted and substituting elements, (2) character of
substitution, type of isomorphism or analogues and mechanism of substitution, (3) quantitative
assessment of substitution of each type.
4.1.3. Crystalline Structure of Minerals
Minerals are defined as crystalline matters, and atoms pf chemical elements entering into
compositions are found to be in regular distribution in lattice points and maintained in the state
of equiplibrium by forces of mutual attraction and repulsion. Nature and vale of the forces are
dictated by properties of interacting atoms of chemical elements. The properties unique for
diffeent chemical elements are conditioned by nucleus charge, electronic structure of atoms
according to the periodic system.
Formation of minerals may be taken to be a convergence of free atoms until a certain
distance betweem is reached at which point forces of attraction and repulsion are brought into the
state of equilibrium. The latter corresponds to the minimum of energy since in chemical
compound the potential of energy of atoms is smaller than that of fre, disconnected atoms. The
difference between the value of energy of free atoms and the minimum potential energy of atoms
is a bound state is determined as the energyproducing measure of chemical bond. In crystals it is
called the energy of crystalline lattice.[14].
Ehergy zones in crystalline bodies may be completely or partially filled with valent
electrons or have no them at all. The energy zone completely filled with valent electrons is called
a valent zone. The free zone located energetically above the valent zone ore the zone
118
incompletely filled with valent electrons is called a zone of conductivity. Depending on solid
body structure and building of atoms comprising the body, there may be an energu break
between the valent zone and the zone of conductivity (Fig.4.1a) or the zones may overlap each
other (Fig.4.1b).
The energy break between the valent zone and the zone of conductivity is called an
exclusion zone, and the DE (usually in eV) a width of the exclusion zone.
Depending on zonal structure, crystalline bodies may possess properties of metals, i.e.,
may be good conductors of electric current, of dialectrics, i.e., do not virtually conduct electric
current, or semicondictors in which conductivity emerges at some temperature and increases
with temperature rise. Emergence of electric current in crystal which necessitates movement of
electrons inside the crystal is explained by transition of electrons from one elergy level to
another within the zone of conductivity.[13,15].
Positive holes appear in the valent zone on the place of electrons emitted, and
conductivity in the zone takes place through movement of electrons into holes, i.e., it is
accompanied by the seemingly transfer of holes to the side opposite to the movement of
electrons (Fig.4.2), hole conductivity appears. This pattern explains larger conductivity with
temperature rise as it is accompanied by higher concentration of carriers (electrons in
conductivity zone and holes in valent zone). On the contrary, lower temperature keeping
electrons in valent zone leads to disappearance of covalence electrons, and transformation of a
semiconductor into a dielectric.
Besides intrinsic conductivity, semiconductors possess impurity conductivity emerging in
semiconductor compounds with these or those impurities at temperature lower than that of
intrinsic conductivity.
Electronconductive semiconductors are called ntype semiconductors, in this case
impurity atoms play the role of donors. A holeconductive semiconductor is a ptype
semidonductor in which impurity atoms play the role of electron acceptors.[13].
Extrinsic conductivity emerges in semiconductors also under the effect of crystalline
lattice defects of differenet type, among them, dislocations.
Depending on zonal structure and chemical bond type which are closely interconnected,
crystalline bodies are subdivided into four types: (1) covalent, (2) ionic, (3) metallic, and (4)
molecular crystals.
Covalent bond similar to covalent bond in individual molecules in intrinsic nature is
typical of crystalline bodies of the first and last types.
Covalent bond shows strict directionality. The coordination numbre of anions is defined
by the correcpondence between the number of external electron pairs and the number of acceptor
orbitals of cations taking these pairs.
The crystalline structure of covalent crystals results from the donoracceptor
correspondence of the numbr of vacant orbitals of cathion and electron pairs of anion which is
reflected in the formation of certain electron ensembles.
The energy characteristics of the covalent bond are governed by atomic properties, in
particular, the energy of bond break is directly proportional (within each period) to the orbital
radii of atomic shells completely deproved of valent electrons.
Ionic crystals characterized by zonal structure of dielectrics. The bond between
individual particles in them is sibject to fundamentals of electrostatic interaction, and is
considered to be a bond between oppositecharged ions formed owing to loss of valent electrons
by one atoms which became cations and acquisition of them by other atoms which became
anions.
The most significant feature of ionic bond is absence of certain directionality,
delocalization.
Effective ionic radii of anions much exceed orbital atomic radii, and effective ionic radii
of cations are smaller that the latter but larger than the corresponding orbital ionic radii.
119
Structures of ionic crystals are designed under the principle of the densest packing of
large anions; cations are arranged in tetrahedron and octahedron cavities or, if larger, move them
apart.
Coordination numbers (CN) of cations depend on the ratio of thier radii and radii of
anions. The structural details are governed by the ratio of the number of cations and anions in the
formula which is subject to the rule of electric neutrality, the CN of cations (gradation of
inhabitated cavities), pattern of cation distribution in cavities. [13,42].
Metallic crystals differ in that individual energy zones overlap in them. The chemical
bond called metallic one in this case is executed betweem atomic shells characterized by
covalence (overlapping in energy) external orbitals and covalence electrons of “electron gas”
into which atomic shells are immersed.
Number and type of shared electrons, type of orbital sharing depend on valence of atomic
shells which in turn is established by the value of insuperable energy barriers of ionization.
In each particular case the cobalent bond is characteriozed by certain ionicity, covalence
and metallicity. The bond mechanism and nature may be complicated by appearance of metallic
or covalent bon component at crystals with ionic and covalent or metallic bon, respectively.
Alongside homodesmic crustals with covalent, ionic or metallic bond, there are a gerat num,ber
of heterodesmic crystals with covalent bond between particles (for instance, within complex
anionic radicals) and ionic bond between these radicals and cations (salts of oxygen acids, etc.)
as well as molecular crystals with covalent bond in molecules and residual bond between
molecules.
Greater metallicity of covalent bond decreases width of exclusion zone. Transition from
covalent matters to ionic or metals with overlapping valent and conductivity zones and shared
electrons takes place spasmodically (polymorphic and morphotropic transitions), it may be
gradual in series of solid solutions.[13].
Different types of imperfection of crystalline lattice are typical of real minerals while
total electrostatic balance is kept in it.
Elementary imperfections of mineral structure are point defects, vacancies and interstitial
atoms. Concentration of these defects is connected mainly with temperature conditions of
formation, in this connection they are called thermal or equilibrium.
Vacancies are free, unoccupied posiitons of ideal crystallibe structure atoms, for instance,
vacancies of copper atoms, Vcu, in crystals of copper nugget. There may be cation, Vc, and anion,
Va, vacancies in ionic crystals. Interstitial atoms, Mi, may be imagined as shifted from their
positions to neighbouring interstices. The coordination number of interstitial tom may differ
from CN in its usual position. For example, Interstitial Na atoms in halite, NaCl, occupy free
tetrahedron cavities with CN = 4. Point defects of minerals (except nuggets) feature redundant
or, to be more exact, effective charges. For instance, anionic vacancy with positive charge is Va • ,
cationic one with negative charge is V ' c. Interstitial ions have redundant charge and sign
corresponding with valence. For example, in fluorite, CaF2, the interstitial ion of fluorine has a
redundant negative charge: F ' I.[42].
As a rule point defects of different types simultaneously present in minerals. They have
redundant charges difereing in value and sign at common electrostatic neutrality. If intrinsic
point defects are locally compensated, pair and more complex associate defects are generated.
The interstitial atom atomic vacancy pair [MiVm] is called Frenkel defect. Twinned anionic and
cationic vacancies [V ' c V ' c] x are Schottky defect with neutral charge. Nonequilibrium point
defects are radiation ones which emerge as a result of atom shift along the highenergy particle
path. If the rate of radiation defects is high, crystal structure of minerals may fracture,
transforming into a metamict state close to amorphous one (pyrochlore, zircon, samarskite, etc.)
Regular deflections from ideal arrangement of atoms along some derections (lines0 in
crystal structure of minerals are called dislocations amd may be presented by two types, edge
and screw. Stressed states of compression or extension of structure are created along the
dislocation lines, here atoms are in unusual coordinates with nonsaturated bonds duw to which
120
dislocations acquire redundant charges. Edge dislocations are most often formed as a result of
mechanical deformations, shifts of crystal structure of minerals which are accompanied by
chnges in crystal grain shape while screw dislocations are formed during crystal growth.
Impurities are as a common confined to dislocation lines in minerals. Variability of mechanical
properties and morphology of minerals is associated with dislocations.[42].
Grain surface and margins are twodimensional defects characterized by irregular
arrangment of atoms and redundant surface energy. They feature high chemical and surface
activity, composition and coordination of atoms. Surface is of growth or deformation nature.
Each defect is a local violation of electric neutrality. In so doing, at anionic vacancy a
defect acquires positive charge, becoming a trap for electrons. When an electron is trapped by an
anionic vacancy, a Fcentre is formed. At cationic vacancy in the local point the vacant position
becomes negatively charged and is conpensated at the expense of redistribution of electrons in
the electronic shells of the anions enclosing the vacancy in which a shortage of electrons (“hole”)
appears. In so doing, numerous electronhole centres connected with local defective areas
emerge in lattices of real minerals. This explains many mineral properties: electrostatic,
luminiscent and thermoluminiscent, colour change, etc.
Several centre types are distinguished by electronic structure and chemical bond type
[13,42]:
(1) cationic, in which electronic transitions take place between different cation levels
(Fe 2+ , Fe 3+ , Cr 3+ , Mn 2+ , Pb 2+ , TR 3+ , etc.);
(2) molecular, in which electronic transitions run between level of a molecule retaining
its peculiarities in the crystal lattice (S 2, O 2, UO 2+ 2, etc.);
(3) connected with oxygen complexes, in which electronic transitions take place between
molecular orbitals of the complex (i.e., electronic transition from cation to oxygen or from
oxygen to cation);
(4) radiation, associated with an effect of ionizing radiation on the mineral;
(5) donoracceptor pair, appeared in minerals witn covalent bond due to formation of a
dipole from cationic and anionic vacancy.
Crystal structure is characterized by:
minimum element of repeatability, symmetry and dimension of elementary cell,
ccordinates of atpms (ions) in this cell,
interatomic distances and angular parameters of interatomic vectors,
atom coordination, coordination number, coordination polyhedron type and symmetry,
degree and character (type) of ordering in ion despersal by positions, especially,
isomorphous substitutions are developed or interstitials are formed,
degree and character (type) of ordering of different elements of crystal structure (chains
of Polyhedrons, layers, etc.),
imperfection of structure (presenceof vacancies and holes).
Polymorphic modifications of one composition but different symmetry of elementary cell
may be formed. They can be exemplified by crystallization of TiO2 in the form of rutile, anatase
or brookite; of FeS2 in the form of pyrite or marcasite; (Fe, Mn) (Ta, Nb)2O6 in the from of
tantalite or tapiolite.[56].
The position of atoms and ions in the elementary cell may be changed due to their
nearing together under the conditions of higher perssure. In so doing, the modification of the
structural variant of scheelite powellite, with the coordination numbers of cations of 4 and 8
into wolframite with the coordination numbers of 6 and 6, is typical of the Ca(W,Mo)O4. The
mutual transition of the types is reversible and manifested in a change in symmetry of the
lementary cell, coordinates of atoms in it, their coordination, interatomic distance values. This
transformation involves a change in the monoclinic angle typical of wolframitefergusonite
groups, and a change in the coordination number, i.e., oxygen cation enclosure defined by
physicochemical conditions and composition. The crystal structure of casiterite shows a
modification of the coordination oxygen octahedron around the Sn 4+ ion; the octahedron may be
121
regular, flattened or elongated, depending on temperature and pH of the crystallization medium
of geneticalldifferent cassiterites.
In the columbitetantalite group a change in the character of arrangement of catipons in
the octahedron coordination leads to lowering of crystal lattice symmetry from rhombic to
monoclinic which alters interatomic distances and dimensions of elementary cell of minerals and
their processing properties as well. In so doing. in the ordered crystal structure there is an
alteration of (Ta, Nb)octahedron layers and (Fe, Mn)octahedron layers. In disordered
coumbitetantalites with ixiolite structure there is an equiprobable dispersal of any layer in any
layer (ta, Nb, Fe, and Mn). During acidic leaching Mn and FE easily transit to solution in ordered
variants, and with a great difficulty, only at full fracture of the mineral, in disordered
variants.The ordered chalcopyrite is CuFeS2 of tetragonal systems, the disordered one is cubic.
The latter feature higher temperature in formation conditions and is worse in floatability.[56].
Below are enlisted five types of crystal mineral structures which differ in atomic
arrangement character [42]:
(1) Coordination type. It shows equal distances between atoms. The densest packing of
metals (nugget gold), anions (for instance, oxygen in hematite) or cations (calcium in fluorite) is
typical of minerals with metallic and ionic chmical bond.
(2) Island type. Complex anion radicals or closed molecules are as if separate islands,
clusters within which intreatomic distances are smaller and chemical bond strength is nuch
higher than in the rest part of the structure. For example, realgar [As4S4], nugget sulfur S8,
silicates with isolated tetrahedron anion radical [SiO] 4 4, olivine (Mg, Fe)2 [SiO4]. Sometimes
there are formed twin radicals [Si2O7] 6 (for example, calamine Zn4[Si2O7] (OH)2 H2O), and
more complex rings (for example, [Si6O18] 12 in beryllium).
(3) Chain type. Structures are formed by endless onedimensional radicals which consist
of linearlinked coordination polyhedrons. The distance between atoms within the chain is
shorter and the strength of the chemical bond is higher than those parameters between chains (?).
Single or twinned chaines are possible (for example, in sillimanite Al[SiAlO5) or twinned
(anthophyllite Mg7 [Si4O11])2 (OH)2).
(4) Layer (plate) type. Interplane distances within the plae (layer) are shorter than
between layers, and consequently atons are stronger bonded with neighbouring atoms of the
layer than with atoms of another layer (graphite, talc Mg3[Si4O10] (OH)2, brucite Mg (OH)2).
(5) Shell type. It shows a lace volumetric compound of coordination polyhedrons by
common peaks or edges: quartz SiO2, and feldspars, for example, albite Na[Si3 AlO8). Atoms
large in dimensions may be arranged in shell voids.
Minerals are not ideal but real systems of interacting atms chaaracterized by breakdowns
in priodicity of crystal structure.
4.1.4. Morphology of minerals
Internal structure of minerals and formation conditions are respensible for morphology.
Minerals are virtually always present in the form of monoineral or polymineral intergrowths or
aggregates. Mineral individuals entering into composition of aggregates are distinguished by
outer appearance, i.e., size and morphology.
Dimensions of mineral individuals may be fairly different, from the finest particles
distinguished only at microscopic magnifications of tens and even hundreds of thousands of
times to gigantic crystals with a volume of several cubic metres. Depending on dimensions, there
are distinguished finely dispersed (10 6 m and less), cryptocrystalline (10 6 10 5 m) individuals
nonvisible without a microscope, very fine (10 5 10 4 m), fine (10 4 10 3 m), medium (10 3
10 2 ), coarsegrained (10 2 10 1 m) and gigantic (10 1 m) individuals. Some minerals form no
large crystals, for instance, particles of clay minerals are always smaller than hundredth and ven
thousandth millimetre parts. Most often minerals are represented by fine crystal grains of no
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more than several millimetres in size. Many of them, in particular, quartz, feldspar, mica, etc.,
can be encountered as very fine grains and very large crystals.[42].
Idiomorphism degree and habit are a function of crystal structure and growth conditions.
Crystals of various habit: normal (for example, halite, galenite, sphalerite, olivine, etc.), lamellar
and flaky (for example, molybdenite, mica, talc), blade (barite), columnar and needlelike (rutile,
actinolite, tourmaline). Typical striation, growth and solution forms as well are visible on some
crystals.
Feceted mineral individuals of regular shape are called idiomorphous, for instance,
crystals of diamond and quartz in effusive rocks, nagnetite in metamorphic rocks, zircon in
alkaline pegmatites, very fine particles of kaolinite clay. Unlimited or partially limited mineral
individuals have an inrregular shape or repeat contour of other idividuals which which they are
in integrpwth and are called xenomorphic.
Morphology of mineral individuals (Fig.4.3) which is characterized by isometry degree is
expressed in different ratio of individua; length,. width and thickness. Depending on this,
morphological types, subtypes and variants of minerals are identified. Noral crystals or grains
have similar dimentions in all three dorections, for instance, crystals of diamond, magnetite,
garnet, sphalerite and pyrite. As a common unlimited normal grains of minerals, like quartz,
feldspars, olivine, calcite compose different rocks.[42].
Columnar, neddlelike, fibrous or filamentous variants are encountered among minerals
of oblong type. Oblong minerals may be exemplified by tourmaline, beryl, natrolite, scapolite,
jamesonite, chrysoliteasbestos, etc. Complanate minerals are represented by tabular, thin
tabular, laminated and thinflaky variants. Ilmenite, hematite, biotite, chlorite, torbernite, etc. are
commonly of complanate habit, while wollastonite, spumene, cyanite, antomonite. etc. are of
complanateoblong habit, with columbite, gypsum, barite of oblongcomplanate habit.
Crystal structure type is mainly responsible for morphology of minerals. For example,
minerals with chain and banded structure versions are most often encountered as oblong and
those with layer versions as complamate individuals. Minerals with the closest cubic paking of
atoms are ususally normal, with hexagonal complanate or oblong.
Parameters of elementary cell are also responsible for habit of minerals of medium and
lowest symmetry categories. If the parameter ratio co/ao is nearing a unit, the minerals
encountered are more often in the form of normal crystals. In opposition to this situation
minerals of oblong morphological type show lower value of this ratio while for the minerals of
complanate type this value is more than a unit.
The habit of minerals related to one and the same sytem is governed by their attribution
to this or that symmetry class and the rate of facet maturation of corresponding simple forms. For
example, pyrite crystals are often encounterd as cubes, pentagondodecahedrons, octahedrons or
their combinations but never covered tetrahedron or rhombododecahedron facets.[42,77].
Minerals are seldon encountered as regular crystals. Most often they are represented by
distorted forms with unequal facet dimensions, are of stepped structure or curved, are often
covered with striation and different growth or solution patterns. Distortions are involved by
unequal facet maturation. Complanate forms of pyrite, scheelite or other minerals confined to
thin veinlets are predetermined by gwth under restricted conditions. Quartz crystal asymmetry
expressed by nonuniform maturation of rhombohedron facets is explained by their unequal
orientation with respect to mineralforming solution flow direction.
The facet relief of many minerals is peculiar in distortion which often connected with
mechanical deformations and dislocation shifts found, for instance, for antimonite, galenite,
molybdenite. Sliding striation is often visible on the facet surface of these minerals. Convex
facets of combination type are inherent in spheroidal habit minerals, for example, diamond,
named octahedroids and dodecahedroids. Facets of split crystals forming saddlelike, fanlike or
twisted habitus forms (dolomite, pyrite, quartz, desmine, etc.) are also of distorted or stepped
mosaic structure. Angular disorientation of subindividuals in split minerals are related to
trapping of impurities and formation of edge dislocations during growth.
123
Alongside usual volumetricconvex faceted individuals, many minerals are encountered
as ‘skeleton” crystals of different habit which are described as onedimensional (linear), two
dimensional (flat) and threedimensional (volumetric) edge, apical and manyfacet prisms
(faceted bundles). Filamented crystals (whiskers) are attributed to onedimensional, for example,
jamesonite as thin fibres, helicoids (twisted, along elongation or similarly to spring) or even
closed as rings, hairlike small crystals of rutile or actinolite.
Mineral aggregates. In nature, alongside individual crystals, aggregates are also formed.
They are both regularly oriented with respect to one another (twins, parallel and epitaxial
aggregates) ad with no mutual orientation. As to morphology, there are druses (dendrites,
granular, dense and earthy masses, salts (?) , spherulite, secretions, concretions, various sinter
aggregates typical of minerals of exogenic origin.
Minerals are commonly in nonregular aggregates which may be bedded by one or several
minerals. Mineral aggregates differ in size, shape and nature of spacial arrangement of mineral
individuals constituting the aggregates. There are coarse, mediem and finegrained, crystalline
grained and cryprocrystalline, uniformly and nonuniformly grained aggregates with regular or
irregular orientation of mineral grains. Mineral grains can be dense or massive, poropus, earthy,
viscous, loose or bulk. The majority of erupted, metamorphic, sedimentary rocks and differnet
ores as well are bedded by crystallinegranular aggregates of minerals. Porous and loose
aggregates are typical of products of volcanic eruptions, many sedimentary rocks, soils, etc.
Parallel aggregates of two and more individuals with identical crystallographic
orientation are as a rule monomineral. Some of them are syngenetic aggreagtes, for example, of
fluorite or quartz crystals, others, epigenetic are formed when the later generation of minerals is
built up over the preceeding one. As are usually represented by independent variants differing in
morphology, impurity composition and concentration, structural peculiarities or physical
properties. Twin intergrowth planes are commonly parallel to faces or directions with the largest
reticular density. The twin axis may be a normal to these faces and directions and coincide with
the direction of edges at the intersecting point of the densest atomic nets or be perpendicular to
these edges if the axis is in the twin plane.
Incrustate aggregates, druses, crustalline, sinter and spherolite crusts, compose voids
different in dimensions and shape (secretions). Large secretions (from several centimetres to
several metres in size) are called geodes, bags, pogrebs, ventholes while small ones (less than
one centimetre) are named misroles and amygdules.Secretions may be made fully or partially of
crystals or spherolites of one or several mineral types. Mineral individuals composing incrustate
aggregates in secretions may have a random or, more seldom, regular, usually parallel,
orientation. Disorderly oriented individuals are formed out of a variety of small crystalline
nucleations with random fixation on rough void walls. Oriented aggregates also emerge through
crystallization on the porous wall, with formation of parallelfibrous aggregates of filamented
crystals, for example, gypsum, chalcanthite, etc. Besides, an orienting effect on the individuals
may be produced by the base on which crystallization takes place. It may be a regularly oriented
net, joints, a bedding of enclosing rocks or a coarse crystal which is substrate in epitaxial growth.
Globularshape, nodular, oval, reniform and other rounded mineral aggregates are called
concretions, setarian nodels, and oolites. Opposite to secretions, concretions are formed during
crystallization from centre to periphery and have concentric shelly or zonal structure. Formation
of concertions is associated with collective crystallization in porious, usually sedimentary rocks
owing to dispersed material.
We shall consider the classification of mineral segregations by size and the signifucance
of morphological types of structures and textures in dressing of ores. The The characteristics of
mineral segregations are the background of elaboration of process flowsheets and prediction of
dressing parameters.[11,77].
Idiomorphism is a group motion which covers various crystalline forms of different
system minerals. Mineral segregations with incompletely mature crystallie faces are named
hypidiomorphic. The outline of allotriomorphic or xenomorphic segregations depend on the
124
shape of the space which they fill. If mineral segregations are formed during crystallization of
solutions, they are called crystallibe grains. Mineral segregations formed during metasomatism
are named metagrains. Different shapes of colloid formations result from coagulation of colloid
solutions. Blastograins are formed during recrystallization and crystallization of colloids.
Crystalline structure is the peculiarity of these mineral segregations. The metagrain shape dpends
mostly on crystallization growth rate. In this case only grains of minerals which crystallization
growth rate is the highest will have idiomorphic outlines.
Fragments of brittle minerals crushed and crumpled under the effect of
idiometamporphism angular outlines (pyrite, arsenopyrite, quartz, etc.). Fragments and soft and
ductile minerals are flattened of smoothed contour (gold, silver, copper, platinum, etc.).
Fragments of minerals with distinct cleavage in one direction have an appearance of flakes, and
plates (molybdenite, graphite, sericite, etc.). The shape of fragments formed during weathering
also depends on physical and chemical properties of minerals. The oxidation degree has a great
effect on the fragment shape. Fragments of easily oxidized minerals feature an irregular shape
and meandering outlines (sphalerite, pyrrhotite, etc.). Minerals stable to solution and oxidation
show a stable shape of grains and fragments (granite, quartz, cassiterite, etc.). Fragments rolled
and rounded by water flow during carryover are called fractions. [42].
Mineral aggreagtes are bedded by metallic and nonmetallic minerals of hypogenic or
hypergenic origin. Polymineral aggregates bedded by several minerals are widespread,
monomineral aggregated bedded by one mineral are more seldom encountered.
The above data show that structure and morphology of minerl formations have been so
far described qualitatively for the most part. The main parameters are as follows [11,77].:
(1) distribution of mineral segregation dimensions,
(2) type and parameters of crysttaline structure,
(3) list and density and crystalline structure defects,
(4) Preferential and morphological type, mineral habit and shape distortion,
(5) type of intergrowth,
(6) type of mineral aggregates.
4.2. Mineralogy of Nonferrous Metals
Only several hundreds out of a great umber of minerals available in nature (anout 5000)
are encountered in fullscale deposits. Minerals caontaining valuable components and minerals
of enclosing rocks are of interest to processing of ores. Such minerals number about 260 (not
counting variants).[11].
Variability in content of impurities in merals is very great even for one and the same
type. Form of their inclusion in minerals is different. A part of them is connected with
mechanical inclusions of minerals of another composition. Chemical impurities mainly occupy
positions of typeforming elemenst, functioning as quasisubstitutes, or are located in crystalline
structure interstices. Besides, chemical impurities often correspond to dislocations or are
concenrrated on the boundaries of individuals in crystallograined mineral aggregates, and are
also absorbed in dispersed minerals. Certain deviations from the ideal composition of minerals
may be connected with unstoichiometry. Minerals of the latter type are as a rule distinguished by
high concentration of anion or cation vacancies and unusual charges of ions. Nonstoichiometry
of minerals is often predetermined by inclusion of interstitial ions which redundant charges are
offset by higher ion charges of the counterpart.
4.2.1. Classification of Minerals of Nonferrous Metals
In accordance with mineral classification nonferrous metals may be represented by the
following classes [42,58,61]:
(1) native elements,
125
(2) sulfides and their analogues, e.g., arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides, tellurides,
selenides,
(3) oxides and hydroxides,
(3) saltforming minerals,
(4) silicates, alumosilicates and analogues represented by titanosilicates, zirconium
silicates, and beryllium silicates. This class is important as enclosing rocks and nonmetallic
components.
Rockforming minerals belong to classes of silicates, carbonates, oxides, chlorides, and
sulfates. As to percentage in rock, there are distinguished essential (above 10 %), auxiliary (110
%), accessory (below 1 %) minerals. The most widespread rockforming minerals are quartz,
feldspars, micas, amphiboles, pyroxenes, olivine, clay minerals, etc.
Rockforming minerals are light (salic, leucocratic): quartz, feldspars, feldspathoids,
etc.), and dark (mafic, melane): biotite, amphiboles, pyroxenes, olivine, etc. Silicate, carbonate
and halogenic rockforming minerals are distinguished by composition of essential mineral, with
different essential rock types distinguished by paragenesis. Rockforming minerals which dictate
rock name are called cardinal (e.g., quartz, microcline, oligoclase in granites).
Primary (syngenetic to formation of the entire rock) ans secondary (emerging in any rock
transformations) are distinguished. Chemical elements conposing the essential rockforming
mineral are called petrogenic (Si, Al, K, Na, Ca, Mg, Fe, C, Cl, F, S, O, H).
Native elements are composed of atoms of Cu, Ag, Au, Pt, Os, Ir and others. The
industrial meaning have only minerals of precious metals.
Natural sulfides are the class of minerals representing sulfur (sulfides proper) and
selenium compounds (selenides) connected interconnected by isomorphic relations. About one
hundred of mineral types attributed to natiral sulfides are known in nature, and only some twnety
of them are encountered in large quantities. Natural sulfides of alkaline and alkaine earth
elements exhibit an inoinc bond with S (oe Se), are esily hydrolyzed, and only oldhamite (CaS)
out of them is known in nature. The latter is encountered very seldom (for eaxmple, in some
meteorites. The most widespread natural sulfides are chalcophile elements, and iron and
molybdenum family emenets; V, Cr, W, Pt, Ga, In, Te, Cd sulfides are known. A covalent bond
is typical of them, spmetimes with ametallic component (pyrrhotite, pentlandite, etc.), low water
solubility, stability to hydrolysis. The chemical composition of natural sulfides is usually
complicated by numerous isomorphic impurities, mainly in the cationic part. Variable valence
element sulfides, first af all, Fe and Cu, often form familiesof minerals close to or deviated from
the composition stoichiometry (families of pyrrhotite, chalcocite, etc.). Only a few of natural
sulfurs, being relatively pure, turn out to be colourless, transparent, adamantinelustreous
(cleiophane) while the overwhelming majority have polymetallic or metallic lustre. The common
colour is from iron grey (galenite, antimonite, bismuthine) to black (martite, acanthite,
chalcocite, covellite), some of them have a unique copperyellow (chalcopyrite), cocoa brown
(pyrrhotite, pentlandite) hue. A few of natural sulfurs are brightly coloured which is their typical
diagnostic symptome (vivid red realgar, yellow orpiment, hayunite, dark red cynnabar). Tarnish
involved by tin film of secondary oxidation products on the surface of some natural sulfurs
(bornite, covellite, chalcopyrite, sometimes antimonite, etc.) is their diagnostic symptom.
A lot of natural sulfirs feature cleavage in several directions (galenite, sphalerite, etc.),
with cleavage along one plane is typical of lamellar structure sulfides (molybdenite, orpiment).
Hardness of natural sulfides varies from one for molybdenite to 66.5 for marcasite and pyrite.
Density varies from medium (Pb, Hg sulfides) to high (Pt sulfides).
The majority of sulfides are semoconductors or those possessing metallic conductivity
(sulfides with metalmetal; clusters in the structure). Some natural sulfurs feature magnetization
(clinopyrrhotite), ductility (chalcocite, acanthite). The main bulk of natural sulfurs are
hydrothermall generated, sulfides of magmatic and metamorphic genesis are also known, some
of them result from exogenic processes. Natural sulfurs often form large clusters (pyrite and
polymetallic deposits), and they are also typical of scarns where they are as a rule products of
126
later hydrothermal stages. Pyrite, sphalerite, galenite, chalcopyrite and some other natural sulfurs
are typical of hydrothermal sediments (the Cheleken Peninsula), active volcanism regions
(Kamchatka, etc.), they may emerge on the Earth’s surface as well under reducing conditions
(for instance, in H2Scontaminated basins, sedimentary rocks coals, phosphorite concretions,
etc.), in cementation (secondary sulfide enrichment) zone of ore deposits. Minute teardrop
sulfide phenocrysts in lavas of several volcanoes of the Klyuchevka group, Kunashir and
Paramushir Islands, as well as differenyiated teardrop chalcopyritepyrrhotitepentlandite
formations in basic rocks (for instance, at the Norilsk coppernickel deposits).
Sulfide semiconductors (except cynnabar) are easily oxidized under surface conditions
with transition to sulfates (often easysoluble), and are replaced by oxides, carbonates,
sometimes elementary substancs (nugget copper, silver and other metals), silicates
(hemimorphite by virtue of s[halerite), halogenides (halogenides of silver, lead, mercury and
other metals).
Sulfide ores include compounds of heavy metals with sulfur (sulfides). Selenious,
tellurious, arsenous and antimonious compounds of metals as well as pyrite deposit ores are also
attributed to them. Sulfide pores are the basic source of nickel, copper, zinc, lead, mplybdenum,
bismuth, antimony and mercury. Depending on the ratio of sulfides and other minerals, thre are
identified massive ores, with the domination of sulfides, and veinlet or impregnated, with the
domination of nonsulfide minerals. Sulfide ores can be simple or monometallic, and complex or
polymetallic. Polymetallic sulfide ores which comprise sulfides of copper, zinc and lead, as well
as complex ores of nickel and cobalt, antimony and mercuryare particularly abundant. Platinum,
gold, silver, cadmium, indium, selenium and tellurium as impurities are available in many sulfide
ores. The overwhelming majority of sukfide ore deposits is attributed to andogenic deposits, with
the domination of hydrothermal ones. Most oftem they form veins; besides, seams, lenses, stocks
and pipelike beds are available among them. Such sulfide ore bodies extend in length and depth
by hundreds of metres and even kilometres; their ore reserves amount to hundreds of millions
and even billions of tonnes, with metal reserves of up to tens or hundreds of thousands and even
several millions of tonnes (with the metal content in the ore from tenth parts till several tens of
per cent).
Natural oxides are chemical compounds of different elements with oxygen. Oxides of Si,
Fe, Mn, Al and Cu and U to a lesser extent are the most abundant. The majority of then are
inonic bond compounds but minerals of silica feature a covalent bond, just like those of As, SE,
Te and chalcophile elements (Cu, Pb, Zn, Sn, Hg, Cd, In, Bi, Sb). The oxide class inclides
hydroxides and oxyhydrates containing O 2 and OH ).
Simple natiral oxides comprise minerals containing only one crystallochemical type of
cations, i.e., compounds of RO, R2O3, RO2type, among them isomorphic mixrures with the
typical formulae as follows, for example, with isovalent isomorphism: Mg 2+ Fe 2 , Mn 2+
Fe 2 , Al 3+ Fe 3 , etc.).
The most widespread minerals are quartz, corundum, hematite, rutile, cassiterite,
pyrolusite, uraninite, baddeleyite.
The most comple xare minerals with two or more crystallochemical types of cations, the
typical formulae are ABO3, AB2O4, AB2O6, AB1B2O6, etc., for instance, spinel, chrysoberyl,
titanotantaloniobates, wolframite, etc. The most widespread are magnetite, chromespinellids,
spinel, ilmenite, wolframite, columbitetantalite, pyrochloremicrolite, perovskite, loparite. Iso
and heterovalent isomorphism is often manidested in oxides.isomorphic series are known among
titanotantaloniobates.
The complex oxide series is characterized by substantial deviations of composition from
stoichiometry which are connected with phenomena of ionic exchange and isomorphic
introduction of highcharge ions (for example, U 4+ , Th 4+ , TR 3+ instead of Ca 2+ , end so on),
adsortion of impurities and transtition to metamict state.
Crystalline structures of the majority of natural oxides are constrcuted based on the
concept of filling of voids in the densest packing of O 2+ anions by cations. Here the densest
127
packing in simple natural oxides of highcharge cations (Ti 4+ , Zr 4+ ) is very distorted. Even
greater distortions are observed in complex natural oxides, for instance, titanates and
titanotantaloniobates, which show a large variety of structural variants: chain, sublamellar and
other, up to the loosest ones, shell variants (perovskite, pyrochlore). In general the density of
natural oxides is lower than that of sulfides while the hardness is higher.
Titanotantaloniobates are distributed in pegmatites, carbonatites, raremetal granites.
Natural oxides are usually stable to oxidation processes and often accumulated in placers
(magnetite, ilmenite, rutile, cassiterite, columbite, loparite, etc.) or weathering crusts
(pyrochlore, columbite). On the contrary, individual natural oxides are formed in a narrow range
of conditions, and therefore they are typomorphic of certain geological environments (for
example, baddeleyite of carbonatites, chrysoberyl of scarngreisen deposits).
The large practical value of natural oxides is predetermied by the fact that the most
important ore minerals, like cassiterite, ilmenite, rutile, loparite, pyrochlore, microlite, tantalite,
columbite, wolframite, baddeleyite, etc. are attributed to them.
The most abundant of saltforming minerals are carnonates, salts of carbonic acid
(H2CO3). More than 120 carbonates are known in nature. The follwing salts are distinguished:
bicarbonates acidic salts, hydrocarbonates basic salts, waterfree and water normal carbonates,
complex carbonates (?) containing additional anions of F , Cl , [SO4] 2 or [PO4] 3 . Uranile
carbonates occupy a particular position among carbonates. The leading cations in carbonates are
Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Na + , Fe 2+ , carbonates od Bar, Sr, Mn, Pb, Zn, Cu are more seldom encountered.
Cations of Na + , K + , and (NH4) + more often form bicarbonates or bisalts (?). A resies of
carbonates and fluorocarbinates with (UO2), Ce 3+ , La 3+ .
Continuous isomorphism is manifested by Fe 2+ Mn 2+ and Mg 2+ Fe 2+ . The carbonate
structure is mainly island with flat isolated triangular radicals.
Carbonates are typical vein minerals of medium and lowtemperature hydrothermal
deposits (leadzinc, grey ore, arsenide, etc.). Vein bodies with rareearth fluorocarnobates
(bastnesite, cynchisite) in association with barite, flurite, hematite of hydrothermal origin.
Carbonates of Pb, Zn, Cu, (UO2), more seldom Co, Ni are typical minerals of oxidation
zones of ore deposits.
Wolframates, salts of tungsten acid (H2WO4), are of large value. A complex tetrahedron
radical, [WO4] 2 , stable in compounds with large cations, scheelite (CaWO4 ) and stolcite
(PbWO4), is typical of them. Wolframates are crystallized in tetragonal syngony, island
structures, isometric or tabular crystals.
The representatives of monocline wolframates are woframite, (Fe, Mn)WO4, and
sanmartinite, (Zn,Fe)WO4. Isomorphic replacements of WO 2 4 with MoO 2 4 (up to 20 % MoO3
may be in scheelite) which lead to lower density of Mocontaining phases , as well as isomotphic
Fe 2+ Mn 2+ Zn 2+ replacements inherent of wolframite and sanmartinite which affect density are
typical. Wolframite are formed during hydtothermal and scarn processes. Scheelite and
wolframite are essential minerals of tungsten ores.
Molybdates are salts of molybdenum acid, RMoO4, where R is mostly Ca, Fe, Cu, Pb, Bi,
U 4+ (UO2) 2+ . Impurities of W, As, Sb, Sb, P, etc. are sometimes available.
An isomorphic replcament of molybdenum with tungsten is typical. It means that a part
of molybdates is crystallized in tetragonal (powellite, CaMoO4, and wulfenite, PbMoO4),
rhombic [ferrimolybdite, Fe2(MoO4)3∙ 7H2O, koechlinite, Bi2(MoO4)O2, sedovite, U 4+ (MoO4)2,
etc.] and monoclinic syngony [lindgrenite, Cu3(MoO4)2(OH)2, etc.]. Many uranyl molybdates are
crystallized in rhombic and monoclinic syngony: umohoite, (UO2)[MoO4]∙ 24H2O, iriginite,
(UO2)[HMoO4]∙ 3H2O, calcurmolite, Ca(UO 2 2)3[MoO4]3(OH)2∙ 7H2O, natrurmolite Na2(UO2)5∙
[MoO4]5(OH)2∙ 8H2O, etc. Besides molybdates proper, a number of minerals which are arsenic
molybdenum and phosphorusmolybdenum compounds is attributed to molybdates. Molybdates
are typical minerals of oxidation zones of polymetallic molybdenum and uranium deposits.
Powellite is the most widespread secondary mineral of molybdenite deposits. Ferrimolybdite is
typical of these deposits only with higher content of ryrite or pyrrhotite in ore. They both have
128
no independent value though, if their accumulations are substantial, they can be used jointly with
molybdenite as ore to produce molybdenum. Wulfenite is formed in oxidation zone of lead
deposits which ores contain impregnation of molybdenite (polymetallic deposits of Central
Kazakhstan), in some cases it is of industrial value (for example, for example, the Mammoth
Mine deposit, Arizona, USA).
Silicates are salts of silicic, iso and heteropolysilicic acids. Silicates account for for up to
75 per cent of the Earth’s crust and about 25 percent of mineral types. More than seven hundreds
of silicates, including rockforming minerals (feldspars, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, are
known in nature, etc.).
The crystalline structure of silicates is based on tetrahedron radicals, [SiO4] 4 or
polymetic radicals, in which bridging O atoms bond two Si atoms of adjacent SiO2tetrahedrons
(in isopolysilicic radicals) or T atoma (T: Si, Al, B, Be, Fe 3+ , etc.) in TO4 terrahedrons (in
heteropolysilicic tadicals). Depending on T atom, the latter acquired the name pf alumo, boro,
beryllo, ferri and other silicates.
The role of cations is played by Na, Mg, Al, Fe, K, Ca, Mn. The are the most abundant
elements in the crust, containing up to 99 per cent of the crust’s volume tpgther with O and Si.
Ti, Zn, TR are also usual elements. Slicates of V, Ni, Nb, Th, U, Sr, Cs, Ba. A particular position
is occupied chalcophile elements: Cu, Zn, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, and Bi.
4.2.2. Properties of Minerals
Table 4.1 shows compositions, genesis, paragenesis of main minerals of nonferrous ores
as well as the CIS deposits in which these minerals play a substantial role. Some large world
deposits associated with these minerals are also indicated for orientation.
Table 4.1. The main industrial minerals of nonferrous metals [11, 16, 58, 78]
Chuquicamata;
Zambia
Cu, sulfide Cu 63.063.9; Hydrothermal, Chalcopyrite; Ural: Volkovo,
Bornite Fe 11.210.8; Cuporphyric, pyrite; galenite; Levikha;
Cu5FeS4 S 26.325.2; Cu molybdenite; Ag; Caucasia: Urup;
Ge; Re; Se; Te sandstones; Cusulfides; Armenia:
secondary titanomagnetite; Alaverdy,
enrichment etc. Kafan;
zone Azerbaijan:
Kedabek
Kazakhstan:
Uzpenskoe,
Dzhezkazgan;
Chile; Mexico;
USA: Pioneer;
Yugoslavia:
Bor; Namibia:
Tsumeb; etc.
Czechia;
Morocco.
As, arsenide As 43.046.9; Hydrothermal sulfide of Cu, Ural: Kochkar,
Arsenopyrite Fe 27.335.6; (high and Pb, Zn, Ni, Co, Dzhetygara;
FeAsS S 17.121.3; medium Mo; gold; silver; Siberia:
Co<12.0; Sb; temperature), cassiterite; Darasun,
Bi<4.1; Cu; pegmatite, scheelite; Zapokrovsk;
Pb; Au; Ag scarn wolframite, etc. Norilsk,
Talnakh; Kola:
Monchetundra,
Pechenga;
Tuva;
Uzbekistan:
UchImchak;
Azerbaijan:
Dashkesan;
Primorye:
Dalnegorsk;
Canada: Cobalt;
Sweden
As, arsenide As 60.970.0; Hydrothermal Sulfide of Cu, Georgia:
Realgar, S 30.039.0; (low Pb, Zn, Ni, Co, Lukhumy;
As4S4; Sb<3.0; Cu; temperature) Mo; gold; silver; Kyrgyzstan:
Auripigment, Ag; Hg; Zn; antimonite; Khaidarkan;
As2S3 Pb; Ge; Se. marcasite Ore Altai:
Kamyshino,
Novo
Solotushino;
Kamchatka;
Turkey; Chile;
USA; Greece;
Italy ;Czechia;
Japan; Rumania
Pb, sulfide Pb 86.6; S 13.4; Hydrothermal Sphalerite; Ore Altai:
Galenite Ag; Sb; Bi; Se; (medium and pyrite; Ridder,
PbS Te; Tl; Cd; Mn low pyrrhotite; Zyryanovo;
temperature); sulfides of Cu, Ural: Berezovo;
scarn, veins; Ag, Fe, Zn; Uzbekistan:
metasomatic barite; quartz; AltynTopkan;
bodies calcite Kansay;
Kurgashinkan;
Primorye:
Verkhnee;
N.Caucasia:
Sadon;
Transbaikalia:
Nerchinsk;
Yenisei:
Gorevsky;
Kazakhstan:
Mirgalimsay,
Zhairem,
132
Achisay;
Canada:
Sullivan; USA;
Mexico;Chile;
Australia:
Broken Hill,
McArthur.
Zn, Cd,sulfide Zn>67.1;Fe<3 Hydrothermal Galenite, pyrite, See galenite
Sphalerite, 0; Mn<5; (medium and pyrrhotite;
(Wurtzite, In<0.1; low sulfides of Cu,
Marcasite, Cd 0.5I; temperature); Ag, Fe, Zn;
Claiofane, Ge<0.3; scarn, veins; barite; quartz;
Bruncite) Ga<0.1 metasomatic calcite;
ZnS bodies. coal
Grinokite Exogenic:
CdS sedimentary
Cd 77.8 rocks; coal
deposits
Pb, Sb, sulfide Pb 4058; Hydrothermal Galenite, Transbaikalia:
Boulangerite Sb 2332; (medium and sphalerite; Algacha,
Pb5Sb4S11 Cu<3.5; Zn<6; low pyrite, Klichka,
Jamesonite As; Ag; Bi; temperature); pyrrhotite; grey Zerentuy;
Pb4FeSb6S14 Fe; Mn; S 19 veins ores; Pochechuy;
22. arsenopyrite; Spasskoe;
carbonates Uzbekistan:
TerekSay,
Gurdara;
Armenia:
Azatek;
Rumania: Baja
Sprie;
Yugoslavia:
Trepcha, Bor
Pb, carbonate Pb 77.5; Exogenic: Galenite, Kazakhstan:
Cerussite SrO<3.2; zone of anglesite, Achisay,
PbCO3 CaO; ZnO<4.5; oxidation malachite,asurite Zmeinogorsk;
Fe , Turlandsk;
smitsonite, Transbaikalia:
wulfenite, Kadainskoe;
pyromorphite, Nerchinsk;
etc. USA: Aidaho.
Zn, carbonate Zn 52; Exogenic: Cerussite, Kazakhstan:
Smitsonite CuO<3.5; Fe; zone of malachite,asurite Achisay;
ZnCO3 Mn; oxidation , Transbaikalia:
MgO<7.6; limonite, opal, Kadainskoe;
CoO<10; calcite Nerchinsk;
CdO<2.7; In Primorye:
Dalnegorsk;
USA:Ledwill;
etc.
Sb, sulfide Sb 71.471.8; Hydrothermal Cinnabar, pyrite; Kyrgyzstan:
Antimonite As; Pb; Ag; Au; (low fluorite, calcite; Kadamdzhay;
133
scheelite, N.Caucasia;
wolframite, etc. Tyrnyauz;
Armenia:
Kadzharan;
Kazakhstan:
Eastern
Kounradsky,
Karaoba;
Uzbekistan:
Almalyk;
Mongolia:
Erdrnet;
USA: Climax;
China;
Morocco;
Burma
W, Mo, WO3 80.6; Hydrothermal Pyrite, Transbaikalia:
tungstate, Mo 812; (high and chalcopyrite; Davenda,
molybdate Mn<0.8; medium sulfide of Cu, Dzhida;
Scheelite TR<0.5; Cr, temperature); Fe, Bi,As; Krasnoyarsk
CaWO4 Cu; pegmatic quartz, Krai: Sorskoe;
Powellite veins, scarn; cassiterite, N.Caucasia;
CaMoO4 MoO3 72.0; Exogenic: wolframite Tyrnyauz,
W<7; TR zone of Lermontov;
oxidation Primorye:
Vostok 2;
Armenia:
Kadzharan;
Kazakhstan:
Eastern
Kounradsky,
Verkhnee
Kairakty;
Bogut;
Akchatau;
Tajikistan:
Charukh
Dairon,
Manchar;
Mongolia:
Erdrnet;
USA; Korea;
Australia;
Austria;
Bolivia; etc.
W, Sc, Nb, Ta, WO3 76.5 hydrothermal molybdenite, Transbaikalia:
tungstate Mn 17.623.4; (high, low cassiterite, Dzhida,
Wolframite Mg<0.5; Sn; temperature); beryl; columbite, Bukukan,
(Fe,Mn)WO4 ; Nb; Ta; Sc; Ti; pegmatitic scheelite, Sherlovaya
Ferberite TR; veins, scarn; gematite, quartz, Gora; Kolyma;
FeWO4 ; sedimentary fluorite Uzbekistan:
Hubnerite rock Kalmakyr;
135
MnWO4 Kazakhstan:
Akchatau,
Karaoba;
Georgia;
Zopkhito,
Racha;
China;
Burma;Bolivia;
Japan;Mongolia
Portugal
Mo, Pb, PbO 60.7; Exogenic: Hydroxides of Kazakhstan:
molybdate MoO3 39.3; zone of Fe, Cu, Pb, Zn; Sulemansay
Wulfenite W, Cr, V, Ca, oxidation calcite; etc. Tajikistan:
PbMoO4 Cu, Mg Charukh
Dairon;
Yugoslavia:
Trepcha;
Sn, oxide Sn 78.8; hydrothermal Wolframite, Kolyma;
Cassiterite Nb, Ta, W, Fe, (low lepidolite; Chukotka;
SnO2 Zn, Mn temperature); vismutin; Yakutia;
pegmatitic columbite, Primorye:
veins, scarn; scheelite; Khrustalnoe,
sedimentary molybdenite, Dalnee;
rock chalkopyrite etc. Khabarovsk:
Solnechnoe,
Perevalny;
Transbaikalia:
Ononsk;
Khapcharanga,
Etyka;
Tajikistan:
Maikhura;
Bolivia;
Thailand;
Burma;
Indonesia; etc.
Sn, sulfide Sn 27.6; Cu Hydrothermal Cassiterite, Eastern
Stannite 29.6; (low sphalerite, Transbaikalia:
Cu2FeSnS4 Zn; Ag temperature) chalopyrite, Etyka, Belukha,
pyrrhotite, etc. Bukukan;
Primorye:
Sinyukha
Bolivia: Sjero
Riko, Ljaljgua
Ti, Nb, Ta, Ti 60.0; Fe<11; Magmatic; Cyanite, quartz, Ural: Sysert;
oxide Nb; Ta; Sn; V; metamorphic; pyrophyllite, Kutim,
Rutile, Cr hydrothermal; albite, sphene, Kazakhstan:
Anatase, apatite, fluorite SemizBugu;
Brookite Norway;
TiO2 Madagascar;
Alps.
USA: Nelson,
136
Colorado;
Australia
Ti, oxide Ti 31.6; Fe.8; Magmatic Feldspar, Ural: Ilmen
Ilmenite Mn; Nb; Cr36; (pegmatite) nepheline; Mountains;
FeTiO3 Mg; V sphene, biotite, Vishnevaya
kimberlites; Gora; Kola:
carbonatites Khibini;
Ukraine:
Samotkannoe;
Canada;
Australia; India;
Sierra Leone
Ti, Nb, Ta, TR, TiO2 58.9; Magmatic albite, sphene, Ural: Shishim,
oxide Nb2O5<26; (pegmatite); apatite, fluorite, Nazyam; Kola:
Perovskite TR2O3<8; contact garnet, pyroxene, Lovosero,
CaTiO3 Ta; Th; Fe; metasomatic, vesuvianite, Vuoriyarvi;
Loparite Mg; Sr; Zr;V scarn chlorite Transbaikalia:
(Ca,Na,Ce). Tazeran;
(Ti,Nb)2O6 Burpaly;
Sikhote Alin;
Tuva:
Kogeredaba,
Dugdu;
Ti, Nb, Ta, TR, TiO2 40,8; Magmatic Nepheline, Kola: Khibini,
oxide TR2O3 <12; (pegmatite); garnet, apatite, Lovosero;
Sphene Nb2O3 <7; contact fluorite, ilmenite, Baikal:
(titanite) SnO2<10; metasomatic, aegirine, zircon, Slyudyanka;
Ca(TiO)[SiO4] Fe2O3<8; scarn magnetite Ural: Ilmen,
Al2O3<6; pyrochlore, Vishnevaya
MnO<4; ZrO2; biotite, diopside, Gora;
F; Cl; Sr; Mg andesite France:
Bressan;
Austria: Alps;
Brazil.
Zr, oxide ZrO2 96.598.9; Magmatic Zircon, Kola: Kovdor
Baddeleyite HfO2 <3.0; (carbonatite) magnetite,
ZrO2 Fe2O3<1 nepheline,garnet,
apatite, fluorite,
ilmenite,
aegirine,
turmaline,
corundum,
perovskite,
pyrochlore
Zr, oxide ZrO2 67.0; Hf; Magmatic Ilmenite, rutile, Ukraine:
Zircon A; To; A; OR; (pegmatite); pyrochlore, Samotkannoe;
ZrSiO4 A; Be; A; Or; hydrothermal aegirine, albite, Ural: Ilmen,
A; No; A; A. biotite, sphene, Vishnevaya
apatite, fluorite, Gora; Kola:
ortite, thorite Khibini,
Lovosero;
Kazakhstan:
137
Altai;Tuva,
Yakutia,
Nothern
Kyrgyzstan:
Norway;
Australia; Sri
Lanka; Chile;
Namibia:
Karibaba;
Kampuchea:
Mogouka;
Be, silicate Be 512; Pegmatite Feldspar; quartz; Ural;
Beryl SiO2 5570; Ca, veins; muscovite, Transbaikalia;
Be3Al2(Si6O18) Al, Fe, Mn, Na, High tourmaline, Kazakhstan;
Phenacite Ce, Y, Li, Rb, temperature albite, topaz, Akchatau;
Be2(SiO4) Sc hydrothermal wolframite, Kentau;
Bertrandite cassiterite, Ukraine;
Be4(Si2O7) molybdenite USA: Nevada,
(OH)2 S.Dakota;
Helvite Colorado; RSA;
Mn4(BeSiO4)3S Madagascar;
Afghanistan:
Columbia;
Brazil: Minas
Gerais; France:
Frimont;
China
TR, Y, Th, TR2O3 <21; Magmatic, Monazite, Ural: Ilmen
silicate ThO2 <2.8; pegmatite zircon, Montains;
Orthite U3O8<0,01; magnetite, Vishnevaya
Ce2Fe2AlO Y2O3 < 12; apatite, ilmenite, Gora; Baikal:
(OH)[SiO2] rutile, Slyudyanka;
[Si2O7] pyrochlore, Kola: Lovosero;
aegirine, albite, Ukraine:
biotite, sphene, Saltychya
fluorite, thorite Mogila; Tuva:
Ersin;
Primorye:Maly
Khingan;
Uzbekistan:
KaraTyube;
Kyrgyzstan:
BasyGya;
Armenia:
Kadzharan;
Brazil:Pokos
doSaldos;
USA;Germany;
India
TR, Th , TR 5068; Pegmatite, Orthite, zircon, Kola; Ural;
phosphate Th 49; pneumatholite magnetite, Kyrgyzstan;
Monazite U 0.2519.6; apatite, ilmenite, India:
138
Shoria; Baikal,
Ukraine: Krivoi
Rog,
Azerbaijan
Dashkesan;
Kazakhstan
Kochkar,
Kurzhunkul;
etc.
Al, Ga, oxides Al2O3 6598; Exogenic, Oxides and N. and S.Ural:
and hydroxides Fe, Cr, Ti, Mg, weathering hydroxides of Krasnaya
Bauxite: Ga Fe, Shapochka,
Gibbsite corundum, Kosoy Brod,
Al(OH)3 ; alunite, etc. St.
Diaspore kaolineite, Petersburg:
AlOOH ; calcite, Tikhvin;
Boehmite pyrolusite Siberia;
AlO(OH) Jamaica,
Guiana, Guinea,
Australia, USA,
Surinam, India,
Cuba
Al, Ga Al2O3 < 34.6; Magmatic: Apatite, aegirine, Kola: Khibini;
alumosilicate Na2O < 17; syenite, feldspar, biotite, Lovosero;
Nepheline K2O < 11; pegmatite ilmenite, sphene, Ural:Ilmen,
KNa3[SiAlO4]4 Fe, Ca, Mg, Ti, zircon, albite, Vishnevaya
Ga, Li, Rb, Cs quartz,zeolite Gora; Kusnetsk
Alatau:
Belogorsk;
Canada;
Al , Ga, Al2O3 37; Hydrothermal Oxides and Kamchatka;
Sulphate, K2O 11.4; volcanic hydroxides of Ural;
Alunite Sr < 5.9; Fe, Azerbaijan:
KAl3[SOэ4]2 TR2O3 < 1.7; corundum, Zaglik;
(OH)6 P, Ga, alunite, Ukraine,
kaolineite, Uzbekistan;
calcite, China:Taichow;
pyrolusite Italy; USA;
Al, ceramics, Al2O3 39.5; Exogenic, Feldspars, Ural; St.
alumosilicate Fe, Mg, Ca, Ba, weathering quartz, Petersburg:
Kaolineite Na, K muscovite, Troitsko
Al4[Si4O10] corundum, coal. Bainovsk;
(OH)8 East.Siberia;
Caucasia;
Ukraine:
Chasov Yar;
Glukhovo;
Uzbekistan;
Angren
4.3. Mechanical Properties of Minerals. Ore Preparation
Mechanical properties of minerals are variable not only within different specimens of one
and the same mineral but also within each specimen. This is connected with anisotropy of
crystals which properties are varying along difernet crystallographic directions. Here not only
deformation, hardness, ductility values differ but, for instance, crystal may behave as ductile
along one direction and fragile along the other direction. Mechanical properties of minerals
become manifested when mechanical actions are applied to them by external forces during
compression, stretching or impact. This involves changes in mineral form and continuity.
Deformatioons distinguished are as follows: elastic, embrittlement and plastic.
4.3.1. Deformation of Crystals
142
Tensile and compression crystal deformation behaviour is illustrated in Fig.4.4. Stress
s characterizes value of internal forces P per unit of area S of the specimen under tension: s =
P/S, kg/cm 2 . Relation elongation (or compression): d (e) = (Dl)/l.
At initial tenstion stages crystal stresses grow approximately in proportion to
deformation, therfore the curve in the OA section is shown as a straight length. Deformation
within this section is reversible, being completely removed at disloading, that is why it is maned
elastic. Maximum stress up to which value crystal retains elastic properties is named elastic
limit, ss. Loads above the elastic limit cause residual crystal strains, here the crystal is rapidly
stretched, decreasing the s-d curve tilt with respect to the axis d (the AB section). Some crystals
in this curve length show a horizontal plateau (Fig.4.4a) named “yield plateau”. It exhibits a
moment when the crystal elongation grows whithout load increase, i.e., crystal begins “to flow”.
Stress corresponding to it is named “yield strength, sT. Transition to yield plateau sometimes
starts from a sharp peak or “yield drop” (Fig.4.4b). In this case upper (sT1 ) and lower (sT2) yiled
limits. Residual deformation, sres, retained on removal of external load is called plastic (the BC
length). Further load increase and stress growth lead to rupture and crystal fracture. The largest
stress which was induced in crystal during the test time and led to specimen rupture shows
tensile strength, sB. Under these circumstances it also corresponds to maximum external load.
The area formed by the tension curve and the axis d accounts for the energy consumed in crystal
rupture.
If a crystal diagram shows plastic dfeormation region, the crystal is called plastic. If a
crystal reaches the fracture point without any large preelongation and the tensile strainstress
diagram is broken off just after the elastic limit, the crystal is called brittle. Brittleness is the
ability of minerals to crumble as a result of intantaneous application of external forces, be broken
without noticeable plastic deformations (no more than 5 per cent of fracture deformation value).
The majority of rocks are predisposed to such fracture and is therfore attributed to fragile
materials.[79,80].
Brittleness is governed by mineral composition, structuretexture characteristics and
external fracture conditions: temperature, rate of force application, load type (tensile,
compression, shift).
Powder which is easily blown off remains on the scratch edges for a brittle mineral, for
example, grey ore. An evenedged bright groove is left on the surface of chalcosite, nugget
metals which change the shape and are flattened on impact, i.e., they feature ductility.
Elasticity is inherent of minerals which initial dimensions and shapes are restored after
external load s are removed. For instance, micas show high elasticity. Elasticity is connected
with strength and type of interatomic bonds. As temperature increases elasticity falls. If elstic
limit is exceeded, brittle or plastic deformations emerge.
Deformation rate produces a substantial effect on deformation behaviour. Higher
deformation rate promotes brittle fracture.
A scale factor is of great importance: very fine crystals feature much higher strength as
compared with coarse crystals of the same mineral.[11,79,80]
The phenomenological theory of elasticity studies crystal to be an anisotropic
homogenous body which elastic properties do not depend on a position of the point under
examination inside the body and depnd on the totality of constants which are functions of
thermodynamic parameters. A change in the state of the crystal under elastic stress are dictated
by deformation tenzor components in the vicinity of a randomlyselected crystal point. It
depends on forces affecting the body element and constitutional features of the crystal. A
parametric description of elasticity and stressed state of crystals owing to anisotropy and
unstability of characteristics is fairly sophisticated. The classic Voigt’s theory connecting
components of stress and deformation tenzors in the form of the Hooke’s law (s = ce) for
anisotropic crystals required a recording of the forth order tenzor which is defined by the matrix
of cefficients with a dimesion of 9 x 9. Bearing in mind that each mineral must be additionally
143
characterized by statistical distribution of these parameters with adequate sampling, it is unlikely
to suppose practical applicaton of mathematical models of deformation theories.
Besides elastic reversible alterations subject to the Hooke’s law, reversible deformations
of different nature are not seldom observed in real crystals. They are subordinate to the Hooke’s
law. These reversible alterations are sometimes called incomplete elasticity which features
backward slip during stress changing or, conversely, forward slip. According to Claisen
Neklyudova, it is presumed that incomplete elasticity id caused by motion of atoms (ions) in
crystal which is predetrmined by combination of various elementary diffusion processes during
smoothing of temperature flictuatios, microscopic and macroscopic atom diffusion brought about
by nonuniform distribution of foreign atoms, diffusion resulted from stressinduced anisotropic
distribution of atoms. diffusion asscoiated with ordering of crystal structure, magnrtic diffusion,
etc.
Plastic deformation leads to substantial changes in properties of crystalline materials,
however at the heaviest strain crystalline state and crystalline structure type are preserved,
plasticallydeformed crystal is in the state of metastable equilibrium. IN crystals slip planes are
crystallographically moldedin and deformation nature depends mucn not on the direction of the
force applied but on the position of slip planes and slip direction.
Slip planes are usually planes with the largest number of atoms and greatest interplane
distance, they are commonly crystal planes with high symmetry degree. Slop takes place along
the direction with the least interatomic distance since in this case the distortion in the atomic
arrangement is minimum. Displacement of crystalline layers may take place both in this
directiona and in the opposite one (corresponding to tension or compression of crystals).
Macroscopically, plastic deformation of slip goes on by means of displacement of thin
crystalline layers along the slip elements (Fig.4.5). Value of displacement in translatiob slip may
be different depending on deformation degree but obligatorily nfold of the lattice parameter.
Therefore in ideal translation slip the displaced crystalline layers do not leave the position of full
mutual correspondence, and the crystalline lattice is not distirted. Protrusions as steps (slip
striation) appear on the surface of the deformed specimen.[79,80].
I.V.Obreimov and A.V.Shubnikov showed the formation of incomplete (blind shears in
crystals and based on these experimental data I.V.Obreimov put forward a hypothesis of
dislocations emerged in deformed crystals.
The edge dislocation corresonds to that atom arrangement in the crystal volume when one
atomic plane is torn off or an extra atomic OM plane called an extraplane is introduced (Fig.4.6).
Therefore row 1 above the shear plane has one atom more than the underlying row 2. The
heaviest distortiona are concentrated in the direct vicinity od dislocation centre 0. Distortions
become the lower the greater is the distance from the centre, and at a distance of several atomic
diameters they are so small that crystals have an almost complete structure. The region of
maximum distortions near the dislocation centre is called the dislocation nucleus, and the region
far off the nucleus centre where deformations are so small that the theory of elasticity may be
applied to then is called the elastci region. Id a supplementary plane is introduced into the upper
part of the lattice, as in Fig.4.6. the dislocation is considered to be positive, if it is introduced into
the lower part, it is considered negative. Unit dislocation is understood to be dislocation which
parameter b is equal to the lattice constant, when this dislocation passes the crysral section its
parts are displaced at the value b.
Screw dislocations are formed by the border between the displaced and nondisplaced
plane parts in case if this border is parallel to shear vector. In the region of this border atoms of
the upper plane are displaced with repsect to atoms of the lower plane the more the far they are
from the border which is the dislocation axis. The travel from one atom to the other within the
screw dislocation region takes place in ascrew line (Fig.4.7), the right and left screw dislocation
are distinguished respective to the screw direction. The screw pitch may be from one to several
interatomic per one turn.
144
Duslocations are not table structural defects, they can travel, migrate within the crystal
volume. Multiplification of dislocations is possible when stresses exceed the yield point of the
naterial though dislocation may move at lower stresses. In so diing, yield point cprresponds to
that stress at which the potential barrier of plastci deformation is overcome.
Anchored dislocation emerge when crystal stresses are distributed nonuniformly during
deformation. This is promoted by defects on the crystal surface (scratches, cracks, notches),
crystal mosaic development, nonuniform distribution of impurities in the crystal or
nonunoformity of external stress field.
Plastic deformation of crystals owing to mechanical twinning goes on in the same way if
the development of translation slip is hindered by the unfavourable orientation of slip planes
with respect to the force applied or if structural peculiarities of the crystal and deforming
conditions favour twinning. During twinning individual crystal areas are reoriented as a result of
dislacement of particles so that crystal lattice inside twin becomes a mirror reflection of the
lattice of the crystal part nondeformed.
At certain perculiarities of stresses stae twin interlayers may appear not only in one plane
but also in several systems of intersecting planes. A rhomboid channel (Rise channel) which can
penetrate the whole crystal is formed in the point where twin interlayers are met, for example, in
calcite. A dense grid of such very thin channels may lead to gerater crystal volume.[79,80].
4.3.2. Destruction of Crystals
If stresses in a solid body reach (in value) tensile strength, brittle fracture takes place.
Direction of breaking load applied and peculiariities of crystal structure are responsible for brittle
fracture of crystals, so that crystal fracture goes on in fixed crystallographic directions. Fracture
surface shape is also dependent on position of crystallographic planes. Brittle fracture of crystals
according to the system of smooth fixed crystallographic planes which orientation is dictated by
directions of weakened force of bond between elementary particles of crystalline structure is
called cleavage.[79,80].
Cleavage is manifested as crystal ability ro be split along certain crystallographic planes
with formation of bright surfaces. Cleavage may be exhibited in one, two, three, four and six
crystallographic directions. Mica crystals can be split by cleavage to very thin leafs: cleavage in
one direction to pinacoid (001). The rhombohedron calcite crystal is easily split in three direction
(to rhombohendron) while cleavage planes are not formed in other directions.
Anosotropy is connected with cleavage planes which are parallel to directions of grids of
spatial structure of crystal lattice withthe largest interplane distances. Th cleavage scale is of
qualitative nature:
1) very perfect cleavage: crystal is split to veruy thin plates with mirror surface (mica),
2) perfect cleavage: crystal is split in certain directions in any place, forming smooth.
sometimes stepped surfaces (calcite, galenite),
3) medium cleavage: during splitting both even cleaved and uneven surfaces (feldspars,
hornblende),
4) imperfect cleavage: even cleaved surfaces are scarce, incorrect cleavage surface is
formed during splitting (beryl, apatite),
5) very imperfect cleavage: crystals have uneven surfaces in splitting (quartz, cassiterite).
Crystal cleavage may be identical or equal in perection degree in different directions.
Minerals without cleavage or with imperfect cleavage are split by uneven fracture surfaces. In
character of these surfaces fracture in minerals can be uneven (nugget sulfur, apatite, cassiterite),
stepped (feldspars), splintery (actinolite, tremolite), shelllike (quartz, chalcedony, opal), hackly
(nugget elements: gold, copper, platinum) and of other types.
Parting is the ability of minerals to be split with even surfaces formed on cleavages in
directions coinciding with twinning planes, with epitaxial concretions, with oriented inclusions
of solid solution disintegration products, with nonunoformities and inclusions in growth zones,
145
etc. For example, parting in pinacoid (001) which is connected with very thin inclusions of
muscovit is typical of corundum.[42,61].
4.3.3. Hardness of Minerals
Hardness of minerals is taken to be resistance to mechanical fracture under the effect of a
stronger body. There are several techniques of hardness measurement. The Mohs’ scale is
aacknowledged in mineralogical practice.
Table 4.2. gives the scale of mineral hardness and fragility. The scale, besides evaluation
of crushing and grinding processes, permits an analysis of possible selective crushing, grinding
or attrition. Downstream sorting in size affords concentrate to be produced.[11].
Hardness accounts for firmness of chemical bonds among atoms and depens on chemical
bond type. Low or moderate hardness (halite) is inherent of minerals with an ionic type of
chemical bond while minerals with a purely chemical bond are very hard (diamond). Minerals
with a mixed type of chemical bond ususally have lower hardness and those with hydrogen and
Van der Waals binds have low hardness. According to this many lamellar, water and molecular
crystals feature low hardness. Modrately high hardness is inherent of minerals with densest
packing or shell structure. Comparison of minerals similar in structural aspect and analogous in
chemical aspect shows that hardness grows as cation or anion charge increases.
Hardness of minerals varies together with composition in isomorphic series; it is
especially significant if here ionicity covalence of chemical bons, valence of ions, their
dimensions and, consequently, packing density and coordination are changed.
Study of mechanical parameter composition relationships make it possible not only to
apply mechanical tests for approximate evaluation of content of these or those elements in
mineral but also to judge of tightness of interionic bonds and type of introduction of isomorphic
impurity into crystal lattice points. An effect of isomorphic impurities on hardness of minerals is
exemplified in Fig.4.9.[79].
A noticeable effect on microhardnes of crystals is produced by spot defects: vacancies,
interstitial atoms and microimpurities, dislocations and perfection rate (blocking) of crystal
individs. It is wellknown that theoretical strength of crystals is much higher than real one. Only
dislocationfree whisker crystals have strength commensurate with calculated one. Anisotropy of
hardness is inherent of minerals, especially in heterodesmic minerals of chain or lamellar
structure (Table 4.2).
Table 2. Classification of minerals by hardness and fragility [11].
Hardness (Mohc) Minerals
Brittle Nonbrittle Ductile and
elastic
109 Diamond Corundum
8.0 Topaz Spinel, almandine,
pyrope
7.5 Beryl, phenacite,
tourmaline
7 Quartz, sillimanite, Spessartine,
andradite, spodumene andalusite,
staurolite, zircon,
zunyite
6.5 Bertrandite, diaspore, Grossular, zoisite,
uraninite, hematite baddeleyite,
(specular), distene, uranophane,
iridosmine, sysertskite, vesuvianite,
146
pyrite, columbite, epidote,
tantalite, cassiterite, piedmontite, rutile
olivine, braunite,
humite
6 Gudmundite, prehnite, Leucoxene,
chromites, markasite, feldspars, polycrase,
magnetite, orthite euxenite
5.5 Actinolite, anatase, Glaucophane, Arsenopyrite,
clinohumite, diopside, ilmenite, loparite, aeschynite
anthophyllite, bravoite, brookite, helvite,
breithauptite, augite, aegirine,
willemite, wolframite, rhodonite,
hausmanite, bustamite,
gersdorffite, cobaltite, hornblende,
coffinite, monasite, perovskite
nepheline, pyrolusite,
microlite, monticellite,
sphene, samarskite,
datolite, melilite,
goethite, niccolite
5 Apatite, glaucodot,
limonite
4.5 Hemimorphite Brannerite, thorite Platinum
(calamine),
wollastonite, hematite
(red iron ore, kasolite,
scheelite, xenotime,
margarite, parisite
4 Pyrrhotite, manganite, Algodonite, stannite Iron
rhodochrosite,
tennantite, tetrahedrite,
fluorite
3.5 Azurite, alabandite, Boltwoodite,
alunite, allemontite, dyscrasite,
dlomite, cuprite, powellite
malachite, pentlandite,
siderite, nugget arsenic,
pyromorphite,
spalerite, chalcopyrite,
cerussite, domeykite,
millerite, mimetesite,
barite, bismuthite,
witherite, adamite,
andorite, greenockite
3 Nuggent antimony, Cubanite Chalcocite
metacynnabarite,
aktaite, anhydrite,
bornite, vanadinite,
wulfenite, calcite,
serpentine, chrysocolla,
celestite, enargite,
thenardite, jarosite
147
4.3.4.Ore preparation
The objective of this stage is preparation of raw materials for downstream dressing
(maximum opening of valuable minerals with regard to possible application of these or those
dressing methods). Along with this, ore preparation is aimed at selection of maximum amount of
overburden at minimum rate of grinding by any simple and cheap method. [3,16,83].This stage is
necessitated by that a substantial proportion of rock does not contain valuable minerals during
mining of deposits, particularly, by highcapacity techniques (openpit working, bulk caving
system, placer mining). It is understood that dump tailings of the first dressing stage must
contain mo more valuable component than plant tailings without such preliminary dressing.
However more highgrade tailings of the first stage may be economically justified since high
concentration rate at this stage not only makes overall processing much less expensive but also
affords higher recovery at downstream stages.
At this stage mostly spectroscopic and gravitational dressing processes are applied. They
are heavymedia separation, jigging, sluice separation, sometimes magnetic separation, collective
flotation of sulfides, amd lately bacterial leaching.
Downstream grinding is a preparatory operation closely connected with concentration
technology.
On the one hand, possible losses of valuable components with slime in regrinding, and,
on the other hand, dimensions of impregnated valuable minerals must be taken into account. In
addition to grinding, the preparatory stage may include magnetizing, sulfatizing or other roasting
and conditioning of sluudge prior to flotation (aeration, reagent treatment).
Size of particles attributed to slime depends on dressing technique and mineral type: 31
mm in heavymedia separation, 0.50.1 mm in jigging, 0.10.05 mm table concentration, 0.10.05
mm in magnetic separation, 0.02 mm in flotation.[11].
This stage affords maximum dressability of raw materials (Fig.4.1)..
Production ineral partciles implies selection of straight differences to individual fractions
of preset size range. For this the following operations are applied:
148
disintegration (crushing and grinding). Methods of improving disintegration are aimed
at splitting of ore lumps preferentially along intercrydtalline faces. Tis is achieved using ballfree
milling: pebble and autogenous, jet milling; Snider process, electrohydraulic effect, high
frequency current, heating, roasting and decrepitation;
size classification. Hydraulic cyclons are of the greatest value out of numerous
classifying machines. Process improvement implies more correct selection of fractions and
higher production rate due to imposition of different frequency vibrations up to ultrasonic and
application of dispersers (liquid glasss);
selective aggregating of fine particles by techniques of flocculation with chemical
agnets, magnetic or electric flooculation (on air bubbles).
Preparatory operations are for the most part responsible for process parameters in
dressing, to be more exact, opening of minerals and size of particles produced as a result of
grinding. Regrinding, higher yiled of fine fractions, hampers many dressing operations, can be
reduced using a lot grinding machines in which fragmentation of particles takes plce preferred by
borders between mineral grains (interganularly). Ball mills of routine application meet these
requirements to the least extent, and, besides, have low power effcicency. It is more promising
to use autogenous mills, blast fragmentizing, vibromilling, grinding with counterflow jet material
motion and with pressure drop, HF and ultrasonic grinding, etc. The above is grounded, in
particular, on that in some cases ore and orepebble crushing permits, besides savings on
consumption of grinding bodies, better process parameters of dressing due to more selective
grinding, and in other cases it affords adequate opening of ore grains with coarser grinding than
in ball mills. Autogenous and orepebble grinding are applied at tin, copper, zinclead, gold
extracting anf other plants. Full autogenous grinding of 300500 mm ore essentially reduces
prime cost of ore processing owing to elemination of grinding operations.
Autogenous milling is the process of reducing size of materials in milling machines
without special machines (balls, bars, etc.). There are several types of autogenous grinding.
Primary ore milling is grinding in ball mills with longer material motion path due to highlifter
lining with 250350 mm entry size, sometimes 500600 mm whiout crushing. Semiautogenous
grinding is primary autogeneous grinding with loading of 312 per cent of the mill drum capacity
by large steel balls for offset of shortage of large ore lumps in entry material and for prevention
of critical size fractions to be formed in the mill, i.e., too coarse to be fragmentized by large or
lumps and too small for being grinding bodies. Primary autogenous grinding (ore and semi
autogeneous) combines operations of medium fine grinding and milling, providing simpler ore
preparation flowsheets, lower investments, high labour productivity, reduced consumption of
grinding bodies, netter selectivity of opening and, in most cases, higher recivery of valuable
components. The disadvantage of primary autogenous grinding is 1.21.3 time higher, as
compared to conventional ore preparation, specific power consumption. Primary autogenous
grinding is performed in closed and open circuits with downstream ball or orepebble milling,
sometimes at one stage to final fraction.
Orepebble grinding is grinding in traditional drum mills where ore pebbles (lumps of
certain size are gringing bodies. Orepebble autogenous grinding provides reduced specific
consumption of balls and power, netter dressing parameters but causes lower production rate of
mills and aupplementary operations for selection and metering of ore pebble. It is more efficient
to apply orepebble aurogenos grinding at fine milling because in this case the difference in
production rate between ball and orepebble grinding becomes minimum. Ore pebble grinding is
used at the second and third stages and at regrinding of concentrates. Dry autogenous grinding
in dum mills found no wide application in mining industry because of the necessity to dry wet
ores and is applied extremely seldom at grinding of building materials.
Full ore autogenous grinding (grinsing without grinding steel bodies along the whole ore
preparation flowsheet) in sme cases allows specific energy consumption reduced to the level of
conventional ore preparation (crushing and ball grinding) in processing of viscoue clay ores.
149
In the CIS autogenous grinding is widely applied in processing of diamond and gold
containing, iron. tingstenmolybdenum. ratemetal, polymetallic ores, chemical raw and other
materials.
It is necessary to indicate the development of radically innovative disintegration
techniques which provide intergranular splitting of mineral aggregates, large uniformity of
granulometric composition of ground products, greater efficiency and productivity of machines.
[83].
Alongside cascade mills, Aerofall and other autogenous mills are more and more widely
used. Jet grinding is effective when fine milling is required. Here, besides air, water steam, CO2,
etc. can be applied as a working madium. A jet grinding variant is the Snider process based on
rapid rarefaction of steam or compessed working liquid under pressure together with material to
be gorund. In opposition to widelyused grinding processes when disintergration results from
compression, impact or sttrition, rarefaction leads to particle breaking, preferred intergranular.
Works goes on in electrohydraulic, electrothermal and vibrating grinding.[11].
Sometimes ore preparation includes techniques of preliminary separation ofmaximum
quantity of waste rock atminimum rate of grinding by any simple and chep technique. This stage
is necessitated because a large amount of rock dose not contain valuable components in mining
of deposits by especially highproductive techniques (openpit operations, bulk caving system,
placer mining). It is understood that wset tailings of of the first dressing stage must cotain mo
more valuanle component than plant tailings without such preliminary dressing. However more
highgrade tailings of the first stage can be economically justified since high concentration rate
at this stage not only subdtantially reduces processing as a whole but also affords higher recover
at downstream stages...
Heavymedia dressing is widelyused in processing of coal, phosphorites and iron ore,
and in dressing of lean materials (ores of nonfrrous, rare and nobme metals, diamonds, etc.).
At present annually heavymedia separartyion is used in processing of more than 1 bln
tonnes of runofmine minerals. Operation of existing plants shows that main advantages of this
thechnique are the efficient processing of initial materials from 25 to 360 mm in size with high
production rate (up to 6001000 tph) with dump products containing aslight amount of
compmemts as well as possible separation of raw materials to products at slight differnece in
density. Besides, this dressing technique shows low investments and operating costs
predetermined by low consumption of power, water, thcikenerand small operating personnel; the
operation can be easily sautomated.
Granulated ferrosilicon, magnetite ore its mixture with ferroslicon, more seldom barite,
pyrite, sand, etc., are applied as weighing compounds. High sensitivity to separation density
make it possible to reduce substantially losses of valuable components with dump tailings as
compared to jigging.
One stateoftheart trend in mining industry is a flowline cycle applied in openpit
mining of deposits in combination with ore preparation and preliminary dressing. In this case
coarse crushing id performed directly in open pits while radiometric sorting is used on conveyers
delivering ore from the open pit to,the plant.
4.4. Physical Properties of Minerals. Primary Concentration
Not only individual physical properties pf minerals but also their combination as well as
size of particles are essential in processing of mineral products. Certain physical properties can
be made use of in dressing of mineral mixture only in a limited range of fraction size. It must be
taken into account that many physical properties of minerals can be changed by chemical
methods, for example, roasting. Physical properties of minerals can be identified and measured
only as a result of applying extrenal forces (?).
4.4.1. Mechanical properties
150
Hardness and fragility of minerals, besides processes of crushing and grinding, aalows
analysis of selective crushing, grinding or attrition. Downstream classification iz zine is a
dressing operation.
Selection in friction and shape is based on using differemces in sppeds of motion of
particles under separation along the tilted plane. At a preset angle of tilt it is a function of particle
suface state, shape, moisture, density, fraction size, properties of the surface along which partcles
move and nature of motion (rolling or slip).Mineral particle shape is mainly responsible for
fraction factor value.[16,80].
Particles can move under the effect of gravity (when movig along tilted planes), a
centrifugal force, (when moving along the horizontal plane of a rotating disc), and as a result of a
combined action of gravity, centrifugal force and friction force (screw separators).
Friction factor grows wth partcile size diminishes. Therefore narrow classification in size
is required for efficient separation. Commonly attrition dressing is applied on maetrials of 100
+10 (12) mm in size. For example, mica lumps of platelike form move along the tilted plane
more slowly than the rock lumps and, penetrating the slot, fall onto the next plane where they are
recleaned.
In complex plane system separation of waste rock isassisted by a differemce in elastic
ratios since difference in paths of movement of waste rock lumps, mica aggregates and lumps
increases as a result of impacts onto the baffle surface.
A screw separator is a double tilted surface twirled around the fixed axis by a helical line
in form of a doublethreaded screw. Particles of diffferent friction factormove at various
distances with respect to rotation axis. Particles of great friction factor have small radius of
trough movement path, while those of lower friction factor have large radius according to which
their separation takes place.
The slip friction factors of heavy minerals (wolframite, cassiterite, magnetite) are higher
than the fraction factors of quartz, according to which separration of particles on a dry screw
separator must take place also by density.[16].
In practice these methodshave already lost their value as ores with large nuggets of non
ferrous metal minerals are exhausted. They can be used at placer deposits as preliminary
concentrting operations in dressing of ores containing wolframite, cassiterite, garmets, zircon,
magnetire, gold, pyrite, arsenopyrite, mica, fine abrasive powders and asbestos.
Dressing in elasticity is gorunded on the difference in paths alon which mineral particles
of different elasticity are thrown off at collision with the surface. This process is applied in
dressing of building materials (road metal and gravel for manufacture of highgrade concrete),
asbestos. It is carried out in special drum separators and in inclined steel plate separators.
4.4.2. Spectroscopic and Radiospectroscopic Properties of Minerals
Up to laely the diagnostic symptoms of minerals have been colour, lustre, abdorption,
reflection and radiation in ultraviolet and infrared adjoining visible spectral regionsIn dressing of
minerals resources hand sorting was first applied which later on with exhaustion of deposits
containing coarse crystals lost its value.However in last years when sorting machines appeared
these properties agian attracted attention of dressing engineers.
These methods are of little application in derssing of nonferrous metal ores because of
fine impregnation of extracted minerals.Sorting is effective at lump size from several
centimetres. Therefore preliminary ore concentrating by spectroscopic techniques is applied only
at the stage of ore preparation.[81,82].
This is necessitated if ore of “all or nothing” deposits is processed. For example, metal
containing ore veins are mined together with embedding rocks and beined minerals (for instance,
quartz with gold) is empoverished by surrounding rock. Separation of sulfides from silicate
minerals which usually integrow together can be performed in a similar way.
151
First sorting machines were basedon account of natural raioactivity of minerals and were
applied for dressing of uranium ores. Later on sorting plants using induced radioactivity appear.
Not only g and b but also neutron rays were employed, for example, for beryllium ores.
Nowadays it is possible in pronciple to sort for ray radiation or absorption in any sprectrum part.
However expediency of a particular technique depends on radiation source chosen, possibility of
automatic recording of radtion and resolution.
Radiationmaterial interaction is characterized by the atomic or nuclear section d defined
as probability of interaction of radiation quantums with the number N of irradiated centres.
Physical processes characterized by fairly high section of interaction with chemical elements can
be applied for radiometric dressing. No gammaquantums of high energy (above 2030 MeV),
multicharge particles and ions, fast neutrons (above 1015 MeV in energy).
Methods of radiometric dressing of nonradiactive mineral resources were ckassified by
V.AMokrousov and V.A.Lileyev (Table 4.3).[81].
Table 4.3. Classification of methods of radiometric dressing of mineral resources
Group 4. Xray radiation. Wavelength: 5∙ 10 2 10 mm
Excitation of Intensity of Xray (c) Xray Applicationm field:
intrinsic Xray fluorescence fluorescent similar to
fluorescent group1(b)
radiation
Excitation of Optical flux of X (b) Xray Mineral resources
luminiscence in ray luminiscence luminiscent containing minerals
visible spectrum glowing in Xrays,
part, ultraviolet or diamonbearing,
infrared fluorite, zircon,
celestite,
spodumene,
scheelite and other
ores.
Scattering on Intensity of back (c) Xrayreflective Application field:
153
emission of components differ
infrered radiation in specific heat
capacity, e.g.,
asbestos ores
Group 8. Differentwave radiation. Wavelength: 10 5 10 14 mm
Absorption and Alteration of (a) Induction Mineral resources
redistribution of electromagnetic radioresonance which separable
radiofrequency field energy components differ
filed in elctric
conductivity, r)
(sulfide ores of
nonferrous and
rare metals):
copperpyrite,
mlybdenum
copper, copper
nickel, leadzinc,
tin, tungsten, gold
arsenic ore, etc.,
coal, shales,
graphite
Polarization of Alteration of (b) Capacitance Mineral resorces
dielectrics and electromagnetic radioresonance which separable
generation of field energy components differ
displacement in capacitivity (m):
current magnesite, bauxite,
sulfur, muscovite
and biotote
containing, tin,
tungsten and other
ores
Absorption and Intensity of (c) Radioabsorptive Mineral resources
reflection of radioradiation after which separable
radiowaves passage through components differ
dressed lumps in specific
conductivity, r:
sulfide ores of non
ferrous and rae
metals, coal and
shales
Magnetizing by Alteration of (d) Magnetometric Mineral resources
external magnetic intensity and which separable
field, absorption of energy of magnetic components differ
magnetic field field in magnetic
energy permeability: iron
and nonferrous
metals ores
Differences in mineral properties during irradiation or weakening of radirions are applied
in radiometric mineral dressing. Depensing on this, the followng radiometric methods are
155
distiguished: (1) emission, based on determination of intensity of mineral irradiation, and (2)
absorption, based on determination of rate of weakening of penetrating radiation of minerals.
Natural radioactivity.
Radioactivity is transformation of instable chemical element isotopes into isopoes of other
elements with irradiation of elementary particles. Natural radioactivity is attributed to minerals
which composition contains radiationinstable isotopes of uranium, radium, radon, potassium,
strontium, etc.
Moderate and low radioactivity is caused by small admixture of U, Th isotopes as well
as other radioactive isotopes contained, for example, I pyrochlore, samarskite, aeschynite,
monazite. Low radioactivity of sylvyte, microcline, muscovite and other potassium minerals is
predetermined by constant admixture of radioactive potassium isotope ( 40 K).
Natural or induced radioactivity grounded on different capacity of minerals to absorb or
reflect radioactive g, b or neutron radiation is applied in ore drssing by radiation techniques.
The correspondence between valuable component contained in ore and radiation intensity
may be violated when another, in addition to the main one, naturall radioactive chemical element
(uranium togther with a considerable portion of thorium) is available in ore, or if there is
radioactive equilibrium between the main radioactive element and products of its decay.
Radiometric separation is the main technique of uranium ore dressing due to high
selectivity.
Interaction with Xray and gamma-radiation.
Xray and gammaradiation are electromagnetic waves interacting with electrons and atomic
nucleii of material. the interaction may result in photonuclar reaction, photoeffect, Compton
effect, electronpositive pairs. These processes are probable depending on radiation energy.
Photonuclear reaction of (g, n), (g, p), (g, d) types, i.e., reactions when neutrons, protons
or alphaparticles are formed (nuclear photoeffect), run under the effect of high energy
irradiation. Protons and alphaparticles have large mass and charge, low penetrating capacity and
virtually do not penetrate the bulk of the material irradiated. Therfore only a neutronemitting
reaction is of interest to radiometric dressing.
The prerequisite for photonuclear reaction is that the gammaquantum energy Eg is more
than the neutron parting energy E n, i.e., E g > En. The full number of neutrons formed depends on
the source activity I, photonuclear reaction section dn.r., the distance r from the source, the full
coefficient m of gammaradiation weakening, and the chemical element content C entering the
reaction.
Each chemical element shows a certain threshold of (g, n)reaction and effective section,
dp.r.. The minimum threshold of photoneutron reactions is inherent of beryllium (1.67 MeV) amd
deuterium (2.23 MeV), and the maximum threshold is typical of carbon (18.7 MeV) and gallium
(20.6 MeV). Threshold energy is within the range of 616 MeV is for the most part of the other
chemical elements.
Photoneutron method of dressing is grounded on differences in intensity of neutron
radiation emitted in orradiation on ore with gammarays. This process is applied for dressing of
beryllium ores because beryllium nucleii can emit neutrons in radiation by gammarays of
relatively low energy.
The photoneutron method can be also applied for manganese, copperzinc, coppernickel,
iron, molybdenum, tin, tungsten and other ores.
The dominating type of interaction in the field of low gammaquantum energy
(approximately 0.010.5 MeV) is photoeffect, Tompson scattering is also observed. Compton
scattering is predominant in the region of intermediate energy (0.33 MeV), while the effect of
forming pairs dominates, beginning from 1.022 MeV level corresponding to the threshold of
forming electronpositron pairs.
Photoeffect is the process of interaction of gammaquantum with fixed electron at which
the total gammaquantum energy transmits to the electron. Here the electron is ejected outside
the atom with the energy Ee= Eg - li, where li is the potential of atom shell ionization.
156
The space on the electron shell which becomes empty as a result of photoeffect is filled
with electrons from other atomic levels which is accompanied by emittig typical roentgene
radiation of fluorescence. The photoeffect section dp is a function of atomic number of the
material and gammaradiation energy Eg.
The Compton scattering section dg of gammaquantums on electrons is a function of
energy of only gammaquantums proper. A inear coefficient of gammaradiation weakening
depends on the density r, the atomic number Z, the atomic mass A and gammaquantum energy
E g.
Ores and rocks may noticeably differ in value of gammaradiation weakening which is
used for radiometric dressing.
A gammaabsorption method dressing is grounded ondifferences in mineral capacity to
absorb Xray or gradiation penetrating them. The relative value of gammaradiation absorption
is subject to the exponential law: I/Io= e m , where I and Io is the intensity of gammaradition
before and after passage though the material, m is the linear coeeficient of absorption.
The m value is a function of energy of primary gammaradiation quantums as well as
atomic number and atomic weight of material under radiation. It is equal to the sum of linear
coefficients of absorption intrinsic to each of three types of interaction of gammaquantums with
the material.
Sources of gammaradiation with energy within the range from 0.020.03 to 0.150.20
MeV should be applied for gammaabsorption separation of minerals of different types.
The mass absorption coefficients mr are much higher for chemical elements with large
atomic number (Z>25) which creates prerequizites for gammaabsorption technique to be applied
for dressing of iron, chrome, tin, barium, antimony, caesium, leadzinc and other ores. In some
cases a gammaabsorption technique can be applied if components to be separated, slightly
differing in atomic number, are substantially different in density. This can be exemplified by
separation of coal amd shales, selection of diamonds out of embedding rocks.
Photoeffect leads to ionization atom, removal of electrons located on certain energy
levels (K, L, M, N, etc.) in a normal state. Here atom turns out to be in an energized state and
goes to another level with lower energy. Redundant energy is carryied away by photons;
secondary radiation formed in this way is called typical roentgene radiation of fluorescence.
A radiometric dressing method based on differences in intensity of tyoical secondary
fluorescent radiation is named gammafluorescent. When the gammafluorescent dressing is
implemented, of the main value are energies of Kedges of absorption and energy of main limes
of roentgene fluorescent spectrum. Since he photon energy of typical radiation of Ksereies is 7
8 times higher than that of photons of Lseries, this radion is expedient to be applied as
separation symptom. The gammafluorescent process can be applied for elements with Z> 2025
in derssing of manganese, coppernickel, niobium, molybdenum, tin, leadzinc, caesium, tingsten
and other ores.
If energy is low (up to 0.1 MeV0 scattering (or reflection) of gammaradiation can be
applied for radiometric dressing. The property of elements to disperse incipient gammaradiation
is quantitatively manifested by mass coefficients of coherent and incoherent scattering. The
gammareflecting process may be applied in dressing of ores containing heavy elemenst, for
example, iron, leadzinc, chrome, mercury. The phenomena of weakening primary roentgene
flux, secondary roentgene radiation of fluorescence, scattering may ne used in the corresponding
way.[81].
Interaction with b and neutron radiation.
Betaradiation is flux of electrons.When it passes the material, ionization deceleration and
scattering are observed. During ionization deceleration the electron energy is spent on energizing
and ionization of atoms of the medium which the electron passes. This process is accompanied
by intrinsic roentgene radiation of fluorescence. The fluorescent radiation spectrum is dictated
only by atomic properties of the medium under radiation, just like in case of exciting gamma
rays.
157
The radiometric dressing method is grounded on differences of ore and rocks in intensity
of secondary intrinsic fluorescent radiation excited by betarays. Betafluorescent dressing
features less dependence on variations of mineral material compositon than in case of gamma
rays. Betafluorescent dressing can be applied for ores containing heavy elements with the
atomic number Z>35, for instance, molybdenum, tin, tingsten, lead, etc.
Radiometric dressing method based on differences and intensity of backreflected beta
rays can be used for dressing of ores containing heavy elements.
Neutrons are subdivided in several groups in energy: thermal (up to 0.025 eV), slow (0.1
10 3 eV), intermediate (10 3 10 5 eV), and fast (above 5∙ 10 5 eV0. Wave properties being of vital
importance at low energy are respnsible for interaction of neutrons with nuclei.
On collision of a neutron with a nucleus the former is trapped or scattered. If is in
trapped, a composite nucleus is formed which turns out to be in an excited state owing to the
neutron bond energy released during the trapping. Transtition of nuclei from excited to lower
energy state may take place by means of decay with emission of any particles or gamma
quantums, or both. One variant of decay of the excited composite nucleus imples emission of
alphaparticles, i.e., (n, a)reaction. This reaction is observed on a small numner of light nuclei
in case of slow neutrons ahile it is of little probability in case of fast neutrons because of
competition of other processes. In case of slow and thermal neutrons (n, a)reaction runs on
nuclei of 10 B ans 6 Li. The (n, a)-reaction section is 754 and 70.4 barns for the natural mixture of
boron and lithium, respectively.The section of this reaction is threesix orders lower for other
chemical elements. During the decay of the exited nucleus (n, r)- reaction occurs, but it exhibits
a low section comparable to the section of (n, a)reaction on a majority of elemenst, besides
boron and lithium.
During neutron trapping of the widest proliferation is (n, g)-reaction, with emission of
gammarays, called radiarion trapping. In case of neutrons with an energy from 0.1 to 10 eV the
rdaiation trapping section is the largest for slow and especially thermal neutrons. There is also an
increase in the section of (n, g)reaction during transition from light to heavy elements. Intensity
and energy of gammarays of (n, g)reaction are properties individual for each element which can
be used for radiometric trapping. As to the majority of nuclei, radiation trapping leads to instable
(radioactive) isoptopes formed. These isotopes eject gammaquantums, electrons or positrons.
Intensity of induced radioactivity depends on section of activation and content of chemical
element in the mineral mass under irradiation.
Another procss of interaction with nuclei, elastic scattering occurring on nuclei of any
element, is of noticeable importance for thermal and slow neutrons. Here a neutron is deviated
from the primary directions, and a part if its kinetic energy is transferred to the nucleus. Elastic
scattering is the most probable process in interaction of slow neutrons with light nuclei and
mediummass nuclei. Scattring section is small on heavy nuclei as compared to neutron trapping
section.
A radiometric dressing method based on differences in weakening of neutron flux by
separated mineral components is called neutronabsorption. A symprom of separation in neutron
absorption dressing is the flux density of neutrons which passed through the dressed mineral
matter. The netronabsorption method can be applied to ores containing chemical elements with
large section of neutron trapping, for example, to boron, lithium ores as well as to ores
containing cadmium and rareearth elements. The neutronactivation method is expedient to be
applied, most probably, when the neutronvaluable component interaction section is no less than
barns which is necessary for reliable recording of secondary radiation. This requirement is met
by ores conatining chrome, iron, nickel, copper, silver, gold, rareearth elements. This is also fair
for the condirtions of appying the neutronradiation method.
Photometric properties.
Owing to action of electromagnetic filed of light wave on electrons their oscillations are
excited in the direction coinciding with the direction oscillation of electric vector of incipient
light wave. Dipole electric moments regularly alter during forced oscillations of charged
158
particles in molecules. Here secondary electromagnetic waves which length is equal to the
incipient light wavelength are radiated. Primary and secondary waves are mutually coherent and
can interfere. When the electromagnetic light wave falls on the nterface of two different media a
reflected wave propagating in the same medium as the primary wave and the refracted wave
propagating in the second medium ares formed as a result of the interference of the primary and
secondary waves. The ratio of the light fluxes of the reflected and incipient waves (the
coefficient) is an opticak paraeter of the material. The reflection of natural light is accompanied
by partial light polarization which results in the fact that some part of the reflected light gains
certain orientation of of electric and magnetic intensity vector.[81].
The photometric method of dressing is grounded on the difference in coefficients of
reflection of dissipated kight of minerals and rocks. Lumps or particles of ore to be processed are
ulluminated in the photometric chamber on the background speciallyselected in colour, and the
reflected light is collected by a sensor. The spectral composition of the incipient light has no
sunstabtial effect on the separation process. A certain spectrum range in which the greatest
difference in the reflected light is selected from the reflected beam using optical filters.
Photometric sorting is not virtually applied in dressing of nonferrous metal ores. It is of interest
for extraction of large diamonds. It is known that photometry is applied in automatic control of
flotation process where it is used to identify the foal layer loading in flotation cells and foam
product quality.
Luminiscent separation
This is the mineral selection process based on illumination capacity of minerals under the
effect of ultraviolet and roentgene rays. It is made use of in dressing of minerals luminiscent in
roentgene (diamondcontaining, scheelite, fluorite, zircon, apatite, spodumene and other ores) or
in ultraviolet rays (fluorite, scheelite and other ores).[15,16,42].
Luminiscent glow is characterized by excitability, colour, intensity and duration.
Luminiscence appears only in case of absorbing energy reuired for electron transitions from the
main state levels to the excited levels and further transition. Optimal value of exciting energy is
respensible for excitability of luminiscence. It amounts to several eV, relevant excitation bands
in luminiscence spectra are usually located in ultraviolet, more seldom in shortwave parts of the
visible region. Luminiscent glow of one minerals is excited only the shortwave part of
ultraviolet light which is typical of, for example, scheelite (Ca[WO]4). Other minerals, for
instance, ruby (Al, Cr)2O3, glow during irradiation with longwave ultraviolet light. many
minerals are excired in a wide range of wavelengths, for example, manganesecontaining calcite.
The number of roentgene and cathodeluminiscent minerals is much greater than those excited in
ultraviolet light. Some nonglowing minerals become glowing after sepcial treatment (Table
4.4).
The nature of luminiscent centres which are impurity or structural spot defects is
responsible for electron transition and luminiscent mineral properties asscoiated with Absorption
and radiation of exciting energy occur within the centres or with the transfer of energy among
cenrres.
Ions of transition metals, like Mn 2+ , Cr 3+ , and rare earths TR 2+ and TR 3+ . Luminiscence in
these centres is connected with electron transitions between d or flevels split by the crystalline
field. A wide band of orang or red luminiscence with a maximum of about 60 nm is coonected
with Mn 2+ centres in calcite as well as in wollastonite, anhydrite, apatite, spodumene, etc.
The Cr 3+ ion replacing aluminium is responsible for the red glow of ruby and spinel,
emerald, alexandrite, cyanite, etc. In fluorite the band of violet luminiscence with a maximum of
425 nm is associated with the Eu 2+ impurity while the yellowgreen band excited only at low
temperature is connected with the Yb 2+ impurity (lrad= 540 nm). The narrow luminiscent lines in
fluorite, apatite, monazite, zircon, scheelite and other minerals are involved by transitions on
TR 3+ ions.
Luminiscence stemming from electron transitions in tetrahedron anionic oxygen
complexes of transition elements is most of all instrinsic of calcium molybdates and
159
wolframates. The wide bands of blue luminiscence of scheelite (Ca[WO4] ans yellow one of
powellite (Ca[MoO4]) and molybdoscheelite Ca[(W, Mo)O4], are excited only in the distant
ultraviolet region.
Recombination luminiscence occurres at recombination of excited donoracceptor pairs
in some sulfides (sphalerite, cynnabar, realgar) and diamond. Blue sphalerite luminiscence is
connected with transitions in the associated centre: cationic vacancy (Vzn2+)” and impurity
(Ga 3+ ); yellow in the centre: ion (Cu + Zn)’ and anionic vacancy (VS2)”; red in the centre:
(CuSn2+)’ and (Ga 3+ Zn2+) or (in 3+ Zn2+)’. Rcombination luminiscence of cynnabar and realgar is also
connected with donoracceptor pairs of (VA)” (VK)” type. Luminiscence of diamond is
explained by recombination transitions in the associative centres of (N 5+ C4+)’ Al 3+ C4+)’ blue
glow lines, (N 5+ C4+)’ (VC4+)”” yellow glow lines, etc.[42].
Table 4.4. Luminiscence of minerals [17]
bright green
Thorite Light green
Phenakite Soft light blue
Zircon From light till bright Yellow, blue
yellow, orange, yellow
cocoa brown, white
Beryl Seldom bluishviolet Blue
Luminiscence separation is distinquished by exciting method and separation mode. As to
exciting method, there are roentgeneluminiscent and photoluminiscent separations, as to
separation mode, there are lumpy luminiscence method for lowcontrast ores and flow
luminiscence method for highcintrast ores at low content of the mineral to be separated.
Absorption or interference optical filters are used for improvement of selectivity and
sensitivity of mineral separation. Such optical filters provide maximum irradiation in a narrow
spectrun range qhich coincides with the luminiscence band of the mineral to be selected.
Luninscent separation is perfomed in roentgeneluminiscent and photoluminiscent
separators. The most widelyused are roentgeneluminiscent separators for dressing of diamond
containing ores.
Lminiscent separators consist of a feeder, an inclined trough, a detector (composed of a
roentgene tube, photoelectroc multiplyer, and radiometer) and a shutoff (as a solenoiddriven
rotating vane).They are equipped with an automatic control device. The material entering the
separator is fed with the help of the drum feeder onto the inclined trough. The monolayer moving
with acceleration along the trough crosses the band of collimated roentgene radiation. The
luminiscent flux is received by the multiplyer which transforms in into electric current. The
current amperage is proportional to the luminiscent flux, and if some threshold is exceeded the
rdaiometer switches the solenoid of of the shitoff selecting the luminscent mineral. Glowing
minerals and adjacent rock lumps enter the concentrate trough, and the waste rock containing no
glowing minerals is delivered to the tailings trough.
...
4.4.3. Density of Minerals. Gravity Concentration
? ? ? ? 3 pp.
[16,84]
Rounded 0.80.9
Angular 0.70.9
Tabular 0.60.7
Water, air, eavy liquids, suspensions, electrolyte melt placed into crossed electric and
magnetic fields are applied as gravitational separation media. They are characterized by flow
parameters (density, viscosity, shear resistance limit. stability, etc.).
The enlisted medium properties made use of in dressing machines affect the speed of
motion of particles to be separated and separation efficiency. Grains are segregated for one
distributing symptom by menas of hyadro and aerodynamic actions on the mineral mixture. The
distributing symptoms may be: (1) flow parameters of the separation medium, (2) flow
paameteres of the medium subject to electric and magnetic field actions, (3) grain motion speed
161
in the pulsating fluid flow, (4) grain motion velocity in the fluid stream flowing along the
inclined plane, (5) grain motion velocity in the vertical fluid flow.
The classification of gravity separation methods is given below
(1) Segregation in media: hydraulic, pneumatic, heavy, liquid, suspension, headralic &
pneulmatic, electrolytic (MHD separation)
(2) Grain segregation in the pulsating flow of the separating medium: hydraulic and
pneumatic jigging, vibrating trough separationm pneumatic separation, pulsator separation
(3) Grain segregation in the liwuid jet flowing along the inclined plane on troughs, in
sluices, in jet concentrtaors, on concentration tables, in screw separators
(4) Grain segregation in curvilinear seprating mium flow in hydrocyclones and
centrifuges
(5) Grain segregation in vertically ascending flows of separating medis: hydraulic and
pneumatic sorting
(6) Grain precipitaion in separating medis: thickening
(7) Washing
4.4.4. Mineral Magnetism and Magnetic Separation
Magnetic properties of minerals emerge and are manifested in a magnetic field. Only a
few minerals show magnetization adequate for attracting magnetic powders or iron filings while
the major part of minerals manifest magnetic properties only in a heavy magnetic field of high
intensity.
Magnetic induction genrated byathe magnetic field varies if a mineral is present. Its
variation is measured by magnetic permeability (mm) and magnetic susceptibility (c = mm 1 )
which dictates the relations of magnetizatio (M) and magnetic field intensity (H): M = cH or c =
M/H.
Susceptibility and magnetization depend on the number of unpaired electrons, with each
characterized by certain magnetic moment (spin), or Bohr magneton: mB = eh/4 mp, where e is
the charge, m is the electron mass, h is the Planck constant. Several types of minerals which
correspond to different magnetism kinds are distinguished during heating or cooling as a
function of magnetic susceptibility and magnetization of minerals and nature of variability of
these parameters in the magnetic filed of differnet intensity. [77].
Minerals are divided into dia, para, amd ferromagnetic by magnetic susceptibility and
character of dependence of magnetic properties on tensity of external magnetic field. Besides,
there are nonmagnetic, light and heavy magnetic minerals which specific magnetic susceptibility
is less than 10 5 , 10 5 6 ∙ 10 4 and more than 6 ∙ 10 4 cm 3 /g. The classification is arbitrary and
depends on the magnetic separation equipment level.
Diamagnetic minerals have a negative susceptibility, and magnetization, J=cH is
directed opposite to external field. A lot of salts, oxides, sulfides and other minerals without
paramagnetic ions are diamagnetic. The specific susceptibility of diamagnetic minerals is 10 7
10 6 cm 3 /g. Diamagnetism is the common property of all bodies but in many cases it it is
overlapped by para or ferromagnetism. As c is small, doamagnetic minerals fall into
nonmagnetic category during magnetic separation.[81].
Diamagnetic minerals are ejected out of the magnetic field. The highest diamagnetic
properties are manifested by native bismuth, graphite while native silver and gold, fluorite,
calcite, quartz, etc. show these prperties rto a lesser extent.
Paramagnetic minerals feature ions with unpaired electons (mainly, elements with
unfilled d and flevels) in composition and chaotic spin orientation. Therefore when there is no
magnetic field magnetic moments are alanced, and minerals show no magnetization. Minerals
are positively magnetized in the magnetic field owing to spin orientation and attracted in the
magnetic field direction.During heating of paramegnetic minerals magnetization and
susceptibility decrease because of spin disorderig. Magnetization incerases when magnetic field
162
intensity goes up. Moderately magnetic minerals (ilmenite, hematite, chromite, wolframite,
siderite, pyrolusite and ironcotaining silicates) belong to paramagnetics. Paramagnetic
minerals are weak magnetic, the specifc susceptibility is no more than 10 4 cm 3 /g. The main
contribution to paramegnetic magnetization is made by electron paramagnetism of ions with
unfilled internal shell which the paramagnetics are composed of (transition and rareearth
elements) as well as atoms, ions and free radicals with an odd number of electronds.
Paramagnetism of conuctivity electrons is essential for metals. In some cases, if there are no
paramegnetic ions, weak temperatureindendendent paramagnetism caused by polarization of
electron shells is exposed (for instance, rutile).[77].
Paramagnetic crysrals show anisotropy of magnetic properties which is predetermined by
crystal structure and state of electron shells of magnetophore ions.
Ferromagnetic minerals contain transition element ions with unpaired spins which
magnetic moments are oriented by the cryustalline filed within magnetic domains, they may be
imagined micromagnets from one micrometer to one millimeter in size. magnetic domain
miments with no magnetic field have different orientation, and therefore magnetization of, for
instance, oure native iron is not manifested. In the magnetic field domains, like spins in
paramagnetics, are oriented which causes domain disorientation in some minerals immediately,
after some time in other minerals and with remanence preserved in third minerals. Tjis is
connected with different mobility of magnetic domains in different minerals which pepends on
availability of dislocations, inclusions of other minerals, for example, products of decomposition
of solid solutions, zonality or mozaic structure of crystals and other heterogeneities. Stability of
remanence is expressed through energy necessary to be spent on demagnetization which is called
“ a coercive force”. Ferromagnetic minerals feature high positive value of magnetic suceptibility
greatly dependent on magnetic field intensity and temperature. Just like in paramagnetics there is
spin disordering during heating, magnetic domains are disoriented in ferromagnetics, and at
certain temperature (the Curie point) magnetic moments are completely offset and magnetization
disappears (ae ferromagnetic is turned into a paramagnetic).
Native iron, ferroplatinum, ironcontaining gold belong to very high magnetized
ferromagnetics.
Unique ferromagnetic properties are connected with the so called exchange interaction
between electrons which results in mutual orientation of elementary magmetic moments.
Antiferromagnetic minerals distinguished by that spins of neighbouring ferromagnetic
ions have an antiparallel orientation under the effect of crystal field. Partial disordering occurs
above a certain temperature level (the Neel point). It is accompnaide by an insignificant rise in
magnetic susceptibility. Antiferrpmagnetics comprise certain sulfides, pyrite (FeS2), chalcopyrite
(CuFeS2), troilite (FeS), oxide ilmenite (FeTiO3), as well as other minerals containing ions of
iron, manganese and a number of rareearth elements: tourmaline, monazite, orthite, sphene,
pyrochlore, and others.
Ferromagnetic minerals, just like antiferromagnetic ones, show an opposite orientation of
spins but feature an incomplete compensation of magnetic moments. Ferrimagnetic
magnetization is proportional to the number of redundant ions of transition elements with
unpaired spins. For instance, in magnetite (Fe 2+ Fe 3+ 2O 4) 8 Fe 2+ 3a6 ions (CN=6), 8 Fe 3+3a5 ions
(CN=6) and 8 Fe 3+3a5 ions (CN=4) fall on an elementary cell. Iron ion spins in octahedron and
tetrahedron coordinations have an opposite orientation but are completely compensated only
with Fe 3+ ions (antiferromagnetism). The Fe 2+ ions in the octahedron coodination have four
electrons on three lower alevels. Tw of these three electrons are antiparallel while on the upper
levels there are two unpaired electrons which is in line with a highspinal configuration.
In so doing, the magnetic moment of each of the 8 Fe 2+ ions is equal to the product of the
unpaired spins by th Bohr magneton. The magnetite magnetization M referred to the elementary
cell volume V and equal to the product of the N number of Fe 2+ ions by the magnetic moment of
each ion (nmB)n can be calculated by the formula
NnmB
163
M =
V
Ferrimagnetic and ferromagnetic minerals belong to highmagnetic minerals but are
distingquished by magnetization value which is mainlt connected with presence of nonmagnetic
cations and anions. Maximum magnetization is shown by magnetite easily attracting a magnetic
needle.
Titanomagnetite, pyrrhotite, jacobsite, maghemite, cubanite and otehr rare minerals are
less magnetic. Magnetic structure of domain is typical of them all but domain mobility is
extremely low. Hence ferrimagnetic minerals feature a high degree of residual magnetization
and expose magnetization wothout the magnetic field present. The orientation of magnetic
moments in these minerals coincides with the magnetic field direction at the time of formation.
The magnetic memory of minerals reestablishes directions of the paleomagnetic Earth’s
field and is widely applied for reconstructing the positions of the magnetic poles in various
feological epochs as well as the classification of sedimentary and igneous rocks by age. The
diagnostic significance of magnetic properties is restricted to the identification of only some
highmagnetic minerals, like ferro and ferrimagnetic substance which residual magnetization is
high.[42].
Impurities and inclusions make a considerable contribution to magnetic properties of
lowmagnetic properties. Transition metal or rare earth impurity ions introduced into the lattice
bring about paramagnetism inherebt of this mineral type. Inclusions of other minerals also lead
to magnetic susceptibility. Magnetizing power under the effect of magnetic field is dictated
mostly by the content of ferromagnetic mineralinclusions (mainly minerals of titanomagnetite
group). Magnetic susceptibility value is also influenced by shape and size of ferromagnetic
mineral grains and grain arrangement with respect to one another. When magnetic susceptibility
is meassuerd it may vary in the same rock depending on magnetic field value and magnetic
history of rock. Original magnetic susceptibility (in a weak magnetic field) is the most essential
for rocks. As in ferromagnetic minerals susceptibility has a substantial relationship with the
magnetizing field, differential magnetic susceptibility is introduced whioch shows the
dependence of magnetiziation on field intensity in each point of the magnetizing curve. During
magnetizing and denagnetizing of ferromagnetics reversible and irreversible phenomena in
magnetization may take place under the effect of magnetic field owing to which reversible or
irreversible susceptibility is distinguished. In practice susceptibility calculated per unit of volume
(volumetric magnetic susceptibility) or mass (specific magnetic susceptibility) of rocks is applied
in magnetic separation.
The highest values (up to 0.2) of magnetic susceptibility are shown by ferruginous
quartzites. In intrusive rocks where iron oxide content grows as basicity increases magnetic
susceptibility goes up from acidic differences towards basic ones (no more than 10 5 in granites
for the most part , and up to 10 2 in gabbro). Ultrabasic rocks show the widest range of
susceptibility variation: from low or very highmagnetic ones, with serpertinization leadin to a
sharp increase in susceptibility (up to 10 2 ). Magnetic susceptibility is as a rule not high in
metamorphic rocks (no more than 5 ∙ 10 6 . The lowest susceptibility values are inherent of
chemogenic sedimentary rocks (down to 3 ∙ 10 7 ).
Of interest to industrial practice is the opportunity of considerable change in magnetic
susceptibility of some low=magnetic minerals by meand of thermal treatment, for instance,
incrase in magnetic susceptibility of sphene, rutile and leucoxene owing to short reducing
roasting. [16].
The magnetic dressability scale is plotted in Fig.4.12 where the logarithm of specific
magnetic susceptibility is laid off as ordinate and high, medium, low and nonmagnetic minerals
are marked. Selection of minerals in separators take place mostly according to theses groups in
existing methods of magnetic separation. Sometimes lowmagnetic minerals can be separated
when the difference in magnetic susceptibility is essential.
164
Mostly magnetite and titanomagnetite ores as well as raremetal ores are dressed by dry
magnetic separation. Wet magnetic separation is applied for dressing of high and lowmagnetic
ores.
Polygradiant separators based on sludge filtration through the magnetic ball layer afford a
substantial increase in magnetic field intensity and gradient, surface area on which separation
occurs, fall of relative velocity of particle motion and, consequently, size of dressed material.
Magnetic separation
The process is grounded on differences in magnetic properties (magnetic susceptibility,
remanence, coercive force, etc.) of separable components in heterogenous permanent or variavle
magnetic fields.[85].
The seelection mechanism implies that mineral grains of higher magnetic susceptibility
are attracted to poles of magnetic system of separators and, using transport devices, are trasferred
to receiving devices for magnetic products while low or nonmagnetic grains are taken off by
the flow to reveiving devices for nonmagnetic products.
Magnetic separation performed mostly in heterogenous permanent magnetic fields is the
main technique of dressing iron (about 70 % in the world and 90 % in the CIS) and manganese
(over 90 % in the CIS) ores and as final operations after gravity dressing for nonferrous and rare
metals ores.
Depending on magnetic susceptibility of material, magnetic separation is subdivided into
low and highmagnetic, and into wet and dry magnetic separation, depensing on the medium in
which separation is performed. Themal treatment (magnetizing roasting) in oxidizing (siderite,
carbonate and other ores) or reducing (oxide ores) atmosphere.
Magnetic separators of different types (drum, roll, belt, disc, rotary, etc.) are applied,
depending on physicochemical properties and size of separable material. [85].
4.4.5. Electric Properties of Minerals and Electrostatic Separation
Electric properties of minerals are made use of in electrostatic separation and flotation
processes or influence the process running. Electric conductivity, dielectric permeability,
triboelectrification are the most essential properties for electrostatic separation. Properties
depending on electrochemical potential, forbidden zone width, impurity concentration and type.
This is manifested, particularly, in the effect of charge carrier concentration and sign (observed
in some cases) on adsortion of collectors and natural hydrophoby of semiconductor minerals to
which a great numebr of sulfides, oxides, etc. are attributed.
Electric conductivity is measuerd by electrical resistivity (r) or conductivity (c = 1/r).
Depending on conduction and electron structure type, all minerals are subdivided into
semiconductors with r = 10 6 10 2 Om∙m, semiconductors with r = 10 3 10 10 Om∙m, dielectrics
with r = 10 10 10 14 Om∙m. Conductor minerals mostly include native metals with metallic type
of chemical bond. The valent zone of conductors is occupird by electrons for a half and partially
overlapped by the zone of conductivity. The valent zone of dielectrics is fully occupied by
electrons. This zone is separated from the zone of conductivity by a wide zone of forbidden
states with energy of several eV. Semiconductors feature a relatively narrow zone of forbidden
states (usually less than 3 eV) and partial filling of the zone below the conductivity one by
electrons. If in the partially filled zone the number of electrons is not large, they belong to the n
type with electron conduction, if electons predominate in the zone, they are of the rtype with
hole conduction.
In semiconductors conduction especially depends on content of impurities and structural
defects and drastically increases with temperature rise. Intrinsic conduction of semiconductors is
connected with the transfer of a part of electrons from the valent zone to the conductivity zone
during heating with formation of an equal number of free electrons and holes. The impurity
conduction is predeterimed by ionization of isomophous impurities with redundant charges.
Redundant charges also appear in nonstoichiometric minerals. Ionic conduction running
165
according to vacancy mechanism is also possible in semiconductors and dielectrics at high
temperature.
Polarization and dielectric permeability of minerals are connected with displacement of
positive and negative charges to opposite sides under the effect of electrical field. Polarization
emerge in dielectric minerals and is not accounpanied by electron conduction. There are electron
(asymmetric displacement of electrons with respect to nuclei), ionic (displacement of ions of
different sign), orientation (iroentation of dipoles) polarizations. Dielectric permeability gives a
measure of polarization.Impurities and defects have vurtually no effect on dielectric properties.
Electrificaion of minerals, i.e., emergence of electrostatic charges of this or that sign on the
mineral surface, is connected with polarization. Attrcation of mineral particles takes place in case
of contact with the mineral surface of opposite charge. In the contrary, on contact, for instance,
with the grounded surface conducting minerals give off the negative charge and gain the positive
one which results in repulsion. These differences between dielectric and conductive minerals are
used in derssing by electrostatic separation.[42,86].
Electrostatic charges appear on the dielectric mineral surface as a result of thermal and
mechanical actions.
Conductivity of minerals is the basis of the scale of eletrical dressing techniques
(Fig.4.13). In individual types of one and the same mineral this value varies within a much larger
extent than density and magnetic susceptibility. Literary sources also give different values of
conductivity, and the discrepancies are substantial. Therefore during dressability studies it is
recommended to measure conductivity of ore minerals and introduce appropriate corrections to
the scale.
The mineral properties which define electric charge, and, consequently, separation as
well cover conduction, dielectric permeability, triboelectrification (triboadhesion effect), contact
potential and pyroelectric effect. Besides, there are piezoelectric effect and unipolar (detector)
conductance of crystals which are not used in dressing processes as yet.
In summary tables minerals show a wide range of conduction and dielectric
permeability.[86]. For example, according to the published data the resistivity r = 10 1 10 6
Om∙m for some galenite specimens. In natural galenite specimens both electron and hole
conductance is observed, the concentration of charge carriers varies in a large range, coefficients
of thermoelectromotive force as well as temperaturedependent resistance are different.
Resistivity varied from 10 2 10 2 Om∙m, and variations of other electrophysical characteristics
were simultaneously recorded for relatively pure crystals of cassiterite. When the relative
dielectric permeability (e) changed the scatter was also large though less than for conductance.
Dielectric permeability significantly depends on alternating current frequancy for some
minerals. For instance, for dolomite specimens e = 6.77.2 and 11.2 at 50 and 100 Hz
measurements.
Temperature and moisture have a large effect on the results of electric measurements.
Account of moisture is especially important for hygroscopic and porous specimens since e ~ 80
(?) of water are supplemented in mesurement of dielectric permeability. A water film on the
surface can change the result by several orders in measurement of dielectric resistance.
Electrostatic separators are applied for separating the mixture of dry minerals to
constituent components as well as for separation by size (electrostatic sorting).
Techniques of electric separation are as follows: electrostatic (electrostatic field: particles
are charged by contact or inductive method), corona (corona charge field: particles are charged
through ionization), dielectric (electrostatic field: uncharged particles are separated under the
effect of ponderomotive forces), combined techniques: coronaelectric (corona charge and
electrostatic fields, particles are charged through ionization and by other methods), corona
magnetic (corona charge and magnetic fields, particles are charged through isonization),
troboadhesive (particles are charged due to a triboelectric effect, adhesion, etc.).
Drying, dedusting, size sorting, treatmebt with surfaceactive agents, and other operations
can be applied for preparation of materials and electric separation (depending on characteristics
166
of entry material and conditions of processing). Drying eliminates the effect of atmospheric air
humidity, make behaviour of separable particles more stable and affords their free motion in a
separator under the action of mechanical and electric forces).
Separation efficiency is more controlled by the properties of minerals (sunstances) and
less by the state of material surface.
The natural state of the surface may be changed, for instance, by cleaning, removal of
some constituents and formation of surface films using agents of selective action on different
substances. Sludge agitation is required for cleaning if during the cleaning process the
constituents to be removed from the particle surface cannot volatilize, disperse or be abraded.
The surface either in dry (gaseous) or wet (solute) state can be treated by surfaceactive
and filmforming agents. In this case downstream drying of treatwd material is needed.
The surface of basic pegmatites is treated by hydrofluoric acid or salt (from 100 g/t and
more). Minerals contaminated with iron compounds may be etched by sulfuric acid or zinc
hydrosulfite. Benzoic acid may be applied for selective formation of films on basic (ulexite,
zoisite, etc.) and chemically less active or neutral minerals (cyanite, sillimanite, zircon).
When the mixture of quartz and feldspar is treated with sulfuric acid vapour, the
conductive film of fluoric potassium and fluoric aluminium is formed on the feldspar while the
quartz undergoes almost no change (the surface is “engraved”, and fluoric silicon vapour
volatilizes). When the mixture of quartz and fluorite is treated in the same way, the conductive
flim of fluorides is formed on the the latter. After spodumene (lithium) ore is treated likewise
spodumene becomes more conductive than associate minerals: albite, microcline, and quartz.
Besides, separation of zoisite from plagioclase is improved. During final processing of diamond
containing concentrates the entry material is pretreated by water solution of sodium
chloride.[86].
Electric separation
The process of selection of dry mineral particles in electric field by value or sign of the
charge formed on particles depende on electric properties, chemical composition, dimensions,
etc. It is used for final processing of rough concentrate of diamond and raremetal ores:
totaniumzitconium, tantalumniobium, tintungsten, rareearth (monazitexenotime).
Electrostatic, corona, dielectric and triboadhesive separations are distinguished by method of
formating charge on particles and charge transfer during electric separation.[86].
In electrostatic separation slection is performed in electrostatic field, particles are
charged by contant or inductive methods. Corona separation is carried out in corona charge field,
particles are charged by means of ionization.
Triboadhesive separation is gorunded on the difference in adhesion of triboelectrificated
particles. Friction can appear during trasportation of particles along a spevial substrate, in
fluidized bed on contact of particles with one another.
A relatively narrow application field of electric separation is due to high energy
consumption, sophisticated highvoltage equipment to be applied, requirements to careful
predrying of material which is difficult to ne provided for at concentrators where mostly wet
processes are used.
Dielectric separation is performed owing to ponderomotive forces in electrostatic field,
here particles of different dielectric permeability move over different paths.
Dielectric constant is defined by the ratio of electric field intensity in minerals and rocks
to the field intensity in vacuum. The dielectric constant varies from 3 to 10, seldom to 25 for the
majority of rockforming minerals (among them any silicate), with 40 for wet rocks.
Dielectric separation process is grounded on the difference in dielectric constants of
minerals and applied for mineralogical study or for selection of mineralogical fractions. The
dielectric separation process can be applied in fullscale practice in separation of finely ground
valuable minerals (slime) and in final processing operations.[68].
Minerals of different dielectric constant are placed into a nonconductive fluid which
dielectric constant is internediate in value between dielectric constants of separatble minerals and
167
generate an electric filed with radially spreading lines. Mineral particles are polarized, forming a
dipole one end of which is directed towards a strong filed and the otehr end towards a weak one.
As a result of this particles which dielectric constant is higher than that of the fluid will move
towards the more intensive filed and particled with lower constant towards the weak field. This
motion of polarized particles towards the highest intensity side may be called dielectrophoresis.
4.5. Physicochemical Properties and Floatability of Minerals. Flotation
4.5.1. Crystallochemical Characteristic of Surface
Mineral particle surface formed by virtue of ore prepration operations (crushing,
grinding, washing) have a number of important properties on which flotation, flocculation,
electric separation processes are based. Of the greatest significance to flotation are wettability
and adsorptive ability of mineral surface which are dictated first of all crystallochemical
properties and then by morphological peculiarities: microhemogeneity, crystal lattice defects,
conductance type.
Energy of crystals, like other phases, is put together from internal and external surface
energyies. As the phase surface features disruption or loosening of ties between phase
components, it makes a positive input into the total phase energy. The surface energy of the
phases is connected with the free surface energy which is governed by the surface tension s
(erg/cm 2 or dyne/cm), energy consumed in forming one square centimetre of surface area.
When minerals interact with various chemical agents in liquid, gaseous and even solid
states, ther is a change or disintergration (decomposition) of minerals, uneven as far as character
abd degree are concerned.
Changes and destruction of minerals which result from various external forces usually
begins with the surface of mineral grains. The impact of these forces on minerals is dictated by
micromorphological and crystallochemical features of the surface and depends to a large extent
on macro and microheterogeneity as well as defect rate.
Surface energy of crystals is numerically equal to half of energy of disrupted chemical
bonds and a function of interatomic distances and charge of structural units. In general case the
surface energy of crystals is lower on the planes of fracture with maximum interatomic distance,
i.e., on planes of cleavage with low crystallographic indices, and especially cleavage faces of
different orientattion show higher energy. In anisotropic crystals faces with different indices
(hkl) and cleavage faces of any possible direction for this crystal will also have different surface
energy.
Surface energy is closely connected with free surface energy for which surface tension is
responsible. In minerals of monotype in chemical aspect surface energy decreases as the
cleavage perfection degree increases. Similar is the relationahip bwtween surface energy and
hardness predetermined by chemical bond strength: the higher the hardness, the larger the
surface energy. However estimation of chemical bond strength in differemt directions is very
approximate. Buls strength may be coceptually examined based on thermodynamic data directly
connected with crystallochemical peculiarities of minerals.[13,14].
Strength of chemical bonds may be comaperd only among the minerals of one structural
type, for example, calcite, dolomite, phodochrosite, magnetsite, siderite, while aragonite already
falls out of the examination because diffferent atom packing methods are implemented in
different modifications and structural types.
At low surface energy on cleavage plane (very perfect) minerals have natural
hydrophoby: graphite, molybdenite, talc, pyrophillite, etc. Very perfect cleavage in the above
minerals is attributed to heterodesmic nature of interatomic bonds. Rigid cpvalent bonds
predominate within individual layers and lamellar packs while very loose residual Wan der
Waals bonds prevail between them. In ths case the peculiarity of cleavage face is that charges are
almost ideally compensated within layers or packs.
168
When crystal grains of minerals with mostly ionic or ioniccovalent bond types, in
particular, haloids and oxygen salts, as well as silicates, are split, most often cationanion bonds
are broken, and cleavage face gains a redundant (uncompensated) positive or negative charge.
The charge value and the quantitative cationanion ratio on the “open” surface in the long run
dictate value and sign of electrostatic potential of cleavage face.
The crystallochemical estimation of flotation activity of minerals with predominantly
ionic bonds in crystal structure is connected with atomic structure of cleavage face. Here mainly
steric factors are taken into account, and distribution of charges is associated with electrostatic
interaction. The opportunity of estimation of type and strength of chemical bond (with regard to
heterodesmic nature) in crystal structures affords an application of crystallochemical analysis
when explaining flotation process not only for crystals with ionic structure but also for more
complicated objects, like silicates.
Surface energy is not only higher on random cleavage faces than on cleavage planes but
have a wider range of values owing to diversity of grades and greater shatter of interatomic
distances.[15].
Sign and value of electrostatic component of surface potential may be estimated in
accordance with crystallochemical data. Projection series parallel to cleavage or fracture face
surfaces and perpendicular to them are plotted along the coordinates of atoms in correspinding
crystal structure of minerals. The former give the picture of distribution and value of redundant
charges of different signm the latter present the position of atoms with respect to fracture face.
The largest redundant charge, even at the same quantitative ratio of plus and minus is introduced
by the ions protruding above the other ones and fairly distant from the opposite sign ions. They
are also the most probable centres of absorbing flotation agents.[15].
Different variants of distribution of charges are implemented at splitting of mineral
grains. Completely compensated electrostatic oxygen ions are exposed in lamellar structures, like
talc, on the surface of perfect cleavage. More loose cationcomplex anion bonds in main
structures (sulfates, carbonates, phosphates, wolframates) are commonly broken owing to strong
covalent bonds inside [SO4] 2+ , [CO3] 2+ , [WO4] 2+ , [PO4] 3 complexes. Therefore oxygen ions of
complex anionic radical (A) and cation (C) turn out to be on fracture faces. In this case
redundant negative charge with a maximum of up to 1/2 emerges on oxygen ions provided all
cationradical (?) oxygen bonds are broken. Value of redundant positive charge on cations in the
mixed CA grid depends on the coordination of this cation and the number of broken bonds with
anions. A very substantial input to surface charge is created in structures with supplementary O 2 ,
OH , Cl , F and other anions exposed on the fracture face.
Complete cleavage in chain and band structures usually passes along endless silicon
oxygen radicals ([Si2O6] 4 and [Si4O11](OH) 7 ). When bonds are broken along cleavage, for
instance, in pyroxenes, two types of oxygen atoms: bridge ones divided by two silicon atoms of
pyroxene chain ([Si2O6] 4 ) and lateral ones introduced into coordination of alkaline earth cations
(Ca, Fe, Mg). The former featre a completely compensated charge. When the Si...O...C bond is
broken, lateral atoms of oxygen in chain radicals are short of negative charge, and accordingly
silicon atons gain a redundanrt positive charge. Moreover, fracture also exposes coarse
two=valent cations which make their input into distribution and signe of a redundant surface
charge.
Any fracture in shelllike structures of quartz or alumosilicate type because of broken
Si...O...(Si, Al) bonds will show either an excess of negative charge in acse of surface exposure
of oxygen ions or predominance of positive charge owing to exposure of silicon or aluminium
atoms. Highlycoordinated coarse K + and K 2+ cations exposed on the fracture face also have a
minor redundant charge. Positive charges emerged in shelllike structures are easily compensated
due to joining of hydroxyl group and leaching of large ions exposed on the fracture face.
Possible selfcompensation of redundant surface charges also owing to redistribution
(transfer) of charges between cations should be taken into account during crystallographic
estimation of surface charges.
169
Seldcompensation takes place, for instance, in pyroxenes where Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Fe 2+ and
2+
Mn polyhedrons form double zigzagshaped columns with common edges, silimar variants are
present in the granite structure where columns consist of Al 3+ , Fe 3+ , Mn 3+ octahedrons and Ca 2+ ,
Fe 2+ , Mn 2+ octoapical figures (?). The redundant positive charge emerged in this case can be
compensated by means of trapping an electron of the neighbouring twovalent ion, i.e., in fact,
oxidation. Even greater significance is acquired by selfcompensation in minerals with
semiconductor and metallic properties, i.e., in the majority of sulfides, some oxides and native
metals. In consequence of this the negative charge of the surface increases.13,14].
4.5.2. Hydration of Mineral Surface
Wettability of minerals completely depends on crystallochemical charcateristics and type
of uncompensated chemical bond inherent of fracture face. Hydrophilic minerals are easily
wetted in water as compared to hydrophobic ones which are not wetted and are ejected to the
bordeline eparating fluid from air. This property is made use of in flotation enrichment of ores.
Mineral particles with natural floatability, hydrophobic ore minerals, become adhesive to air
bubbles, go onto the surface and are grouped in the foam which, together with ore minerals, is
mechanically parted from hydrophilic minerals. Hydrophobic minerals include minerals with
completely copensated charges (gold, copper), platinum, etc.), layer minerals with noticebly
perfect cleavage and olecular crystals with weak hydrogen bonds oe Van der Waals bonds
(graphite, talc, molybdenite, sulfur, realgar, etc.). Weak (?) hydrophobic minerals include
semiconductor minerals with completely or partially compensated coavlent or covalent metallic
bonds (sulfides: galenite, purite, chalcopyrite, etc., as well as diamonds). Natural floatabilty is
not inherent of hydrophilic dielecric minerals with strong uncompensated ionic or ioniccovalent
bonds (barite, calcite, quartz, scheelite, feldspar, spodumene, etc.).[42].
During grinding crystals of natural minerals contact the liquid phase of flotation sludge
which is a water solution of differnet ions and molecules. A hydrate layer is formed on the
surface if the mineral has fairly hydrophilic surface.
Water is one of the strohgest polar solvents (dielectric permeability: 80). Coulomb
interaction of cations and anions of crystal lattice decreases by a factor of 80 which explains a
strong dissolving ability of water with respect to ionic crystal lattices. The ion tearing off from
the crystal surface because of thermal fluctuations or any other interaction falls into the water
phase where its electrostatic field weakens.
Cationic and anioinc points present on the mineral surface are usually hydrated by water
molecules of liquif phase. In first approximation crystal lttice energy is equal to sum of hydration
energies of both lattice ions. Aquacomplexes neutralize electrostatic fields of liquid phase ions
approximately in the same degree in what one ions neutralize each other in crystal lattice.
The formation of hydrated surface is connected with surface energy which giverns
interaction of water molecules with mineral particles. From a macroscopic viewpoint changes in
hydrophilic and hydrophobic surface properties is controlled by the ratio of the adhesion energy
Aadh and the cohesion energy Ac on the interface. Aa>Ac= 2sl.g. for hydrated surface, and Aa <
Ac= 2sl.g. is fair for hydrophobic surface.
Cohesion energy spent on overcoming intermolecular forces during formation of a new
liquidgas interface which is numerically equal to energy of breaking the nobd between water
molecules per unit of the newlyformed interface.[76].
Equilibrium among phases in threephase contact is controlled by the equation of final
edge angle of wetting:
cosq = (ss.g. + sl.g.)/ss.l.
where q is the edge angle of wetting, ss.g., sl.g., ss.l are the surface tension between contact
phases, respectively. The ss.l and ss.g. values for a macroscopically heterogenous particle are not
permanent but vary on different surface sections. The edge angle of wetting will be
170
approximately estimated by a sum characteristic of interphase tension over the threephase
perimeter, and the Dupreau equation will take the form
The compensated system tends to construct the surface with minimum energy
consumption. the liquid will send to the surface mostly those ions and molecules which provide
for free energy minimum of the interface.
The difference in concentration of the surface and in the volume of the liquid phase is
controlled by the Gibbs adsorption equation
C ds
G =
RT dC
where C is the concentration of waterdissolved ions and molecules, s is the surface tension, R is
the universal gas constant, T is the ablosute temperature.
Ions of large size and small specific charge have a loosening effect on the
quasicrystalline water structure and make the bond of water molecules with one another weaker.
The energy field of the surface affects oscillatory and traslational motions of water molecules. A
particle flux directed to decrease in free interface energy emerges in the boundary layer of the
liquid. Ions of negative hydration violate the shortrange tetrahedron order of water molecules,
with this violation not seldom propagating to second and even more longrange coordination
spheres of quasicrystalline water lattice (up to 3050 Е). Futher violation of shortrange order of
water molecules whioch surround the negativelyhydrated ion causes an energy field generated
by gradual change of order in liquid structure under the action of the ion. [76].
If water contacts the surface of the mineral treated with a hydrophobized agent, the near
surface layer structure is also disordered because of nonwettability of apolar parts of diphile (?)
molecules of a collector agent. Surface energy of apolar parts of the collector agent molecules is
commensurately lower than this parameter for water.
A compensating energy field which vector is a function of sign of difference in free
energies of phases in contact is formed as a result of the difference in free energies of surfcaes of
solid body and water in contact with solid body.
An energy field present near the hydrophilic surface is the main reason for the layer of
counterions which compensate a difference in free energy of solid body and water phase
surfaces.[76].
4.5.3. Adsorption Ability of Minerals
The adsorption ability of minerals which is various in nature is manifested in that
minerals adsorb molecules and ions on the surface. The adsorption ability is particularly high in
dispersed minerals owing to a highdensity surface measured in the units of area by the units of
mass (cm 2 /g). Adsorption is said to be chemical if strong chemical bonds are formed between the
adsorbent and the adsorbate. Physical adsorption is the other adsorption type characterized by the
fact that the adsorbent molecules can be easily scaped (?). In the first case adsorption can be
likened to the formation of chemical compositioncscontaining combined atoms which belong to
the adsoebent and the adsorbate at the same time. In the second case these compositions are not
formed. Hydroscopicity, i.e., adsorption of moisture by insoluble minerals can be referred to as
an example of physical asorption of water.
It is required for formation of a strong adsorption bond that the anionic agent electron
would transit to the crystal lattice of the mineral. In case of cationic agent the electron forming of
171
the bond transits onto the cation of the flotation agent. The transition of agent anion electron is
the most probable in the region of the cation point of the crystal lattice surface owing to the
highest concentrtaion of the electron orbits on this lattice area. This ability affords a selection of
electron transition zone which is limited on the one side by the mineral crystal surface, and on
the side by the layer of oriented ions and molecules of the liquid phase of the flotation sludge.
The number of agent anions able to be fixed on cation points of mineral crystal lattice is a
function of liquid phase component composiiton, concentration and chemical nature near the
mineral particle surface. In the liquid phase of the sludge there are anions able to compete with
agent anions in the formation of an adsorption bond. The fixing of the agent anion depends on
the time of residence in the electron transition zone and in an adsorbed state or the strength of the
bond of the anion with the cation point of the crystal lattice. The agent anion being in an
adsorbed state is predetrrmined by the mobile nature of solidliquid interface equilibrium.[76].
Application of various flotation agents affords alteration in natural floatability which
assists in enriching the mineral. Application of apolar agents (organic oils, kerosene, etc.)
improves floatability of hydrophobic minerals adhesive to drops of these substances.
Chemical adsorption of polar anion and cation agents is made use of in flotation of weak
hydrophobic and hydrophilic minerals. The anions (?) are attached to the surface of minerals
with redundant negative charges, with the cations to the surfcae of those with the positive
charges. As a result each grain is surrounded by molecules which free ends are not wetted by
waterm and consequently the hydrophobic nature and floatability of the mineral increase.
Various surface defects affect (?) adsorption of mineral floatability because of locally
uncompensated charges connected with them. Since mineral fracture takes place for the most
part along the more defective directions of crystal grains, conentrtaion of defects on the surface
of fractured mineral particles can be very substantial.[76].
At present flotation is the most widespread method of dressing mineral products: 90 per
cent of all nonferrous and rare metal ores are dressed by flotation techniques which affords
processing of extremely lean, finely impregnated ores of complex composition with copper, lead,
zinc, molybdenum, tungsten, tin, and other metals.
In generalcase both electrons and positively or negatively charged ions can pass the
interface on contact of the semiconductor and the solution. Greater work function of the electron
exiting the crystal always promotes lower positive ore larger negative potential of the surface
mineral layer, and the opposite patterb is observed when the work function of the electron
exiting the solution goes up.
When semiconductor minerals are floated, the the process of attracting the ionogenic
collector agent to the mineral surface can be controlled by means of changiong the work function
of the electron exiting the solution. This situation can be traced if oxidizing or reducing agents
are added to the water phase of the sludge.
Oxygen being the main electron acceptor causes displacement of chemical electron
potention value and brings about higher concentration of free electron vacancies. The oppposite
pattern is noticed when the reductant is put in the process: oxygen concentration becomes lower,
work function of electron exiting water falls, contact potential value is shifted to the negative
side, electron concentrtaion in the surface mineral layer goes up which casues lower sorption of
anionic agent. This concept is the background of electric processing of flotation sludge and agent
solution.
There are chemical adsorption when strong chemical adsorbentadsorbate bonds rae
formed anf physical adsorption when adsorbed molecules can be easily removed. In the first case
Adsorption may be likened to the formation of a chemical compound containg common ions
belonging to the adsorbent and the adsorbate.[87].
4.5.4. Floatability of Minerals
172
Mineral wettability fully depends on crystallochemical peculiarities and types of
uncompensated chemical bond chich catarcterize the fracture face. Hydrophilic minerals ...
When the dressability of ores by flotation is studied, the most difficult aspect is to select
modes and agents. In manu cases flotation recovery of minerals depends not only on floatability
of this or that mineral but also on composition of associate components as well as on genesis,
impregnation, availability of isomorphous impurities in the mineral and other factors.
Floatability of minerals of different classes is presented in the classification of
M.A.Eigeles. More detailed formulations of agents elaborated by S.I.Mitrofanov [87] and
G.S.Berger are generalized in [3,76].
Table 4.5. Classification of minerals by flotation properties (after M.A.Eigeles)
Accurate classification of minerals by floatability is very difficult. The universal flotation
method, and the diversity of agents and flotation conditions prevent a formal scale of flotation
dressing to be developed. Nevertheless in order to compose auxiliary flotation scales it it
possible to apply an acknowledged sequence of floatability of minerals in case certain collectors
are used (?) as well as natural floatability of minerals. Flotation agents do not as a rule violate
but intensify the difference in natural floatability of minerals. In so doing, naturally hydrophobic
minrals can be arranged in the following sequence of decreasing floatability due to apolar agents:
hard coal, native sulfur, graphite, molybdenite, realgar, bismuth, talc, diamond. The other
industrial minerals are extracted in the presence of heteropolar collectors. Minerals may be
arranged in the followng sequence according to decreasing floatability due to xanthates: enargite,
chalcocite, covellite, argentite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite (copperactivated), marcasite, pyrite,
arsenopyrite, proustite, stephanite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite (unactivated). This sequence known
from Taggart’s papers can be changed by selection of special collector and activator agents.
However during primary dressability studies, and in some case when process flowsheets are
developed, the sequence indicated should be taken into account as the most probable one for
selective flotation of minerals.
Lately a trend to drastic reduction of collector consumption in selective flotation
appeared, and in some cases to agentfree flotation applied (only with foamer), which affords a
primary rich product to be made in the inintial operations. This product consists of easily
floatable minerals. This trend not only meets the requirements of the downstream final
processing but also is of great economic and ecological value.
174
When examoning the Taggart’sequence, one can notice that the most naturally
hydrophobic sulfide minerals (molybdenite and galenite) can be collectorfree floated without
surface oxidation or with reduction of oxidized forms by sulfiders.
The group of copper minerals, of the next rank in natural floatability, is floated only in
the presence of heteropolar collectors. As a matter of fact, it is possible to improve dressing
efficiency by means of agentfree flotation with a foamer alone.
It is difficult as yet to make up similar sequences of minerals floated by other agents
owing to absence of systemized data. Howver the possibility of similar dependences can be used
in practical studies. It is a common knowledge that minerals of industrial deposits may differ
much in natural floatability from pure variants. Therefore when the floatability of minerals by
these or those agents is assessed the sequences made up are recommended to be corrected by the
experimental findings.[11].
4.5.5. Flotation Agents [11, 87,88].
Flotation agents are chemical substances added to the sludge during flotation for control
of interaction of particles with gas bubbls, chemical reactions and physicochemical processes in
liquid phase, on interfaces and in a foamy layer with the view of creating conditions of selectrive
seprartion of minerals. In accordance with functional purpose collectors, foamers and controllers
(modifiers) are distinguished. Collectors are designed for hydrophobization of mineral particles
and divided into apolar and polar substances. Apolar hydrocarbon liquids are mostly of oil origin
(kerosene, fuel oils, etc.) and intensify natural hydrophobicity of apolar minerals, like native
sulfur, talc, molybdenite, graphite, diamond. The asymmetric atructure of a molecule consisting
of two parts: apolar and functionally polar, is typical of polar collectors. A functional polar or
hydrophilic group is affine to chemical dissocoation or chemical interaction. Polar collectors are
subdivided into anionic and cationic compounds in accordance with the polar part charge (many
of them are also active in a molecular form), they are applied in flotation of nonferrous metals
ores, etc. (Table 4.6).
Table 4.6. Polar collectors and application fields
Agent name Application fields (in flotation)
Anionic collectors
Xanthates
Ethylxanthate Sulfide ores: CuZn, CuPbZn
Isopropylxanthate Sulfide ores: Cu, Pb, Zn, Au, Ag, Co, Ni, FeS2
Pentylxanthate Oxidized sulfide ores, CoNi sulfide ores
Dithiophosphates
Diethyldithiophosphates CuZn sulfide ores (except Pb)
Dicresyldithiophosphates (15% Sulfide ores: AlCuPb
P2S5)
Ditto (25% P2S5) PbS and Ag2S
Ditto (31% P2S5) PbS and Ag2S
Thionocarbamates Cu sulfides or activized Cu
ZnS in presence of FeS2
FeS2 in acidic medium (pH: 45)
Fatty acids
Tallow oil (contains mostly CaF2, Fe chromite, apatite, ilmenite, CaCO3,
oleic acid) MgCO3 ores
Refined oelic acid
Na soaps of fatty acids
Alkylsulfates Fe, garnet, chromite, barite, carbonates, Cu,
175
CaCO3
Alkylsulfonates (with radicals CaF2, CaNO4
from C12 to C16)
Cationic collectors
Primary amines Separation of sylvite, Kcl, and halite, NaCl, at
Secondary amines (in kerosene) selective flotation of sylvite in saturated salt
Quaternary ammonium salts of solution, selective flotation of raremetal ores,
fatty series separation of feldspar from quartz in presence of
hydrofluoric acid, flotation of oxidized zinc
minerals after sulfiding
The adhesive character of attaching apolar collectors owing to Van der Waals forces is
intensified during dispersing drops of collector emulsion (e.g., by ultrasound). A majority of
apolar collectors contains polar substances, therefore their interaction with mineral particles and
air bubbles is of more complicated behaviour since chemical interaction, along with adhesive
one, takes place.
Controllers are applied for improved selectivity of attaching collectors on the surface of
certain minerals, stronger attachment, reduced collector consumption and alteration of foaming
character. When the controller affects the mineral surface directly, promoting better attachment
of the collector and activating flotation, it is called an activizer. For instance, addition of sodium
sulfide sulfides the surface of oxide minerals of nonferrous metals and affords xanthate
molecules to be attached to it. The controller making the interaction of the mineral with the
collector more difficult is called depressant (suppressor). For instance, liquid glass prevents
attachment of soaps to silicate minerals, suppressing their flotation, lime and cyanides depress
pyrite flotation. Besides activators and depressants, there are controlling agents which give the
medium certain alkalinityy and acidity (medium controllers). Controllers which drive apart
(peptize) particles of micron dimensions (fine sludge), e.g., sodium silicate, by reducing their
negative action on flotation are called peptizer agents and are most often nonorganic compounds;
organic controllers are used more seldom.
Certain range of agents and order of feed which constitute the background of flotation
mode are used in flotation. A controller is usually added to the sludge, then a collector and
lateron a foamer. An optimal time of sludge contact with each agent is observed. In many cases
the agent action is complex, and the classification indicated is conventional.
The adsorption ability of the surface is always specific with respect to certain types of
agents soluble or emulsified in water base. Collector agents (Fig.4.14) and flocculants (Fig.4.15)
interact with the mineral surface directly or with the help of controller agents (Fig.4.16). In some
flotation cases it is enough for foamer agent to be present (Fig.4.17).
4.5.6. Flotation Processes [76,87,89,91,92,]
Flotation is the main method of dressing nonferrous metals ores. Flotation is also used
for water treatment from organic substances (petroleum, oils), bacteria, finely dispersed salt
precipitates, etc. Besides processing branches of mining industry, flotation is applied in food,
chemical and other sectors for treatment of industrial effluents, speedingup of settling,
precipitation of solid suspensions and emulsifiers, etc. Wide application of flotation involved a
great number of process modifications in different symptoms (Fig.4.18).
The first offer was oil flotation (W.Hynes, UK, 1860). Here ground ore is mixed with oil
and water, sulfide minerals are preferentially wetted with oil, float with it attached and are taken
off the water surface while rock (quartz, feldspars) are drowned in water. In Russia oil flotation
was applied for fresing of graphite ore (the town of Mariupol, 1904). Later on this process was
improved: oil was dispersed to an emulsion state which permitted extraction of fine slimes, e.g.,
of manganese ores.
176
The ability of hydrophobic particles to be retained on the water surface while hydrophilic
ones are drowned in water was made use of for development of film flotation (A.Nibelius, USA,
1892; A.McKuisten, UK, 1904). Film flotation was not widely applied but turnd out to be a
prototype of foam flotation, both from the viewpoint of using the waterair interface and from
the viewpoint of using flotation agents because it was noticed that film flotation runs much more
effectively in the presence of small oil quantities.
During foam flotation particels treated by agents are driven out onto the water surface by air
bubbles, forming a foal layer which stability is controlled by adding foamrs. Different methods
were proposed in order for air bubbling. They are formation of carbon dioxide owing to chemical
eraction (S.Potter, USA, 1902), emission of gas from solution with pressure drop (F.Elmore, UK,
1906): vacuum flotation, active agitation of sludge (mechanical flotation), passage of air through
small holes (pneumatic flotation). Finely dispersed flotation bubbles are also produced from
solutions at electrolytic decomposition of water with oxygen and hydrogen gas formed (electric
flotation).
Diversified techniques of forming air bubbles and combination of these techniques
correspond to different types of flotation machines. Arrangement of flotation cells in a certain
sequence with delivery of foam and cell product flows to final grinding, recleaner or final
flotation composes a flotation curcuit which affords a production of concentrate of requierd
quality at preset ecovery of the valuable component.
In foam flotation ore is ground to 0.51 mm size in case of naturally hydrophobic
nonmetallic minerals with low density (sulfur, coal. talc) and to 0.050.2 mm size for nonferrous
metals ores. Flotation agents are added to the sludge in order to create and intensify a differenc
in hydration of separable minerals and to impair adequate stability to foam. Then the sludge
enters flotation machines. Flotation aggregates (particles and air bubbles) are formed when
minerals collide with air bubbles.
Flotation is influenced by ionic composition of liquid phase of sludge, gases (especially
oxygen) dissolved in sludge, sledge temperature and density. Flotation circuit, agent mode and
grinding rate which provide for fairly complete separation of minerals are chosen based on the
study of mineralogicalpetrographic composition of mineral resource to be dressed. Bset of all
granis of 0.10.04 mm in size are separated by flotation. Finer particles are worse separated, and
particles of below 5 m in size deteriorate flotation of coarser particles. A negative action of below
5 m particles is reduced by special agents. During flotation Coarse (13 mm) particles tear off
from bubbles and are not floated. Therefore foal separation methods at which sludge is fed
ontothe foam layer which keeps only hydrophobized particles have been developed in Russia.
The same objective was in mind when flotation machines of fluidized bed with ascending flows
of aerated fluid were developed.
An accessory process often occurs in flotation machines. This is precipitation of
hydrophobic particles on walls and especially on timber parts, socalled solid wall flotation. This
effect was laid in the foundation of floating fine slimes (10 m) with the help of carrier mineral,
hydrophobic particles of flotation size whihs selectively inteact with extractable slimes;
aggregated formed underwent conventional foam flotation.
The hydrophobization effect is also applied in dressing on sticky surfaces at adhesion
separation (diamonds, clays, soluble salts).
An ionic flotation method was developed for water cleaning and recovery of components
from diluted solutions in the 50s.
Late in the 60s early in the 70s an innovative abd promising trend appeared in derssing
minetal resources. It was column flotation based on counterflow movement of sludge and air
bubbles. High efficiency of column flotation permits shorter process front, reduced number of
recleaner operations and lower circulating load in the flowsheet with better stability and
reliability of the flowsheet performance. Column cells have two fundamental differences from
other machines: counterflow movement of sludge and air bubbles, and the cell height exceeding
the diameter several times. Intensive propagation of column flotation cells is involved by high
177
performance, possible dressing of fine particles (coarsegrained material), easy process control,
low energy consumption, effective flotation of dense sludge and, consequently, lower machine
volume and agent consumption, no moving parts, small installation site, simple design.
Gravity flotation is a combined process uniting flotation and gravitation. Gravity
flotation is performed on concentration tables, in screw separators, belt sluices, concentrators and
jigging machines in which aeroflocs of certain minerals with lower density than particles non
interacting with air bubbles are formed due to treatment by flotation agents and injection of air
bubbles into slurry. Here the difference in density promotes more effective separation of mineral
particles of lower size than in gravitational dressing.
In industry gravity flotation is used for selection of sulfide minerals from gravitational
tungsten and tin concentrates as well as for separation of apatite and phosphorite from quartz,
zircon from purochlore, scheelite from cassierite, and for selection of other minerals. Gravity
flotation circuits include operations of dewatering with desliming, agitation of dense slurry with
agents, and gravity flotation proper.
Foam separation is the process of separating minweral particles for wettability during
passage downwards through the moving foam layer fomed on the surface of the aerated fluid.
Hydrophobic particles are concentrated in the upper foam layer while hydrophilic ones are
washed out of the foam by fluid flow enetring the foan together with the slurry from the top.
Conditions of counterflow movement of particles and air bubbles which intensify separation
process are created in the foam.
In foam separation the different velocity of particles passing the foam, depending on
particle surface properties (natural or agentinduced floatability) is responsible for selection. The
size of extracted material is, e.g., for phosphotite from 0.2 to 1.2 mm, manganese minerals from
0.2 to 2.5 mm, sylvite from 1 to 5 mm, heavy metal sulfides from 0.3 to 2.5 mm, native sulfur
and coal from 0.5 to 5 mm. High separation velocity is dictated by short time and distance of
counter movement of free particles towards air bubbles, shorter path of mineralized bubbles till
their exit to the concentrating trough.
Duration of mineral selection in foal layer depends on rate of eomovalof hydrophilic
particles from the foam, hre coarse particles precipitate 45 times more rapidly than fine ones.
Foam separation kinetic characterists are fisrty governed by the foam carrying capacity, i.e., the
force with which hydrophobic particles placed onto or into the foam are driven out upwards. It
depends on several factors among which the main ones are surface properties of particles. The
physicochemical fundamentals of foam separation are common to those of flotation but difer in
hydrodynamic mode in the zone of forming the mineralbubble complex. When the slurry passes
through the foam, the favourable conditions are created for contact and attachment of particles
on air bubbles due to larger probability of their collisoion and mineralization, absence of
centrifugal and inertion forces of tearing the particle off the bubble in the foam. The size of
extractable particles is 510 times higher than in flotation.
4.6. Chemical and Thermal Properties of Minerals. Hydrometallurgy.
4.6.1. Solubility in Inorganic Solvents
Chemical stability of imerals depends on sonstituent peculirities and chemcial
environment parameters of selective action : concentration, acidity or alkalinity, redox potential,
temperatire and pressure. Under the effect of chemical environment minerals are pertly or
completely dissolved, hydrated, oxidized or reduced, evporated and enter chemical reaction with
new matter forms created.
Solubility of minerals is usually established with respect to water ands water solutions od
avids (sulfuric, nitrc, hydrochloric, hydrofluric, acetic), lakali (KOH, NaOH) and various salts
(mainly Na2CO3). Minerals hard to be dissolved in aqueous solurions are first melted with
178
sodium carbinate, phosphate, borax, or dosium fluoride so as to produce alloys soluble in water
solutions of acids or alkalies.[11,93,94].
Grain size is responsible for the rate at which minerals are dissolved. Therefore minerals
are first crushed and gorund. Mineral solubility increases during heating.
Chemical properties of minerals govern possobility of hydrometallurgical processes
applied. Lately besides conventional leaching more and more widely used become methods of
preliminary preparation which alter solubility of minerals together with bacterial and thermal
treatment.
Chemical changes of mineral structure or surface assist in affecting magnetic and
flotation properties of minerals. Of particular concern are electrochemical techniques. Here not
only surface chemical reactions but also finer mechanism of compensation or cration of crystal
latric defects are possible.
Only cheap solvents can be applied in fullscale ore leaching. More expensive solvents
(organic extractants) are used for final processing of concentrates or cleaning of solutions.
Table 4.7 shows solubility of minerals in differenr solvents. Mimerals are divided into
two groups by solubility: readily and slightly soluble. Solubility of minrals inside the group is
not one and the same. This is connected withe a diversity of factors which are responsible for the
rate of dissolving naturally occurring minerals, namely: oxididation degree, availablity of
isomorphous inclusions and impurities, size of particles.
Mireal are less soluble in water. Those readily dossolved in water include chlorides,
fluorides, borates, sulfates, and carbonates of alkalies and some other metals.
Table 4.7. Solubility of minerals in inorganic solvents
4.6.2. Redox Properties
Redox reactions between minerals and differemt agents are possible if the mineral
composition includes element atoms which can change the charge. Changes in solubulity of
sulfide minerals is connecetd with oxidation reactiona which can occur spontaneusly as a result
of oxidizing roasting and with the help of bacteria.
The papers of I.N.Plaksin and his colleagues showed that the oxidizability of the mineral
surface much affects flotation properties.
The rate of chemical and bacterial oxidation of sulfides is a function of crystal lattice
energy and electron potential.[75].
181
Sulfides of lower crystal lattice energy are much easiler oxidized. The lower is the crystal
lattice energy the higher is the sulfide solubility (Table 4.8).
Table 4.8. Solubility of sulfides and sulfates
According to the vale of electrode potentioal minerals are arrnged into a series which
corresponds to their oxidizability (Table 4.9).
Table 4.9. Electrode potentials in distilled water with respect to
copper electrode
The following series of deterioration of mineral oxidation rate are identified:
(a) by value of electron potential without buffer redox systems for acidic and alkaline
media: matcasite, pyrite, covellite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, pyrrhotite,
galenite, pentlandite, smaltite, molybdenite, sphalerite;
(b) in waterair medium: galenite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcocite, sphalerite;
(c) in 0.125 H2SO4 solution: pyrrhotite, tetrahedrite, galenite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite,
arsenopyrite, marcesite, pyrite;
(d) by oxidizability in 0.05 H2SO4 solution: pyrrhotite, sphalerite, galenite, chalcopyrite,
pyrite;
(e) in 0.1 solution of iron sulfate: pyrrhotite, tetrahedrite, galenite, arsenopyrite,
sphalerite, pyrite, enargite, marcasite, chalcopyrite.
Based on findings of calculation isobarisometric potential of sulfide sulfatation in the
range 100200 o C, minerals are arranged in the order below: pyrrhotite, galenite, sphalerite,
chalcopyrite, pyrite, covellite, chalcocite.
4.6.3. Bacterial Methods of Solubility Alteration [75]
Methods of bacterial leaching of ores are grounded on oxidation of sulfide minerals with
the help of bacteria to a soluble state. In order to apply bacterial leaching, besides conventional
geplogicmineralogical chanracteristic it ie required to know distribution or possible dispersal of
correnponding groups of microorganisms in the deposit. Properties and applicability of
182
microorganisms in ore processing are given in [26]. Howeverthe oxidation mechanism is
dependent not only bacteria propetirs but also on some other factors. The oxidation process runs
according to the following reactions:
FeS2 + H2O + 3.5O2 FeSO4 + H2SO4 in the presence of Thiobacillus
ferrooxidans and chemically,
2FeSO4 + 0.5O2 + H2SO4 Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O in the presence of Thiobacillus
ferrooxidans,
Fe2(SO4)3 + FeS 3FeSO4 + 2S o chemically,
2S o + 2H2O + 3O2 2H2SO4 in the presence of Thiobacillus thooxidans,
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans.
If pH > 3.5, then
Fe2(SO4)3 + 2H2O 2Fe(OH)SO4 + H2SO4
Copper and arsenic sulfides are oxidated according to the reactions:
chalcopyrite CuFeS2 + 4O2 CuSO4 + FeSO4 in the presence of
thiobacillus ferrooxidans and chemically,
2FeSO4 + 0.5O2 + H2SO4 Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O in the presence of Thiobacillus
ferrooxidans,
CuFeS2 + 2Fe2(SO4)3 CuSO4 + 5FeSO4 + 3S o chemically,
o
3S + 2H2O + 3O2 2H2SO4 in the presence of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans,
chalcocite 4Cu2S + 9O2 4CuSO4 + Cu2O in the presence of Thiobacillus thiooxidans
and chemically,
covellite Cu2O + H2SO4 CuSO4 + Cu + H2O chemically,
Cu + H2SO4 + 0.5O2 CuSO4 + H2O chemically,
CuS2 + Fe2(SO4)3 CuS + CuSO4 + 2FeSO4 ditto,
CuS + Fe2(SO4)3 Cu + 2FeSO4 + S o ditto,
arsenopyrite 2FeAsS + 6.5O2 + 3H2O 3H3AsO4 + 2FeSO4 in the presence of
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans and chemically,
2FeSO4 + H2SO4 + 0.5O2 Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O in the presence of Thiobacillus
ferrooxidans,
2H3AsO4 + Fe2(SO4)3 2FeAsO4 + 3H2SO4 chemically.
If pH > 2, then FeAsO4 + 3H2O Fe(OH)3 + H3AsO4 chemically.
Surfactants and some mineral salts also accelerate the oxidation process. Thiobacillus
ferrooxidants needs mineral salts, in particular, phosphates and ammonium salts. Sulfur treated
with phospholipidphosphatidylinositol is oxidated more rapidly than untrated one. Twin20
(polyoxyethylene derivative of ester, sorbitol and 0.0030.004 lauric acid) and X100 triton are
effective for sulfides of copper, zinc and nickel.
4.6.4. Thermochemical Properties
When minerals are heated, atoms which they are composed of are displaced with respect
to equilibrium position and oscillate with a certain frequency. Forces of repulsion and attraction
between oscillating atoms also vary, and accordingly kineric energy are transformed into
potential one and vise versa. [16,42]
Heat capacity of minerals is responsible for energy to be consumed in heating one mole
by 1 degree.
Thermal expansion is defined by growth of amplitude of atom oscillations during mineral
heating. Accordingly, distance between atoms increases and chemical bond strength decreases.
Linear expansion coefficient is an anisotropic value, dependent on crystal structure of minerals.
Thermal expansion is also connected with displacement of atoms from equilibrium position and
transfer to interstitial positions, i.e., with thermal defects formed, anionic vacancies and
interstitial atoms. Concentrtaion of thermal defects is exponentially temperaturedependent.
183
Therefore greater thermal expansion corresponds to larger concentration of vacancies in mineral
structure.
Minerals are melted with atomic distance and specific volume becoming larger. The
exclusions are ice and bismuth of denser structure in fluid state. The melting heat is the energy
required for decomposition of crystal structure with formation of melt at a certain melting
tempaterature inherent of each mineral. Melting temperature falls if the concentrtaion of point
defects and isomorphous impurities.
Heating on minerals is as a rule accompanied by diffusive atom movements. Here
phenomena of disordering take place in some of them while homogenization of phases
(aggregations of solid solution disintegration products) occur in other minerals and phase
transformations (polymorphous transitions) often accompanied by volume increase, for example,
during polymorphous aragonitecalcite transformation, run in third minerals.
Thermal decomposition of minerals takes place below melting point and is manifested by
thermal dissociation, for instance, of calcite (Ca[CO3] CaO + CO) or hematite (Fe 2O3 Fe 2+
3+
Fe O 4 + O2 ) and thermal dehydration of minerals containing water, for instance, gypsum
(Ca[SO4] ∙ 2H2O Ca[SO4] + 2H2O). Some minerals are oxidated or burned in open air, i.e.,
in oxidized environment. In some cases metal (shots) is smelted during heating of certain
sulfides, oxides or salts together with their dissociation or oxidation. Sublimation or evaporation
of minerals during heating is observed for native mercury, cynnabar, realgar, orpiment, graphite,
bismuth, gold and other metals, espacially, in reducing conditions and under vacuum. Table 4.10
shows thermal methods of changing mineral properties.
Table 4.10. Thermal methods of changing mineral properties[16]
28,840 cal
Reducing to In case of low 9501050 o C Processing of lean oxidized
metallic iron effective iron ores without melting of
3Fe2O3 + CO reduction to barren rock; with production
= oxides; at of burned product
= 2Fe3O4 moderate (metallized concentrate)
+CO2 + 8870 temperatures after magnetic separation;
cal due to fine
Fe3O4 + 2CO2 impregnation
= and intimate
= 6FeO + intergrowth of
2CO2 + minerals or
9980 cal considerable
6FeO + 6CO = iron silicate
= 6Fe + 6CO2 amount
+ available
19,500 cal
3Fe2O3 + 3CO
=
= 2Fe + 3CO2
+
18,390 cal
13001350 o C with partial melting of
When solid barren rock and formation of
reductant is applied metallic shots (bar)
heat release takes separated by magnetic
place during separation of burned product
process
Oxidizing Transformatio Nutral and Roasting of siderite ores
3FeCO3 = n of irob oxidizing
3FeO + 3CO2 carnobates environment at
3FeO + CO2 = from ore to 500700 o C in shaft
Fe3O4 + CO magnetite rotary kilns and
FeCO3= Fe3O4 sinter machines
+ CO +CO2
36,700 cal
Reducing Transformatio Ferromagnetic iron In processing of complex
oxidizing n of magnetic oxide (maghemite) ironmanganese ores
2Fe3O4 + iron oxide into is formed at (Germany)
0.5O2= ferromagnetic oxidation of iron
=3Fe2O3 + oxide produced
50,000 cal after reduction of
hematite at 300
450 o C,
at above 450 o C
oxidation takes
place before
paramagnetic
modification of
iron oxide
Sintering Transformatio Burden size: 0.088 In metallurgy of aluminium
Al2O3 ∙ H2O + n of extracted mm in production of alumina
186
11501250 o C Bauxitesodalime burden
Partial 12501300 o C Nephelinelimstone burden
dissocoation Alkali or limestone
of CaCO3, are added for
then binding
(Na, K)2O ∙
Al2O3 ∙ 2SiO2
+ 4CaO =
2(Na,K)AlO2
+
2(CaO ∙ SiO2)
With soda or alkali Transformation of selenium,
at 500600 o C tellurium, tantalum,
With soda at 900 niobium, zirconium into
950 o C solution as watersoluble
sodium salts.
Sintering of tungsten
concentrates for
transformation of slightly
soluble naturally occuring
wolframites of calcium, iron
and manganese into readily
watersoluble sodium
wolframate
Chlorinating Transformatio Addition of In hydrometallurgy for
(1) 4MeS2 + n of insoluble naturally occurring precessing of roasted
11O2 = sulfides, chloric compounds: residues of pyrite ores and
2Me2O3 + oxides and NaCl, sylvinite, concentrates containing up
8SO2 silicates of carnallite, chlorine to 9099 % of copper, iron,
2MeS + 3O2= metals into gas cobalt and lead, rare and
= 2MeO + soluble noble metals, for extraction
2SO2 chlorides of metal residues; chloride
MeS + 2O2 = sublimation with fractional
MeSO4 condensation of lowboiling
(2) 2NaCl + metal chlorodes in
SO3 + 0.5O2 = metallurgy of titanium,
187
Na2SO4 + Cl2 niobium, tantalum,
2NaCl + SO2 germanium and silicon
+ O2= Na2SO4
+ Cl2
(3)
Chlorination
of metal
compounds
with chlorine
gas and
dossociation
of chlorides by
oxygen
2NaCl + SiO2 Reducing Segregation of of copper
+ H2O = atmosphere, 760 from oxidized ores
Na2SiO3 + 780 o C, small
2HCL amount of NaCl
2CuO + 4hcl= and coal
Cu2Cl2 +
2H2O +
Cl2
2Cu2Cl2 + C +
2H2O = 4Cu +
4hcl +CO2
Heating may be also applied in sorting for infrared radiation (inforametric (?) separation).
The technique is based on that minerals and rocks have different heat capacity and adsorb
different amount of heat energy. Intensity of infrared irradiation emanated is also different.
4.6.5. Leaching and Hydrometallurgy [10,75, 9396]
Leaching is performed with a view to selective transformation of metals into dissolved
state for their downstream recovery or removal of deleterious impurities. Ores and products of
ore dressing (concentrates, middlings, tailings), pyrometallurgical products (residue, matte,
anodic slime, etc.) as well as waste formed in treatment of metals and alloys) are involved into
leaching. Leaching is widely applied in production of uranium, copper, gold, zinc, molybdenum,
tungsten, aluminium and other metals. If necessary, prior to leaching the material is crushed and
ground, or “opened” during chemical treatment for transformation of the component to be
extracted from a slighly soluble compound into a readily soluble one. With this view in mind
different kinds of roasting (oxidizing, reducting, chlorinating, sulfatating), sintering, oxidation or
reduction by agitation are employed. Opening is exemplified by oxidizing roasting of sulfide
concentrates during which the metal transits to the form of oxides readily dissolving in water
solutions of alkalies (leaching of molybdenum) or acids (leaching of zinc). Commonly leaching
is performed using water solutions of inorganic acids (sulfuric, hydrochloric, nitric), alkalies
(sodium hydrate, ammonia) and salts (sodium or ammonium carbonate, cynides, etc.). A solvent
is selected judging from properties and composition of the material with account of selectivity,
188
toxicity, stability of composition, corrosive action, possible regeneration and other properties as
well as cost and shortage. Sometimes leaching is just simple dissolving (for instance, water
leaching of heavy metal compounds after sulfatating or chlorinating roasting). In most cases
dissolution in leaching is accompanied by the following processes: complexing (for example, in
gold cyaniding, sulfide or nickel treatment with ammonia solutions); exchange reaction (in
leaching of metal oxides or carbonates with acidic solutions); redox reaction (in leaching of
electrically negative metals with acids, leaching of sulfides with acidic solutions).
The leaching process consists of thre stages: supply of reacting substances to solid
surface, chemical reaction, and delivery of soluble reaction products to solution. Most often
leaching runs in the diffusive region, i.e., the 1st and 3rd stages are responsible for the process
rate. However the kinetic conditions are also possible. Here the slowest stage is the chemical
reaction of slurry (and, consequently, regularities of chemical kinetics as well as the mixed
diffusivekinetic condition are responsible for the process rate).
Higher leaching efficiency is possible due to mechanicalchemical, ultrasound, thermal
effects, in combination of leaching with ionic exchange (what is called sorptive leaching), at
elevated (up to 300 o C) temperature and higher (up to 0.5 MPa) pressure achieved in autoclaves,
and owing to different bacteria. For leaching the ore is conventionally ground to 0.0740.2 mm
(except underground and heap leaching). Leaching rate can be increased by means of intensive
agitation, heating, leaching in mills and autoclaves, etc.
Leaching of nonferrous metals from ores incorporates oxidation of sulfide minerals with
downstream dissolving of metal salts formed. Metals contained in ore as oxides are most easily
leached. Mainly sulfuric acid salts are applied as solvents. Rare elements isomorphously
replacing Cu, Pb, Zn, etc. in crystal lattice pass into solution during leaching.
Heap leaching is the method of chemical or bacterial leaching treatment of byproduct
offbalance or lean balance lumpy ores stored in dumps extraction of useful component from
which by conventional dressing or hydrometallurgical techniques is unprofitable. [74].
This technique is applied in recovery o copper, gold and uranium, Experimental works
are under way on application of heap leaching in recovery of other metals.
Water solutions of mineral (sulfuric, hydrochloric, nitric) and organic (e.g., acetic) acids,
soda, ammoinium salts, etc. are used as agents in heap leaching.
Sites for strong heaps and ore dumps are prepared by providing relevant slopes to the side
of solution collectors, covered by hydroinsulative materials (clay, asphalt, cement, hardener
solutions of synthetic resins, etc.), drainage systems in the form of perforated tubes made form
materials intert to action of leaching agents are constructed. Heap and dump height and ore
filling technique (by dozers, trucks, shovels, etc.) are chosen depending on physicochemical
properties and compactibility.
Two modes of heap leaching (infiltration and filtration), depending on
physicomechanical properties of ore, are possible. The infiltration mode is applied in heap
leaching of strong ores unsusceptible to compaction. If saturation of these ores by
irrigation with leaching agent is low, the agent fails to fill all the voids (like in the filtration
mode) and only wets the surface of ore lumps by a thin film, occupies capillars and gradually
flows down to the bottom of the site. In the filtration mode agents are supplied in a cyclic way by
alternating irrigation and settling cycles, using special irrigating devices (perforation hoses, jets,
sprayers, etc.). Cycle duration can be different (dpending on mineral and material composition of
ores). In heat leaching lumo size has no substantial value for ores with mineralization localized
by jointing because lumpiness of the broken rock mass corresponds to natural lumpiness of the
massif. In infiltration heat leaching the dominating factors for impregnated mineralization are
rate and depth of penetration of agent solution into ore lump.
In some cases prescreening of ore with selection of coarse material with low metal
content to dumps affords lower procssing costs and higher production rate of the heap leaching
plant. In other cases screening, sorting and final grinding of ore bring about an essential increase
in metal recovery (sometimes 1.51.7 time). The filtration mode is applied in heap leaching of
189
sanclay ores subject to comaction. Here the agent is supplied along holes drilled from the
surface of the heap or dump.
For more intensive heap leaching, depending on particular conditions, heaps and dumps
are aerated using perforated tubes builtup during ore filling, shock clasts, higher temperature
and solution pressure together with surfactants, etc. are employed.
When a heap laching mode is developed, the factors enlisted below must be taken into
account.
Ore composition. If there are minerals reacting with H2SO4 pH grows rapidly. This
results in conditions unfavourable to bacteria (impregnated, sulfideleaned ores, and ore
containing silicates, alumosilicates, carbonatic and secondary sulfides, CuCuS and Cu2S).
Copper is not leached from carbonatic ores with sulfuric acid and bacterial techniques.
Sulfide particle size. Oxidation rate goes up when grinding size is lower. If the operation
is not underground, grinding to 0.070.04 mm is recommended.
Temperature. If temperature goes up, bacterial oxidizing processes are decelerated and
chemical ones are accelerated. The optimal oxidizing temperature is 35 o C for iron, 2035 o C for
chalcopyrite, syhthetic sulfides of copper 30 o C, chalcocite 25 o C, arsenopyrite 30 o C, sulfide
minerals of nickel and zinc 35 o C. Oxidation of copper pyrite ores is intensified by heating of ore
by virtue of exothermal oxidizing reactions.
In particular, oxidation of FeO is accelerated by aeration and ageitation. Aeration is
performed by are blowing. It is better to use rotating rockers and magnetic mixers for agitation
Cyanation is the method of leaching gold and silver from relatively lean, fine
impregnated ores, tailings and other dressing products. It is grounded on selective dissolving of
metals in weak solutions of cyanides (NaCN, Ca(CN)2, KCN) and downstream metal
precipitation from solutions on sinc dust, ionites, activated coal.
Selectivity of dissolving is achieved by low concentration pf solution (0.030.3 % of
cyanide) due to which it slightly interacts with other ore components. Dissolution of gold and
silver in cyanic solution takes place in the presence of waterdissolved oxygen, higher oxygen
concentration intensifies the process. Cyanation is performed in alkaline environment because
hydrlysis of cyanide (CN + H2O = HCM OH ) brings about the formation of highlyvolatile
hydrocyanic acid and insoluble AuCN. Gols dissolution rate goes up with higher concentration
of CN and oxygen ions, at their ratio nearing 6. The oxygen solubility of about 8 ml corresponds
to the KCN concentration nearing 0.01 %. The leaching process theory is based on regularities
of kinetics of dissolution on heterogeneous surface (at cathodic depolaryzation with oxygen) and
diffusive dissolutioon of metals (at simultaneous diffusion of cyanide and oxygen).
Cyanation advantages are celectivity with respect to gold, silver, and other noble metals,
relatively low consumption of cyanides (0.20.5 kg/t of ore), presence of gold and silver as
anionic complexes easily separable from cationic impuritiwes on ionicexchange sorbents. There
is no expensive acidproof equipment, and process temperature is conventional.
Roasting is applied most often prior to cyanation for removal of volatile impurities
(sulfur, antimony, arsenic, bismuth, mercury, etc.), and organic substances as well. Sometyimes
sulfides are removed by preliminary alkaline treatment pr oxidation of sulfides to sulfates with
potassium permanganate. Depending on metal impregnation, cyanation at fine grinding is carried
out in machines with air agitation (...), at coarse milling in mechanical reactors. Finelyground
ore (612 mm) of adequate porosity is cyanated in percolators. Lumpy ore is leached in heaps
and dumps (especially typical of the USA). Golduraium ores are cyanatd in combination with
sulfuric acid leaching of uranium (RSA).
Highgrade gold is easy to be leached, while cupreous gold and gold tellurides are the
most difficult to be leached. Salts of Pb, Bi, Hg, Te accelerate cyanation, and sulfides as well as
ions of copper, zinc and iron make the process more difficult. Sulfides form rhodanides inert
with respect to gold, copper and zinc form soluble cyanides and films of insoluble compounds on
gold. Similar insoluble films are formed Pb(CN) ’ 2, xanthates of golf, peroxides of calcium.
190
Coarse gold is poorly cyanated, gravity methods (jigging, centrifugal machines) with
downstream amalgamation or cynation of gravity concentrates are employed for gold extraction
in grinding cycle. Precipitation (cementation) by zinc dust and activated coal is applied for gold
recovery from solutions, besides sorption on anionites. Platinum metals are separated from gold
during electrolysis (platinum and palladium are concentrated in electrolyte, with rhodium,
iridium and rhutenium in anodic slimes).
In ore preparation autogenous grinding and combination of grinding with cyanation and
cyanation with sorption are employed. Lately this process gained a large value in connection
with technology of extracting gold and silver from electronic scrap solderings. Chemical
dissolution of salts (sometimes underground) along with removal of deleterious impurities, for
example, iron oxides in dressing of phosphates, quartz sands, porassium fertilizers are connected
with leaching processes. Leaching is the first stage of hydrometallurgy which results in
production of metals by separation from solutions with methods of extraction, precipitation,
electrolysis, sorption, etc.
Copper from RioTinto deposits (Spain) in the 16th century was first extracted by
hydrometallurgical processes. Later on hydrometallurgical processes of production of many
other metals were developed: platinum (1827), nickel (1875), aluminium from bauxites (Russia,
1892), gold (New Zealand, 1889), zinc (Canada and USA, 1914) etc.
In the CIS hydrometallurgical methods are applied in production of Al, Zn, Cu, Ni, Co,
Cd, U, rare and precious metals. More than 20 % of Cu, 5070 % of Zn and Ni, 100 % of Al
oxides and Cd, Co and other metals are produced by hydrometallurgy. As compared with
pyrometallurgical processes, hydrometallurgy has rather a smaller effect on atmosphere.
Variation in leaching conditions affords different degrees of metal oxidation by action on
rate and limits of solubility of metal compounds. For example, salts of Fe 3+ , Cr 3+ , Al 3+ form
slightly soluble compounds (hydrolytical cleaning), and Fe 2+ , Ni 2+ , Co 2+ , Zn 2+ , Cd 2+ are left in
solution, U(IV) and Mo(IV) oxides, opposite to U(VI) and Mo(VI oxides, are slightly soluble.
By controlling conditions of leaching sulfide sulfur it is possible to produce sulfur in elementary
form or as sulfuric acid and its salts.
In electrolytic separation of Cu, Ni, Pb, etc. on cathode, electrically positive impurities
are left in slime of electrode baths: Au, Ag, Pt, Bi, Se, Te, As, etc. On separation of netal
containing solution and washing of tailings on filters or in thickeners, components hindering
downstrean operations or conatminating the productare precipitated (for example, redundancy of
iron in copper electrolyte results in higher power consumption though cathodic copper
composition does not deteriorate; presence of Cu, Ge, Co in zinc electrolyte prevents
precipitation of zinc on cathode). Cleaning of solutions from certain impurities permits
concentration of impurities in sdiments and further extraction in saleable form (Co in production
of nickel, Cd in production of zinc). Dilute solutions unsuitable to direct production of saleable
metals owing to technical or economic reasons are made in leaching of lean raw materials. In
these cases different techniques of concentrating and preliminary separation of mtals from
solutions are applied (for instance, cementation of copper by iron metal with downstrean
flotation: Mostovich method; nickel and cobalt are precipitated by hydrocarbon by agitation in
autoclaves from untreated solutions seperated from tailings of oxidized nickel ore leaching).
Concentrating by sorption on ionic exchange resins is employed in production of uranium,
copper, gold, etc.; sorbed metalcontaining ions are desorbed (eluated) by small amount of eluent
with concentrated solutions produced. Sorption may be combined with leaching.
Highpurity metals are produced by liquid extraction which is recovery of metals from
aqueous solutions by waterinsoluble organic substances (extractants): tributyl phosphate,
amines, carboxylic and phosphororganic acids, oxides, etc. commonly applied as kerosene
solutions. Extrcation and downstream reextraction are carried out in agitatorsettller machines,
column, centrifugal and other machines. The xxtraction rate is much higher than the rate of ionic
exchange on solid sorbents. Pur metals are extracted from solutions by electrolytic or chemical
reduction; depending on electrolysis conditions metals are produced in a compact or powder
191
form; chemical reduction by hydrogen and other gases is performed in autoclaves wiith metal
powders produced. The hydrometallurgical flowsheet ends with crystallyzation or precipitation
of a pure chemical metal compound (for instance, in aluminium or uranium production, etc.).
Amalgamation is a process of selective extraction of metals (mainly, noble ones) from
ores which is based on the ability of metals to form mercury alloys when they are wetted with
mercury. Amalgamation has been wellknown for more than 2 thousand years. G.Agricola
described the process in the 16th century. Up to the 20s of this century amalgamation had been
the leader in extraction of noble metals. Beginning from the 50s it became applied mostly in
processing gravity concentrates (flotation anf cyanation are more effective in ore
processing).[10,16].
Internal amalgamation is performed together with ore grinding, external amalgamation is
carried out on sluices: during slurry movement metals are trapped by mercury plated on copper
(sometime silverplated) sheets. Goldsilver ore is amalgamated in an alkali medium, while
platinum ore is amalgamated in an acidic medium in the presence of zinc amalgam. A
modification is electric amalgamation at which wettability is improved by means of direct
current action: mercury gains a negative charge with a positive one acquired by slurry on sluice.
Depending on the mercury to metal ratio, at an ambient temperature amalgam can be luquid,
semiliquid or solid. Extra mercury is removed from liquid and semiliquid amalgams by
filtration through suede under pressure. Amalgamation is most widely applied in gold extraction.
Solid amalgam containing 4060 % of gold is decomposed by heating uo to 750800 o C, mercury
is distilled and recycled. the gold recovery to amalgam (Depending on the rate of metal surface
exposure) sometimes achieves 99 %, 0.11 % of mercury is left in the gold sponge produced.
Mercury loss is 67 g/t of concentrate. Gold sponge is remelted. A reduced scope of
amalgamation application is caused by low rate of extractiong some gold forms in the presence
of sulfudes, especially, pyrrhotite. Amalgamation dosadvantages are that it is difficult to secure
safety measures in mercury opeartyions, and the environment contamination is possible while the
advantage is that direct and rapid recovery of gold in one operation is implemented.
4.7. Concentrating and Slection of Minerals
Mining and use of mineral resources is grounded on concentration of minerals and
chemical elements with further selection of them to individual products. Original concentration
of elements takes place in naural conditions owing to geochemical and geological processes by
which virtue mineral deposits are generated. Runofmine ore is artificially concentrated by
derssing methods.[3]. Concentrates produced undergo chemicometallurgical concentrating
processes with metals selected.
4.7.1. Dressability of Mnerals
In processing of mineral products not onle particular properties of minerals but also their
combinations and particle size are of value. Certain physical properties can be made use of in
derssing pf mineral mixture onle in a limited range of size. It must be borne in mind that many
physical properties mau be altered by chemical methpds, for example, roasting.
Tables 4.11 & 4.12 show the estimation of possible losses in dressing as a function of
structuretexture characteristics of ores. [77].
Table 4.11. Significance of morphological structure types in ore dressing [77].
Mineral grain Ore structure groups as a function of valuable component loss
shape in dressing
No losses Small losses Large losses
Idiomorphic Idiomorphic Idiomorphic
192
granular metagranular
Idiomorphicblastic
Allotriomorphic Allotriomorphic Hypidiomorphic
granular metagranular
Hypidiomorphic Poikilitoblastic
granular
Porphyroid
granular
Sideronitic
Allotriomorphic
blastic
Hypidiomorphic
blastic
Porphyroblastic
Orientation
granular
recrystallized
Orientation
granular
pressure
Colloid Convergence zonal Aphanicgranular
recrystallized Aphanic
metagranular
Gel
Colloform
Colloform
metacolloid
Emulsion Solidsolution
decomposition
emulsion
Laminated Cataclastic Laminated, grating,
crumpled reticulate, zonal
solidsolution
decomposition
Relict Skeleton, relict and
eroded corrosive
Fragments Crushed
Granoblastic
Debris Porphyroclastic
Orientation clastic
Table 4.12. Significance of morphological texture types in ore dressing. [77].
Mineral aggregate Ore texture groups as a function of valuable component loss in
shape dressing
No losses Small losses Large losses
Streaks,interlayers Banded and Banded, diffusive
and other pseudolayer banded
mineralizations liquation and metasomatically
crystallization replaced
Banded, layer and
lensshaped
sedimentary and
193
diagenetic
Banded, incrustate
voidfilled
Shaly, plicated,
greissous crushed
and crumpled
Shaly, plicated,
lensshaped and
greissous flowed
and recrystallized
Veinlets and Veinlet liquated Veinlet, filiform,
dendrites and crystallized reticulate, grating,
Veinlet and subgraphically
piercing replaced
sedimentary and Sudgraphic and
diagenetic graphic flowed and
Veinlet voidfilled recrystallized
Veinlet weathering
voidfilled Filiform, netted,
reticulate, grating,
subgraphic and
graphic weathering
Cement Cement
sedimentary and
diagenetic
Cement
metasomatically
replaced
Cement weathering
Balls, oolites, Nodular liquated Impregnated and Emulsionlike
pseudooolites, and crystallized spotty liquated and metasomaticall
nodules and other Oolite, pseudo crystallized replaced
mineralizations oolite sedimented Cocarde, spotty
and diagenetic meta
somatically
replaced
Ocellar Impregnated and
metamorphized spotty
Secreation, metasomatically
concretion replaced
cocarde and geode
weathering
Organogenic Organogenic
sedimented and
diagenetic
Sinter Colloform
metacolloid,
convergence zonal,
swedimented and
diagenetic
Colloform
metacolloid,
194
breadcrust,
stalactite ans
stalagmite
weathering
Limbate Cocarde voidfilled Reactionlimbate
metasorphism
Limbate, bread
crust
metasomatically
replaced
Limbate and bread
crust weathering
Debris Conglomerate
sedimented and
diagenetic
Detrital weathering
Fragments Breccia liquated Brecciform
and crystallized liquation and
crystallization
Breccia voidfilled Brecciform
Breccia crushed metasomatic
and crumpled replacement
Breciia weathering Brecciform
weathering
Relict Skeleton,
crumbledrelict
metasomatic
replacement
Relictcrumbled
weathering
Framework Porous vesicular,
spongy, cellular,
box and cavernous
weathering
Indefinable Massive for any
genetic group
Earthy, powdery
weathering
Earthy and
powdery
metamorphic
Earthy, powdery
sedimentation and
diagenetic
All separating proceses are based on differences in physical and chemical properties of
particles to be separated, in ability to form these or those compounds. Serating process efficiency
depends on many parameters: degree of difference of factors taken as defining for the method,
sequence of application and combination of methods, choice of separating machinery, conditions
of process running.
Existing classifications of separating processes for the most part are grounded on one
symptom. For instance, gravitational separation methods are based on density of minerals.
195
Differences in hardness and fragility are used in srting and opening of grains at the stage
of preparation for dressing, while differences in reflectivity and absorptivity of minerals are
made use of in derssing for colour, lustre and transparency. Liminescence intrinsic and induced
radioactivity is in the besis of photo and raiometric dressing methods. Magnetic and
electromagnetic separatuion is grounded on differences in magnetic susceptibility of moineral
particles, with dielectric separation on differences in dielectric permeability. Discrepancies in
properties, like shape, triboelectrization and cracking during heating and cooling are used.
Chemical properties of minerals are responsible for possible application of hydrometallurgical
processes. For example, different solubulity of minerals in inorganic solvents are made use of in
leaching.
Selective wettability of mineral surface is one defining characteristic of floatability of
mineral particles. wettability is varied by selection of corresponding agents. Use of magnetic.
electrochemical, virating, highfrequency, radiation and other actions affords alteration in surface
properties of minerals, properties and composition of liquid slurry phase, physical properties of
solid material. etc., which is applied for improving separation processes provided action
conditions are correspondingly chosen.[3,11].
Choice of separating process is closely connected with particle size, besides physical and
physicochemical properties of minerals. This parameter is the basic limiter of applicability of
any method (Tables 4.13 & 4.14).[11].
Table 4.13. Classification of mineral regregations by size and methods of their
recovery from ores
Mineral segregations Dominating size, mm Technologocal processes
applied in recovery of mineral
segregations
Large 202 Jigging, heavymedia
separation, magnetic separation
Fine 20.2 Table concentration, magnetic
separation, heavymedia
separation, electric separation,
foam separation
Thin 0.20.02 Flotation, special table
concentration, hydrometallurgy
Very thin (emulsion) 0.020.002 Flotation, hydrometallurgy
Submicroscopic 0.0020.0002 Hydrometallurgy
Colloiddisperse >0.0002 Ditto
Table 4.14. Processes of mineral separation at different size of minerall particles
The basic properties for mineral selection
Size of Density Magneti Electrical Wettability Solubility
particles, sation conduc and adsorption
mm tivity ability
> 10 Heavy Dry magnetic Separation of Under
suspension; separation metallic ground
jigging nuggets leaching
101 Heavy medium; Wet magnetic Electrostatic Foam Heap
jagging; table; separation separation; leaching
196
spiral; separation
10.02 High frequency Wet Electrostatic Flotation Tank,
jigging; slime magnetic; coronal bacteria
table; stream magnetic separation leaching
separator hydrostatic
separation
< 0.02 Poligradient Electro Ultra Tank,
magnetic, filtration flotation, bacteria
wetstream electro leaching
magnetic flotation, ion
separation flotation
A certain rate of ore gringing with relevant size of product particles is chosen depending
on impregnation size of minerals to be extracted. Here distribution in impregnation is responsible
for possible application of some methods of preliminary dressing withn selection of barren rock
part or collective concentrates, for instance, heavy concentrates in processing of placers.
4.7.2. Separating Processes
Processes of separating components, mineral complexes, solutions and other mixtures
occupy a significant place in the uptodate technology of mineral products, water treatment, oil
refining, processing of agricultural products, etc. Here experience gained in each branch is of
great interest for developing innovative processes and machines in mineralurgy. [3,97].
There is a number of consequtive steps in separating minerals (Table 4.15).
Table 4.15. Mineral separation steps
(b) Triboadhesive separatuon
4. Flotation and (a) Collective flotation
flocculation
(b) Selective flotation
(c) Foam separation
(d) Selective flocculation
III. Final operation 1. Flotation Final flotation
2. Magnetic separation Polygradient separation
3. Chemical dressing (a) Leaching
(b) Sorption
(c) Extraction
(d) Ionic exchange
(e) Ionic flotation, electric
flotation
4. Dewatering (a) Thickening
(b) Filtration
(c) Drying
IV. Recycling 1. Water circulation (a) Thickening
(b) Flocculation
(c) Ionic flocculation, electric
flotation
(d) Water preparation and
water conditioning
2. Recycling and (a) Inwash of dams and
storage of tailings storage of tailings
(b) Production of fill
(c) Production of cement,
lime, bricks and other
building materials
(d) Leaching of dumps
A totality of crushing, screening, preconcentrating, grinding and sorting is defined as ore
preparation process.
Preparation of particles for separating may include the operations indicated below.
1. Treatment by chemical agents which is applied mainly in flotation and in electrostatic
separation and filter separation as well. Selectivity of agent adsorption can be raised by
electrochemical, thermal (steaming), radiation, ultrasound and magnetic methods of processing
minerals, slurry and agent solutions.
2. Washing applied for removal of slime coats from particles prior to photometric or
luminiscent sorting, so,etimes before flotation. Washing can be intensified by vibration,
ultrsound, addition of prtizing agets (liquid glass, etc.), abrasive substances (quartz sand) and
solib sorbents (acrivated coal, zeolites, etc.).
3. Electrostatic surface charging prior to electric separation by electrostatic, triboadhesive
and thermoelectronic methods.
4. Radioactivation of particles, mainly in radiometric sorting. It may be also of use in
electrostatic separation and flotation. The radiation types are X, g, brays (electrons), neutron
radiation, ultraviolet light.
5. Thermal treatment , prior to any dressing process, by oxidizing, sulfatation, reduction,
magnetizing, sintering, chlorinating rostion or crepitation, steaming, electrolysis, HF current,
infrared irradiation.
198
6. Chemical decomposition or transition to soluble form before leaching, treatment with
acids (H2SO4), Hcl, HF), alkalies (NaOH, Na2CO3) and complexing agents (NaCN, etc.),
bacterial methods (Fig.4.17).
Material ground approximately to 200100 m and below is basically dressed. This step is
split to three stages: preapration of particles for separation (Fig.4.19), creation of concentrtaion
gradient with different properties (Fig.4.20), and selection of dressing products (Fig.4.21).
Rough concentrates (collective or mono) produced as a result of the basic derssing
process are finally processed or selected. Here either repeated operations (for example, recleaner
flotations) or chemicalhydrometallurgical processes are used, if production of prime material
required removal of components at the very fine level of inclusion (colloiddisperse,
isomorphous, etc.). Final processing ends with operations of dewatering finished products.
At last, stateoftheart production calls for examination of the step of storage or
recycling of waste. This step is split to two stages: (1) use of liquid phase for water circulation
and extraction of soluble components, and (2) utilization of solid phase, storage into tailings
dumps, filling of minedout mine areas, production of building materials and other byproducts.
Creation of particle concentration gradient is transfer of partciles with certain properties
to one place and particles with other properties to another place. Here the operaions depicted
below should be noted.
1. Arrangement of phases and interphase boundaries. The space of a sepraor may be
singlephase, dualphase or multiphase. In the last two cases of dominating value in the
separating process are phase boundaries: solid water organic liquid gas (most often air).
Types of interphase boundaries and forces acting on the boundaries are given in Table
4.16. [11].
Table 4.16. Forces acting on phase boundaries
Phase Phase
Solid Water Organic liquid Gas
Solid Adhesion Hydration Surface tension Adsorption
Water No boundary Interphase Surface tension
tension
Organic liquid Intephase Ditto
tension, if
there is no
mutual soluton
Gas No boundary
Consequtive action of different forces may occur in multiphase systems. Introduction of
a third phase creates an effect of carrier. Separation using carriers (liquid, solid or gaseous) are
widely applied. For instance, during flotation of fine slime with a carrier fisrt selective
attachment of slome on the surface of a hydrophobic carrier takes place, then carrier particles are
attached to air bubbles which can be considered as a carrier in a gravitational field in an aqueous
medium.
Magnetic carriers may be applied, for example, in flotation of lowmagnetic manganese
slime. Mechanism of interaction of extractable components with carrier may be various:
adsorption (including, with preliminary carrier treatment with agents),
magnetis or electric interaction as well as soluting extractable substances in liquid carrier.
Design arrangement of process of separating with a carrier is different: from carrier
dispersing in the separating medium to slurry penetration of the carrier layer, for example,
extraction of microscopic hydrophobic particles by means of slurry passage through screens or
the hydrophobicsurface layer. It should be noted that a carrier effect emerges as a result of
interaction of extractable particles. For instance, in flotation flocculation of hydrophobized
199
particles affords an extraction of fine slime to foam product. The carrier effect can be intensified
by higher concentration of hydrophobic particles through introducing of earlier floated
concentrate into the slurry as in jet flotation, in flowsheets with tuen and circulation of
middlings.
Such process can be imaginedd with fivesix carriers: flotation of fine slime with an
adhesive disposal of foam and an agenthydrophobized carrier applied. Here an adhesive drum
may be taken as a carrier permitting a more selective removal of foam product and a production
of highergrade concentrate.
Greater process efficiency is possible if the phase boundary surface is increased owing to
dispersing of phases through imtensive agitation, imposition of vibrations up to ultrasound ones,
aeration, introduction of surfactants, stabilizera (emulsions, micelle) or peptizers, when phase
boundary forces go up, temperature is changed, and magnetic and electric fields are applied.
2. Superimposition of force field. [97].
Mineral complexes must be selected in the gravitational, magnetic, electric, adsorption
chemical fields and their interactions. Their combination, and superposition of vibration fields of
different frequency, as well as introduction of airbubbles and fluid or solid carriers, provide
conditions for intensification of the selection process. Flocculation, coagulation, adherence,
sorption of chemical reagents permit accelerated mineral concentration. Each field determines
limits for its use in ore treatment in connection with the distributed probability of a particle
property. ýFor example, electrochemical treatment of each mineral particle by itself affects
flotation, but cannot be used in flotation plants because of the variance of particle characteristics.
This permits diagnosis of the possibility of recovery of valuable components from ore, ways of
complex use of raw material, and a prospective technology for a scheme of ore treatment. In
approaching this problem we accumulated the information in accordance with this classification,
indicating the ways for diagnosis of mineral complexes. The correspondence between ores is
examined in the technological sense.
Establishment of selective process.
Unlike chemical ions and molecules, as well as macroaggregates, mineral selection
processes have the following distinctive features:
there is a spectrum of particles with intermediate properties ( for example, concretions);
the probability of whose extraction in concentrates or tailings depends on process condition;
the efficiency of the selection process depends on the distribution of particle sizes; each
oredressing apparatus has its own optimum of particle sizes;
the processes are subject to the laws of statistics and probability theory; it is impossible to
achieve 100% extraction or concentrate quality.
The natural properties of mineral particles may be modified for optimal selectivity in
different ways:
200
Treatment by chemical reagents used for flotation and electrostatic separation; the
selectivity of reagent adsorption can be improved through electrochemical treatment of the
reagents solutions; steaming, ultrasonic, radiation, magnetic treatment of pulps.
Washing and desliming prior to photometric or luminescent sorting, sometimes flotation.
These processes can be intensified by vibration, addition of peptizingagent, abrasives (sand),
solid sorbents ( coal, zeolites), etc.
Thermal treatment: roasting, reduction, oxidizing, sulfating, sintering etc. for leaching and
magnetic separation; highfrequency current; decrepitation.
Surface charging by radiation, electrostatic, frictional adhesion for electroseparation.
Preparation of the ores includes grinding to 100 or 200 microns, choice of the process is
dictated by the size spectrum (Table 4.14).
The general process of mineral benefication is based on creation of a concentration gradient
in the force fields. Separation takes place either inside the phase (water, organic liquid, air) or at
the phases interfaces (waterair, watersolid, solidgas, waterorganic liquid). The forces inside
the phases are: gravity, magnetic, electric. The forces at the interfaces are: adhesion, adsorption,
hydration, surface tension. Mineral processing uses all these forces (Table 4.17) and their
combinations (Table 4.18).
Use of force fields and effects
Oredressing Force fields and effects .
processes ultrasound, vibration electric magnetic chemical
highfrequency
vibration
Gravity High Tables; heavy Magnetic Gravity Heavy
concentration frequency suspension; hydrostatic magnetic suspension
jigging lock; jagging separation with surface
active reagent
Magnetic + + Magnetic Super Treatment by
separation hydro magnetic magnetic
dynamic separation liquids
Electric + Vibro Tribo Electro Treatment by
separation electric adhesion magnetic reagent prior to
separation separation separation electric
separation
Flotation Dispersion Flotation in Electro Floto All kinds of
201
The interface activity can be improved by increase of the surface dispersion of the carriers.
The methods of dispersion are agitation, vibration, ultrasound, addition of surfaceactive
substances, peptizing agents, elevated temperatures. Many chemical reagents can be used in all
processes, not only in flotation. Considerable importance attaches to surfaceactive agents,
flocculants, coagulants, etc.
A radical alternative is imposition of another field.
The gravity field is always present, but its forces can be enhanced by imposition of a
centrifugal force in a rectilinear or spiral flow in an apparatus (for example, concentration in a
hydrocyclone). Magnetic or electric forces can be superposed on the gravity field. This idea was
realized in magnetichydrostatic and magnetichydrodynamic apparatus.
If separation takes place under superposed fields, we have to deal with a combined process;
if it takes place in tandem fields, we have a combined technology. A combined process yields
cleaner concentrates, but a combined technology yields fuller extraction of the mineral.
Tables 4.1418 indicate a new possibility in mineral processing synthesis, as well as of new
apparatus in the existing fields. These processes utilize the phase state of the minerals. To put it
differently, the minerals are not smelted, or sublimated, or dissolved, etc. We use organic liquids,
solidliquid suspension, combinations of fields, as well as threephase interfaces.
There may be different variants of mineral treatment apparatus in the same phase or phases
interface. For example, for the solidwater interface with adsorbtivechemical forces there are
amalgamation, ion exchange, flotation by solid wall, concentration of diamonds on an adhesive
surface, extraction of gold fines by activated coal, etc. The gravitation processes also have many
different variants.
Removal of products ( concentrates and tailings) outside the separation apparatus is of great
importance. This process can be realized under static or dynamic regimes. As a rule, under a
static regime a calm zone inside the appratus can be initiated, where separation of particles take
place ( for example, the heavy medium separator). A dynamic regime operates via the
differential velocities of the particles or streams. The efficiency of separation can be enhanced by
imposition of fields, for example, vibration, etc.
. Separation cascades
The rate of separation governs, on the one hand, the capacity apparatus, and on the other,
the separation selectivity.[5]. Both purposes are achieved on a cascade, from which the optimum
materials can be drawn in each apparatus.[6].
Optimization of separation cascades and apparatuses is based on the rule of minimum
desconcentration of mixing flow products. When two flows with different concentrations
(contents) of the extraction components are mixed, there is loss of separation work and
203
deterioration of the separation process. Thus, pure and reach materials (in terms of the content of
extraction components) should be treated in the different apparatuses. By the same a reasoning,
an apparatus with ideal displacement (interrupted action) is more efficient as separator, then one
with ideal mixing (uninterrupted action), but has less capacity. This conclusion can be
interpreted by the sequence of probabilities of particle and carrier interaction; these
probabilities are in direct proportion to concentration of extraction particles. Their content in the
separation zone decreases as the concentrate and pure product are mixed in the bulk of the
separator.
In uninterrupted processes arrival of new raw material, drawing of concentrate and tailing
take place in time. The optimum rate of drawing and capacity depend on the structure of the
cascade of operations. It is possible to calculate the relations between primary, recovery and re
cleaning cycles. In some cases a secondary concentration of the rich product may be effective.
Separating processes are improved by different irradtion, various force fileds and
frequency actions applied. Table 4.17 shows the examples of existing or possible combinations
of force fields many of which were implementd in dressing practice. Chemical agents are
appllied virtually in any basic dressing processes, from gravity separation till product
dewatering.
Tables 4.18 and 4.18a present the classification of separating processes unassociated with
changes in the aggregate state of separable substances available in the original heterogeneous
mixture. These processes, mostly of dressing and hydrometallurgical character, do not involve
melting, evaporation, crysrallization, sublimation and condensation of separable substances.
Processes running in a single phase are the simplest ones. There may be a combination of two
force fileds, for instance, in magnetohydrodynamic separation.
It is evident from the table that there is a stock of processes not applied as yet. The
majority of them is connected with organic liquids too expensive so far (even if regenerated) for
dressing of a larger part of mineralproducts. Another potential of innovative separating processes
is a combination of magnetic field with adsorptivechemical or gravity action.
Table 4.18. Classification of separating processes
Phase Field
gravitational magnetic adsorptive gravitational gravitational magnetic gravitational
electric chemical magnetic adsorptive electric magnetic
electric chemical adsorptive electric
chemical adosrptive
chemical
Air Air separation Electrostatic Not applied Dry magnetic Not applied Electrostatic Not applied
separation separtion (rectification) separation with
agents
Water Gravitation Wet magnetic Leaching, MHD Not applied Electrolysis Separation of
separation segragation of separation (carrier noble metal
surfactants gravitation) slime after
electrolysis
Organic liquid Heavymedia Dielectric Not applied Not applied Not applied Not applied Not applied
separation separation
Airwater Flotation of Not applied Ionic flotation Not applied Foam Not applied Not applied
naturally (carrier bubble (magnetic field flotationusing (ionic flotation (foam flotation
occurring flotation) flotation) agents, film in magnetic in magnetic
hydrophobic flotation field) field)
minerals
Airorganic Not applied Not applied Not applied Not applied Not applied Not applied Not applied
fluid
(flotation processes in organic liquid which are similar to processes in water medium)
Airsolid Dressing by Magnetic Gas Not applied Not applied Triboadhesive Ditto
friction, separation with chromatograph (inclinedplane separation
elasticity or magnet sunk in y (radiometric dressing in
shape material sorting) magnetic field)
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Table 4.18. Classification of separating processes and possible combinations
by class
We shall examine the efficiency of combined flowsheets and combined
processes performed by means of combination of effects in a single machine from the
viewpoint of probbable losses (underrecovery) of valuable components and probable
contamination of the concentrate with foregn particles.
If the entry product is sequentially delivered to two processes, probable losses
are added together. For example, in the first process the recovery e1 is 0.9, and in the
second process e2 is 0.8, the total recovery according to the combined flowsheet e =
e1∙ e2= 0.9 ∙ 0.8 = 0.72. In the process the losses 1 e = 0.1, in the second process the
losses are applied only to the material which emerged from the first process: e1(1 e2)
= 0.9 ∙ (1 0.8) = 0.18. The total losses 0.1 + 0.18 = 1 0.72 = 0.28.
207
In the combined process the entire material is simultaneously subject to
both actions. Therefore the losses are estimated as the product of probabilities: (1 e1)
(1 e2) = 0.1 ∙ 0.2 = 0.01. In the first and second process the respective recovery e1 =
0.9 and e2 = 0.8, a part of losses connected with the first interaction, i.e., 0.1 ∙ 0.8 =
0.08. The total recovery e = 0.9 + 0.08 = 1 0.02 = 0.98.
The combined process is more economical that the corresponding combined
flowsheet from the viewpoint of recovery.
As far as the concentrate quality is concerned, contamination of concentrate
with foregn particles will be higher in a combined process than with a combined
flowsheet.
Recovery and quality of concentrate is as a rule better in cases when content of
extractable component is higher. Therefore when two flows with a different contetnt
of extractable component are mixed, a part of separation work is as if lost, i.e.,
imooverishment of entry stock causes lower efficiency of the separating process in
which the impovershed mixture was processed in comparison with the total efficiency
of particular processes in which lean and highgrade materials were individually
treated. This can be also explained from stattical viewpoint, bearing in mind that
probability of separating any particle depends on the propbability of its collision with
a carrier or the probability of penetrating a certain zone of the separating machine;
these probabilities are proportional to the concenrtaion of an extractable substance in
the mixture. Based on the same statistical approach, in case on a continuous process
the recovery in machines with perfect agitation should be estimated to be at a lower
level than in machines with perfect focring out or in a batch process which is
connected with impoverishment of more highgrade feedstock with lowgrade
chamber product in a continuous process during agitation. This circumstance is
necessary to be taken into account in the layout of combined flowsheets and in the
comparison with combined proceseese. On the other hand, there must be borne in
mind a positive effect of material blending from the viewpoint of possible choice of a
steadystate optimal mode of separating with online process control.
A part of the phase is taken off during seprating in air phase. Dressing
products are selected fairly simply and definitely in air, electrostatic and dry magnetic
separtion machines. in mechanical sorting sampling frequency depends on clear
identification of ore limps. In solidphase separation ther are applied scrapingoff
(amalgamation, solidwall flotation, adhesive flotation, magnetic separation) and
washingout (sluices, concentration tables). In liquidphase separation a part of the
phase (layer) is taken off or the film is removed from the surface. In multiphase
separation one of the phases is slelected. In particular, air phase can be presented with
a folam layer.
The contunuity of the process involves staedy feed of makeup material and
product selection. better separation can be achieved by evaluation an optimal slection
velocity and machine production rate in entry material, secondary concentrtaion in the
selection zone, for instance, in the foam flotation layer, and engineering techniquies
preventing agitation during selection.
Cascade process layout envisages interrelation of basic, control and recleaner
operations. Process improvement may result from optimal circulation of recycled
middlings, counterflows and jet flowsheets arranged.
4.8. Prediction of Ore Dressability
4.8.1. Dressability of Genetic Complexes
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Up to recently geological and technological studies of ore complexex have
been as a rule carried out individually, both in time and methodically. Moreover,
geological data used by dressing enginners have been restricted to the analysis of
material composition of ores.
Available classifications of ores by dressability which are based on
technological symptoms do not as a rule take into account genetic classification of
geologists. Accordingly, geologists indicating only contnet of valuable components
and minerals do not examine technoligical properties of the ore. We have undertaken
an attempt to make up an interconnected genetictechnological classification of ores.
The genesis of deposits and paragenesis of minerals determine the treatment
technology of ores. An optimum correspondence exists between the mineralogy of an
ore and technological circuit.[11,97]. It is necessary for the mining industry and for
estimation of mineral resources to obtain information on mineralogical and
benefication data in each concrete case. Experience in ore benefication makes it
possible to diagnose the technology of ore dressing on the basis of superposition of
mineral properties, their mutual intergrowth, dissemination and distribution of the
contents in the ore. An apriori diagnosis ensures for the investigator an optimum way
for the technology project and the raw material used.
The information system for this aim is based: 1) On the prognoses of behavior of
minerals (for fixed size and mineralogical complex); 2) On the experience in dressing
ores of this type (geological genesis).
System of ore diagnosis
Diagnosis of ore treatment technology must be correlated with the contents of
minerals, their sizes and genesis of deposit.[3,11]. First, we created scales of
minerals concentration on the basis of their physical and chemical properties. The
scales include the ranges of density, magnetic susceptibility, solubility, etc. The table
of minerals flotabiliy include reagent regimes. These scales and tables facilitate
choice of the sequence of separation processes.
The following table contains and patented methods for dressing of ores of
differant genesis types. It is based on experience in ore dressing plants and
investigations of ore benefication. The ore and plant analogues are particularly
useful.
Obviously, the diagnosis system must be combined with experimental research
of ores and technology.[17]. The tables, scales, modeling, simulation, calculation and
design of technology are very useful in creation of mineral separation processes.
Table 4.19 gives the classification of genetic types of nonferrous metals ore
fomations together with the dressing methods.
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Table 4.19. Genetic types of ore formations, mineral complexes and
dressability
4.8.2. Statement of Mining Process Problems of Ore Dressing
Natural mineral complexes feature genesis, mineral composition and other
geologicalminegalogical parameters examined hereinbefore. Diversified oredressing
problems can be solved by comparison of properties of minerals which ore is
composed of. Table 4.20 indicates the stages of solving some dressing problems. It is
evident from the table that though solution stages may differ they can be solved by
common methodic and mathematical mthods.
System analysis involves maximum account of interaction between projects
under study and solutions using tools of decisionmaking, simulation and
optimization. It permits analysis of the process at different modifications of
decomposition which results in its being applied as unique methodological approach
both in online control, engineering, planning and study for dressability and in
acquisition and assessment of apriori information.
Envisaging interrelation of forecast problems and generality of dataware, we
shall make up a schedule of data application and handling in mineral dressing
(Fig.4.22).
While considering the following four forecast types: (1) mineral product
quality forecast, (2) technological demand forecast, (3) production process and
equipment forecast, and (4) technoeconomic indicator forecast, we understand that
data of geological prospecting are the information source for the first forecast. The
second forecast type is upported by th information of virtually any type except data on
performance of existing undertakings, the third foecast type calls for information on
processes and equipment of existing plants, results of studies for dressability as well
as bibliographic and patent information which is input into forecasting from
information retrieval system on technology. Geological prospecting data and plant
perfomance are the information for developing the fourth forecast type.
232
The schedule shows that these forecasts are used in longrange planning,
dressabilty studies, process improvement, development of computerized design and
process control systems.
Information support structure must be in line with initial data on
characteristics of ore entering the dressability study. They include genetic deposit
type, mineral composition, petrographic composition with impregnation estimate.
Accoring to this, information support structure is split into retrieval of dressing
nethods for this ore type and retrival of separating methods for certain minerals
depending on particle size.
Table 4.20. Dressing problem solution stages
Taking into accout application of computers for information accumulation,
retrieval and analysis, requirements of system approach in solving prediction
problems, derssability studies, engineering, and control, the problems enslisted below
are posed:
(1) classification of dressing information by type of ore deposits, technological
processes, process intensification methods, mineral dressabilioty based on physical
234
optical properties and luminiscence, natuarl and induced radioactivity, solubility of
minerals in inorganic solvents, dressability using becterial leaching method and
antecedent alteration of mineral properties by means of thermal effectc, and by
floatability;
(2) acquisition and presentation of technological information in a table form,
correction, supplementation and processing;
(3) costruction of systems of selecting rational schemes of ore dressability
studies;
(4) study of possible application of available information in practice during
choice of schedules of dressability investigations, processing technology
improvement, online dressing process control and longrange planning.
The interrelated consideration of information on dressing processes and
mineral dressability affords development of a folmalized system of selection of
rational ore dressability study schedules and directions of technological improvements
with regard to uptodate requirements to dressing circuits.
4.8.3. Information Support of Ore Dressing Problems
Multiaspect problems of technlogical mineralogy, enormous massif
unsystemozed infromation and poteial of applying the same information in different
tasks (inbestigation, engineering, development of computerized control systems, etc.)
calls for elaboration of a united system of information support.
Statement of this question is connectd with transition from conventional
methods of information accumulation and analysis to presentation of information in a
formalized form whic is classified and easily coded for imput into computer memory.
Information must supprt solution of several inteerelated tasks:
identification and classification of minerals complexes subject to separation,
selection and synthesis of nnovative processes of mineral separation,
synthesis of ore dressing flowsheets with optimization by stages of or e
preparation, dressing and final processing,
control of derssing process based on variablestructure models,
identification and alteration mineral properties for extraction of valuabal
components from oresm using different physical and chemical actions.
Classified information accumulated in a certain way affords solution of thw
whole number of apriori prediction problems.
Sophistication and variery of ore complexes, flowshetts and methods of
dressing involve increase in derssability study scope. However, the mass nature of
these studies have not brought about their standardization so far, and consequently the
possibility of using tgeir results for generalization, classification and diagnostics of
ores.
From this viewpoit a unique value ia attributed to apriori estimation of mineral
product dressablity, account and application of all potential methods of valuable
component extraction. When new ore is studied or a technology is improved, not onle
uptodate processes and machines should be used but also promising methods of their
combination, possible application of physical and chemical actions intensifying
mineral complex separation processes must be borne in mind.
This problem is posed not onle when a derssability study plan is made up and
it is necessaryu to take into account any promising processing schedul subjetc to be
experimentally verified but also when economic planning questions are settled. In the
last case it is of great importance to make tentative estimation of mineral resource
reserves, among them, romising ones, and predictive reserves for which investigation
samles canot be obtained so far and expensive detailed studies have no sense to be
carried out. [17].
235
In so doing, it is requierd to have a prompt apriori ore dressability
estimation which permits, let it be approximately, a forecast of possible processing
scheme and process parameters.
A system of predicting mineral product processing technology cannot be
created without close interconnectaion of all links of such a system, and in the first
place the connection with cmputerized systems of information retrieval, engineering
and control.
A predictive system is difficult to be developed which is predetermined by
absence osimilar elaborations and standardized system of dressability studies,
nonavailability of information on dressability of mineral variants and peculiarities of
each ore deposit nature. Nevertheless urgency if the problem and a high uptodate
investigation level permits a statement to be made that the problem of apriori
dressability prediction and forcast of ore dressing technology development can be
graduaaly solved.
Data on minerals and separating processes allows a number of classifications
ri be given, promising new process synthesis methods to be identified, technoclogocal
development in aconnection with mineral produc quality forecast to be envisaged.
An attempt to link a genetic and dressing classifications of deposits may turn
out to be useful not only to geologists but also to dressing engineers. Promising
combined and hydrometallurgica processes which are nore and more used in mineral
processing technology, different methods of action on mineral (bacterial, tehrmal,
electrochemical, ultrasound, etc.)...
We have tried to present the basic material in a table form suitable for further
coding and input into a computer. It can be a basis for developng an algorithm of
apriori selection of process flowsheets.
A number of handicaps associated with sophisticated nature of predicting ore
dressability and mineral behaviour alteration can appear during the elaboration of a
dressing circuit. Numerous examples of deviations of ore from normal behaviour in
the dressing process can be cited here. However it must be taken into accpunt that
almost always a reason for such deviations connected with physical, mineralogical or
geological ore peculiarities can be found. A comlex of preliminary studies inclusing
mineralogical, fractional, granulometric ore analyses, and certain investigations of
physical propeties of minetals which the ore is composed of permit an imvestigation
schedule to be outlined.
It must be noted that prodiction of mineral dressability keeps behind similar
investigations to a considerable extent in applied fields , in particular, in geology and
mineral mining. Forcast of promising areas of mineral search, deposit mining systems,
and other problems seem to be easier for formalized computer analysis.
Selection of rational schemes of ore processing with maximum account of all
information accumulated is essentially important with modern scopes of deposit
mining and mass dressability investigations. It may be reliably guaranteed by
application of an information retrieval system of ore dressability since subjective
experience of a researcher is not always adequately full.
A variety of scheem modifications can be made up based on existing methods.
the scheems will differ in the operation order and the operations proper. In this
connection ther appears a necessity of preliminary substantiated choice of schemes
due to be checked up with aview to shortening s stage of experimental study. There
are no definite rules of scheme selection, a correct choice depends on rsearcher’s
experience, availability of information on methods and techniques of derssing similar
raw materials, achievements in derssing technology in general.
An apriori estimation of dressability which affords prediction of possible
processing scheme and process parameters can be made based on application of
236
information on derssing practice and process investigation of similar ores as well
as on patent information in order to establish the most promising directions of studies.
A considerable statistical and experimental material on a majority of industrial
minerals, operation of concentrators and research laboratories which is generalized
and input in computers will permite several scheme variants to be marked from which
one scheme is selected and and tuned.
With mineralogical analysis data available, it is possible to apply scales of
mineral dressability by different existing methods: gravitational, magnetic,
electrostatic, flotation and hydrometallurgical. Minerals distributed based on
properties applied in derssing by any method affords them to be grouped so that the
minerals which will be selected to an individual product onthis or hat machine will
turn out to be in one block. A differentiated classification of minerals by floatability
can be used in the basis of a flotation dressing scle. Each sale should be superimposed
by a number of conditions, restrictions amd characteristics corresponding to each
method, machine or economic factors. Three main variants in dressability may be
chosen: as much as possible full extraction of one valuable component, selection of
maximum quantity of barren rock at minimum grinding rate or maximum extraction
of all valuable components to bulk concentrate with maximum separation of barren
rock. The operations enlisted below are chosen for each of the variants.
By analogy with the task prosed it must be poited to the gains of computer
diagnostics and information retrieval in medicine which object is a human organism:
a system, in any case, no less complex tha ore deposits. When applying to medical
diagnostics practice, two main distinctions of the system under examination must be
borne in mind: (a) in ore dressability diagnostics optimization is established by the
task not to omit an effective dressing circuit even in case experimental scope is
enlarged by checkup of a large number of schemes, (b) in ore studies statistical
sampling is substantially narrower with a smaller number of diagnostical symptoms
than in medicine.
A umque character of a majority of deposits makes it problematic to give an
accurate ore identification by mineralogical and petrographic properties and
dressability. Availability of a large number of sumptoms and mineral properties
unidentified during routine mineralogical studies has a substantial effct on their
behaviour in dressing. The role of genetic mineral peculiarities are more than once
stressed in dressing studies. Moreover, there are no standardized methods for
dressabilities studies which permit rsults of all investigations to be applied as initial
information for diagnostics.
Diagnostics practice in medicine, machinebuilding, biology makes it possible
to give shape to basic concepts also in mineral processing technoclogy. First of all, an
computerized system of technical diagnosis must not exclude a man and his sunjective
experience from the process of decisionmaking but on the contrary must be
developed based on manmachine dialog in which he machine is entrusted with
retrieval of information in accumulated practice memory, computations and sampling
of possible variants according to the rules of combination theory.
Accordingly, the diagnostic process must be constructed as a dynamic
procedure including primary diagnosis and recommendation on preliminary
investigations, clarified diagnosis with account of results of these investigations,
detailed investigations, final diagnosis and making of design solutions.
Different optimization criteria which are responsible for each stage logics are
put forward at different stages. At the last stage diagnostics is incorporated as a
constituent part into the developemnt of a process control algorithm depending on
disturbing actionsconnected with possible deviations in quality of entry material. This
circumstance gains a particular value owing to the modern trend of simultaneous
engineering of process flowsheet and computerized process control for the flowsheet.
237
The most significant aspect in constructing the diagnostics system is
arrangement of algorithm selflearning, i.e., deliberate improvement of diagnostics
quality as experience is accumulated by the diagnostics system.
The technical diagnostics subsystems to be examined are as follows:
accumulated memory which generalizes process experience gathered, logical
mathematical search of possible schemes by preset parameters of material or
composition, computation of statistical dependences, material balances and dressing
flowsheets.
First of all, initial information on material composition and ore dressability
must be formalized in order to be input into the computer memory. One memory
section is given to a coded list of minerals encounterd in industrial deposits. Each
mineral has correspondence to certain pysical properties used in dressing processes,
namely: density, magnetic susceptibility, conductivity, luminiscence, radioactivity,
etc.
During descriptiopn of a particular deposit codes of appropriate minerals,
mineral content in a sample and impregnation size are input into the computer. Each
impregnation type is in line with a certain list of processes and assessment of possible
recovery rate when different dressing methods are applied.
According to dressability scales, material composition of ore is analysed, yiled
of fractions and mineral comtent in them are computed depending on content in
original ore amd granulometric composition of ground ore. Dressability scales are
made up only for gravitational, magnetic and electric dressing processes. Mineral
floatability class and bulk concentrate yield are established for flotation processes.
In many cases flotation extraction of minerals depend not only onfloatability
of this or that mineral but also on composition of associate components as well as on
genesis, impregnation, availability of isomorphous impurities in the mineral and other
factors. All this significantly complicates study of ore dressability, choice of modes
and agents.
Main and auxiliary flotation collectors and controllers which application
promotes transition of mineral to foam or chamber product are achosen in accordance
with the mineral floatability table. After agents are chosen, several agent modes for
investigations are elaborated.
The second diagnostics task is search of a precedent of dressing ore of this
type acknowledged in industrial practice or dressability studies. With this view in
mind encoded parameters of material composition of familiar ores are compared with
relevant parameters of new ore composition. For this first of all a genetic deposit type
is defined, and then an analoque is found within this type scope.
Statistical analysis and computing nethods of evaluating process indicators
according to balance models can be used, with system operation practice accumulated.
In the first place, equations of interrelation between content of certain components in
ore and recovery of metals to concentrates can be constructed for some ore types.
The blockdiagram of the apriori selection of ore dressing technology is shown
in Fig.4.23.
The pattern of technology selection is grounded on data of geological and
mineralogical sampling which include mineralogical charcateristics with structure
texture amd quntitative parameters indicated (mineralization nature, ore and
ninmetallic mineral composition, mineral content, impregnation type and size,
granulometric composition).
Further on genetic class and ore formation type together with mineral cmplex
are indentified by geological data. Existing and promising methods of dressing the ore
are identified and prototypes of similar ore dressing are found by formation in
accordance with the table named “Genetic types of ore formations, minerals
complexes and derssability”.
238
Within the genetic type, completeness of coincidence of new ore and the
precedent may be assessed by two parameters: congruence of percentage of
unextractable minerals in ore, for example, with an accuracy of up to 90 %, and list of
extractable mienrals. A precedent retrieval algorithm must be tuned during system
operation and assessed by statistical indicators of connection between material
composition parameters and potential process flowsheets. Most probably, there may
be applied methods of pattern recognition, intial state and method correspondence
graphs, linear decision functions.
In parallel to genetic formation analysis, mineal complex dressability is
studied which includes analysis of minerals introduced into the complex by scales of
derssability by gravitational, magnetic and electric methods, evaluation of potential of
dressing by special methods based on physical properties of minerals (emissivity,
lustre, colour, transparence, radioactivity, luminiscence, hardness, fragility, shape,
etc.). In accordance with the floatability table, a floatability class is selected, and main
and auxiliary collectors, foamers, controllers and modifiers are chosen which
application promotes ...
A technology is predicted based on apriori data obtained and several process
flowsheeets for experimental checkup are chosen.
When promising methods of dressing ores of similar composition are
examined, rcommendations on application of methods of intensifying existing
derssing processes are elaborated.
Examples of generating scheme varianta are outlined below.
Example 1. The genetic type of the deposit is endogenic, magmatic, liquation,
coppernickel sulfide ores. The initial information on ore is given in Table 4.21.
Table 4.21. Characteristic of coppernickel ore
Figure 4.24 shows the distribution of minerals by density and magnetic
susceptibility. It in evident that the group of sulfide minerals can be selected to a
heavy fraction during separation for density of 3.8 g/cm 3 . Ilmenite, magnetite ans a
part of pyroxenes of close density which constituent the basic rock mass will be
selected to the same group. Density seperation is lowefficient because of fine
impregnation of sulfides.
Magnetic method may be recommended only in final processing since nickel
containing pentlandite is not effecively seperated from ilmenite and biotite. Large
losses of pentladite and chalcopyrite will take place during andecedent magnetic
separation. Electric methdos of derssing are not applicable in this case as well because
of the similarity of electric properties of many minerals in the separable group and
fine impregnation erquiring very fine milling for opening of constituents.
Available minerals have no specific properties adequately manifested for
special dressing methods to be applied, in particular, radio or photometric sorting,
dressing for colour, lustre, etc.
Here an extract from the table of derssability of genetic ore types (formation *)
regarding the applied derssing methids is givem:
(a) flotation of bulk coppernicekl concentrate (xanthates, aerofloat, foamers,
carboxymethylcellulose, copper vitriol, soda, trisodium phosphate, liquid glass) with
bulk concentrate delivered to selection (with/out steaming at 80 o C);
(b) bulk flotation with production of coppernickel concentrate delivered to
metallurgical operations,
(c) flotation of nickel minerals (ethyl xanthate, mixture of butyl and amyl
xanthates, pine oil, copper vitriol, liquid glass, carboxymethylcellulose,
(d) magnetic separation with selection of pyrrhotite concentrate and
downstream flotation selection of copper and nickel minerals, stagebystage selective
flotation for production of copper and nickel concentrates.
Table 4.22 gives the extract from the mineral floatability table. several plants
of differnet countries are chosen as prototype plants at which sulfide coppernickel
ores are processes; the technological specification is presented in Table 4.23.
Table 4.22. Extract from mineral floatability table
240
Mineral Collector Foamer Controller Activator Depressant
Pyrrhotite Xanthates, Aerofloat, H2SO4 CuSO4
alkyltrithiocarb OPSB, T H2S
onates. 66, etc. Na2CO3
Oxidized fish
oils
Chalcopyrit Xanthates, Pine oil, CaO H2SO3 Na2S
e dixanthatide, terpene oil, H2SO3 AgNO3 NaCN
thiocarbonilide, T66, H2SO4 other
thiophosphates, OPSP, cyanides,
alkylsulfates, cresyl acid, cellulose
dithiocarbamate MIBK, etc. ethers
s,
dodecylsulfate.
Minerecs.
Cresyldithio
posphoric acids.
Hydrocarbons
(for large
aggregations)
Pentlandite Xanthates, Pine oil, CaO H2SO3
dixanthatides, terpene oil, H2SO3 AgNO3
thiocarbanilide, T66, H2SO4
thiophosphates, OPSB,
alkylsulfates, pyridine
dithiocarbamate bases.
s, Cresyl
carbons (for acid.
coarse
aggregations).
Minereks.
Aerofloats 15,
25 at pH above
7
Pyroxenes Oleic acid at pH pH above
89. Soapstock 11 and
(with aegirine below 7
flotation)
Feldspars Fatty acids, Rareearth
secondary metal
aliphatic amines cations,
with C5C14 or fluorides
their mixture.
Oleic acid (after
activation)
Micas Amines, H2SO4 Lead salts Glue,
petroleum oils, starch,
cresyl aerofloat, milk acid,
oleic acid with tannin, etc.
lead salts,
hexadecylsulfat
e, indanes,
alkylindanes
241
Table 4.23. Technological characteristic of prototype plants
Canada Chalcopyrite, 0.76 0.5 Bulk copper 8.5 4.2 89.3 67.0 Isopropyl Main, two
(Cenishi) pentlandite, nickel xanthate 130, recleaner and
Ni0containing daufros 140, three control
pyrrhotite, guartek, 500, flotation
platiunm, gold, copper vitriol operations
silver, 190, pH 99.2
serpentine, (without
asbestos, controller)
garnierite
Finland Pentlandite (2 0.29 0.74 Nickel 5.84 93.0 Sulfuric acid Main bulk, two
(Kotalahti) 3%), pyrrhotite Copper 29.26 62.3 6400, ethyl recleaner and
(57%), xanthate 59, control
chalcopyrite TEB 129, lime flotation;
(1.2%), 1060, CMC 43 agitation with
pyroxenite, lime and
quartz, calcite dextrine, main
copper, two
recleaner and
control
flotations
243
operations
Austalia Pyrrhotite, Nickel 7.0 NA Ethyl xanthate Magnetic
(Kambalda) pentlandite, Pyrrhotite 1.0 NA 800, maize separation;
pyrite, United nickel 0.925 11.55 NA NA flour 400, flotation of
chalcopyrite sulfur for magnetic
sulfurous gas fraction with
90, TEB 100 nickel
pyrrhotite
concentrate
produced;
treatment of
nonmagnetic
fractiion by
sulfurous gas
and flotation of
nickel minerals
at pH 5.5
CIS Pyrrhotite, Coppernickel 23 56 7375 7376 Soda 1020, Intercycle,
pentlandite, xanthate 125, main, three
chalcopyrite, aerofloat 1036, recleaner,
magnetite, copper vitriol control and two
serpentine, talc, 1055, CMP middlings
olivine, 400540, iron flotation
chlorite, vitriol 55 operations
actinolite,
micas, calcite.
Nickel silicate
1520%
Note: NA nonavailable..
244
Judging fom the material obtained, it is recommended to extract copper and
nickel minerals by flotation according to direct selective and bulkselective dressing
circuits using butyle xanthate and aerofloat, alcohol foamer, copper vitriol and soda as
main agents, with downstrean recovery of ryrrhotite by magnetic separation.
For additional tests it is recommended to study promising methods, namely,
roasting of lowgrade nickel ore in a reducing atmosphere in the presence of chloride,
and flotation of additional recovery of nickel. Wood coke or hard coal and other
matters of about 44 mm (65 %) on size with a consumption of no more than 3.5 % of
ore weight can be used as recudtants, with potassium or calcium chlorides used as
chlorides. After roasting flotation is carrired out, with addition of amyl xanthate,
foamer, copper vitriol amd a small quantity of coke fine for higher recovery of fine
nickel and itron.
Highfrequency treatment of nickelpyrrhotite product in an electric condenser
field is also proposed as promising investigation trend.
Two schemes of stagebystage selective and bulkselective flotation, with
downstream extraction of pyrrhotite for each scheme by electromagnetic separartion,
were elaborated as a result of the studies. Both schemes were applied to produce high
qulity copper concentrates, coppernickel concentrates suitable for either
hydrometallurgical or hyrometallurgical processing, and highqualityryrrhotite
concentrates. Fig.4.25 (a and b) shows the process flowsheets of coppernickel ore
processing whicxh were elaborated as a result of the experimental investigations/
Example II. The ore is representaed by pyroxeneamphibolegarnet scarns and,
to a lesser extent, mica shales with scheelite, wolframite and cassieriote in association
with quartz (Table 4.24). The rocks have been intensively destroyed, being clay
material in some cases. As to genetic type, the deposit is attributed to an endogenic
group, a postamagmatic category, a scarn class, the formation id ore bearing scarns.
Table 4.24. Mineralogical characteristic of tungstencontaining ore
The distribution of mminerals by density and magnetic susceptibility is
indicated in Fig.4.26 where it is evident that the separation for density of about 5.5
g/cm 3 will permit selection of arsenopyrite, wolframite, scheelite and cassiterite.
However the efficiency of this eparation will be low as the valuable mineralsm among
them scheelite, are grouped in very fine fractions. When separated for magnetic
properties, three products can be selected. Magnetite will go to the magnetic faction,
while wolframite, siderite, chalcopyrite, hematite, iron hydroxides which heve
medium and low nagnetic properties can be separated to an individual product. A part
246
of biotite, amphiboles and b\horblende, togetjer witgh ferruginated garnets will be
also extrated to the sdame product. The other minerals will go to the nonmagnetic
fraction.
As ther is a considerable amount of slimes in the ore, a magnetic method can
be recommended onle at the stage of final dressing operation. Ellectric separtion
applied as a rougher dressing method will be also inefficient for the same reason.
Below is given an extract from the table of dressability of genetic ore types in
recovery of ironcontaining minerals.
Washing, magnetic separation: oxidizing roasting with downstream recovery
of copper by leachingprecipitationflotation process (xanthate, flotation oil, pine oil,
lime). Extraction of tungstenmolybdenumminerals: table separation, flotation of
molybdenum, flotation of sulfides, flotation of scheelite (oleic acid or substitutors,
kerosene, soda, wetting agent D40, quebracho, steaming (liquid glass). Jet flotation
of scheelite. Flotation of scheelite from barite (alkylsulfates in acidic medium).
leaching of apatite and calcite (industrial Hcl), lime neutralization, lime residue is
delivered to soda pressure leaching.
Table 4.25 shows the extract from the table of mineral floatability.
Table 4.25. Extract from table on floatability of minerals
A plant at which scarn tungstenmolybdenum ores are processers is chosen as a
prototype. The dressing schedule includes a molybdenum and tingsten cycle which is
composed of rougher, six cleaner and five control operations. Coarse schhelite
concentrates are finally processed with steaming by liquid glass. The following agents are
used: in the molybdenum cycle soda, butyle xanthate, transformer oil, kerosene,
terpineol, sulfurous sodium, cyanide, liquid glass; in the schhelite flotation cycle soda,
oleic acid, liquid glass which is supplied to the first cleaner operation and steaming.
Copper, molybdenum and three scheelite concentrates are produced at the plant.
The recommendation made on the besis of the information obtained is to apply flotation
separation of ore with preliminary extraction of sulfides and the tingstencontaining
minerals using downstream magnetic separation for selection of iron concentrate.
It id proposed for supplementary studies to check potential methods, for example,
selective flocculation and flotation of ultra fine scheelite (below 10 mm in size). This
method involves flocculation of slurry which density is 0.2 or 1 % of solid with 6 ∙ 10 4 M
of sodium oleate and 10 4 M of sodium silicate at pH 10 for 1 h with an agitation velocity
of 700 rotations per minute and flotation with preliminary slutty conditioning for 2 min
with folmer supplied. In accordance with the studies scheelite recovery is about 80 %
(unclocculated: 2030 %).
When the stage of additional extraction of casiterite from the ore is included into
the investigation program, it is recommended to apply the collector of ether phosphate or
its salt of alkaline, alkalineearth metal or ammonium (RO(CnH2nO)m) RO (OH)3x,
where R is the hydrocarbon radical of C8C20, n is 2; 3 or 4; m is from 1 to 8; x is the
mean statistical value in the range from 1 to 2. The pprefernce is given to compounds
with hydrocarbon radical including lauryl, oleyl, cetyl or stearyl group. The collector
concentration depends on tin content, being in average (in mg/l) from 0.010.2 part of
initial tin content, i.e., with 10 % tin content in ore the collector consumption is 10 0.01
= 0.1 and 10 ∙ 0.2 = 2, or from 0.1 to 2 mg/l.
4.8.4. Mineralogical Typification and Ore Dressability
Mineral composition varies virtually at any deposit in some areas to some extent
so that certain horizontal and vertical zonality can be identified. The zonality is expressed
in a regular change of different ore minerals, altaration of qumtitative ratios between
them and rockforming minerals, sometimes in variation of mineral forms of identical ore
elements, changes in ore structure and texture, ore impregnation size, different impurity
elements emerged in minerals. Narurally, ores from differnet deposit areas will behave in
the technological process ina different way.
It is approved to identify certain ore types by mineral composition based on
preliminary technological studies. However average samples present the ore of the entire
deposit incompletely. The ore from different areas will be delivered to the plant at
different times. The technology will have to be modified as applied to changes in ore
composition as the ore will be delivered from depper horizons or from the deposit
flanges. Changes in ore composition or processability lead to a dramatic fall in recovery
rate or in quality of the finished product.
In this connection it is necessary to establish a spacial distribution of different ore
types and their quantitative ratio together with structuretexture peculiarities and,
251
ultimately, their processability. This can be done by means of detailed mineralogical
volumetric mapping, workingout of mineralogical (ore mineralogicalpetrographic) and
mineralogicaltechnological maps and plans.[99].
In detailed geological mapping mineralogicalpetrographic maps are made up in
cases when several mineral paragenneses with which different ore minerals can be
associated may be identified at the deposit. If the deposit contains several ore minerals
deffering in procssability it is required to make up maps showing distribution of
individual ore minerals. For example, at the Tyrnyauz scarn tungstenmolybdenum
deposit, besides scheelite, molybdoscheelite which behaves during flotation otherwise as
compared with scheelite.
It is also necessary to define availability of components harmful to technology,
besides basic ore minerals, for some deposits. For instance, when deposits presented by
silicificated, sericitized and chloritized granophyres with polymetallically raremetal
mineralization are mapped, it is important to know the amount of random siderite and its
spatial distribution because it gets into the ore concenrrate, a great quantity of iron
oxides and hydroxides hindering the routine operation is generated during sintering of
siderite with soda and downstream leaching. When deposits presented by raremetal
granates with tantalum mineralization are mined, it is also required to be in the know of
amount and distribution of random wolframite since it gets into one concentrate with
columbitetantalite.
Besides identification of composition and number of useful ore and harmful
minerals as well as toral mineral rock composition, it is of value to get familiar with size
of ore impregnation and regularity of impregnation variation in space.
The results of mineralogical mapping can be used technological evaluation of
deposits. Microtechnological tests of mineral products and ore dressability studies can be
carried out directly in situ on smallvolume samples.
Smallvolume technological trials and mapping include a complex of
investigations of spatial variability of material composition, pysicomechanical and
processing properties of ore which is performed on a considerable (tens or hundreds)
number of oriocess samples small in weight. The samples may be presented by group
prospecting specimens weighing up to 50 kg which are selected from drill cores or
channels during opening sinking. These studies are carried out at the deptailed
prospecting stage when main ore types have been identified and dressing schedule and
mode concepts have been elaborated based on representative samples. The derssing
schedule is checked up and the variability of processing properties of the ore from
different areas and deposit horizons is identified on smallvolume group samples taken
uniformly over the prospecting pattern. The spatial reference of indicators obtained on
these small samples and tailored to the mineral composition afords spatial location and
mapping of technological ore grades differing in dressability.
On identification of different types and geometry of ore the cases depicted below
are possible.
1. The ore of all types identified in mineral composition is dressed according to
one schedule, and concentrates produced are processed according to one scheme. In this
case all mineralogicalpetrographic types belong to one technological type of ore.
2. Mineral ore types behave differently during dressing processes while the
process flowsheet is developed for the mediumcomposition ore. Under these
252
circumstances it is required to blend ore of different types in the relevant ratio so that the
ore of medium composition enters the plant.
3. The ore of different types is dressed according to one schedule, with the
concentrates processed variously. It is necessary to separate the ore of different
technological types for their selective final processing. Concentrates of different ore types
are processed according to different technology.
4. The ore of types differing in composition is dressed according to different
schedules. The ore of different technological types must be mapped in order to provide
for selective processing.
5. The ore of some types cannot be dressed and processed at all. It should be
mapped, and the reserves must be attributed to the offbalance ones. If the ore of these
types is located inside the ore outline this must be taken into account by introduction of
ore content ratio during calculating reserves.[56].
It ore types differ in quantitative ratio of extractable components, a spatial
mathematical model of the deposit can be constructed. Sometimes s similar model is
composed for the deposit under mining, and parameters of processing ore from different
areas are accumulatd in the model of dressability of the deposit which affords prediction
of dressing results, optimal makeup of ore charge, presetting of the process for a certain
ore type, etc.
Variable material composition of ore provokes a lot of problems in process
control at concentrators which mode is preset for a certain medium composition and a
certain ratio of mineral components.
Ore composition is the key uncontrollable factor in the vector of dressing process
disturbances. Heterogeneity of ore mass to be processes prevents an optimal dressing
process mode from being kept. Essential variations in ore quality have a negative effect
of dressing parameters, and deviations of metal content in concentrates in turn impair
metallurgical process indicators.
Owing to the above a trend towards maximum blending of initial material has
emerged in plant engineering. Whe the process mode is made more stable, it btings about
a great effect because losses connected with the nonoptimal “medium” process mode for
each particular ore type are reduced.
From the other hand, a technological process optimal for this ore type brings
about some effect in comparison with the “medium” mode for the blended ore. In so
doing, there is a particular ratio of optimums of selecting technological types and their
blening which depends on the approved control system and frequency ratio: changes in
initial ore types and possible resetting of the process.
Fron this viewpoint the problem of ore typification for the deposit is governed not
only by geologicalmineralogical variability of the deposit but the available process
control system as well. If there is one process flow at the plant without inline ore type
detectors, the possibility of recognizing technological ore type is extremely limited, the
resetting of the process once in several months predetermines a very rough differentiation
of ore types and a necessity of maximum blending during mining. If there are several
process flows in which individual ore types can be processed togteher with a possibility
of differentiating ore types inline, higher process parameters may be achieved than for
the blended ore.
253
Process experiments on dressability of ore samples with definite typomorphic
differences have become of great value from the viewpoit of technology as well as for
establishing some purely ineralogical regularities in a number of control cases. These
studies aimed at geologicaltechnological mapping and development of process control
systems at a concentrator with an inline ore type change are correspondent with definite
mineralogical peculiarities for the most part isolorphic and morphological.Statistical
methods widely applied in similar studies afford establishment of factor relations
between mineral parameters and optimal dressing mode. An effect of physical actions on
mineral properties (magnetic, electric, chemical) is of unique value. Magnetizing roasting
of oxidized iron ore, thermal decrepitation of lithium ore, chemical and bacterial leaching
of copper, uranium and other ores have been developed. A temperature effect on
decarbonization of minerals is made use of in processing of phosphorites and some other
calcitecontaining mineral resources, in particular, tantalumniobium ores.
Of the greatest effect are the variability of mineralogical amd exturestructure
parameters of ore on flotation process, and the influence of crystallochemical
peculiarities of minerals, isomorphous impurities, conductivity type on mineral
interaction with flotation agents and floatability.
The notion of ideal crystals cannot be a model of adsorption of chemical agents
by actual minerals. Genetic mineral peculiarities responsible for concentration,
composition and charge of isomorphous imprurities, vacancies and structural defects of
other types along with physical and physicochemical properties have a decisive effect on
flotation.
Variable floatability of mineral variants is connected with genetic and processing
properties. A significance of redox processes in adsorption of flotation agents, and
participation of defects in adsorptive processrs affecting flotation were defined.
Processing properties and selective flotation of minerals can be controlled by means of
chemical, electrochemical, thermal, radiation and other actions.
We shall examine the possibilities of flotation process control based on
identification of type modificatiobs exemplified by the Norilsk coppernickel ores.[99].
The compact coppernickel ores polymineral in composition. The essential
minerals of the ores are pyrrhotite (Po), chalcopyrite (Cp), talnakhite (Tlh), moihukite
(Mk), cubanite (Cub), pentlandite (Pnt). The minerals encountered in various
combinations compose sophisticated natural associations each of which features specific
inherent content of valuable components and forms of segregation of carrier minerald of
these components as well as different set of valuable minerals of each component. If
chalcopyrite, talnakhite and moihukite are comparatively close in copper content,
cubanite is approximately half as lean as again that. The above copper mineals have
different physical properties. In accordance with the proven process flowsheet of flotation
dressing the minerals are arranged in floatability as follows: the Cp, Tlh, Mk, Cub, the Pn
nickel minerals, nickelbearing pyrrhotite, pyrrhotite.
The ores of various minetal associations within each deposit compose the
complexly built beds and sizable bodies. Five mineral types of the ore are distinguished
among the compact ores of deposit I. They are essentially pyrrhotite, pyrrhotitecubanite
series, chalcopyrite and talnakhitecubanite series, essentially chalcopyrite and mixed
chalcopyritetalnakhite. The composition of deposit II ores is somewhat more complex
(Fig.4.27) but it can be reduced to similar groups: two primary chalcopyritepyrrhotite
254
and essentially chalcopyrite (including the ore intensively enriched by chalcopyritelike
minerals of talnakhite, moihukite, etc.), and two other ones which present different stages
of cubanitization of these ores. The deposit I ores are peculiar in that talnakhite and
moihukite are more abundantly manifested, and that mineral compositions intermediate
between pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite types proper are available.
Table 4.26. Statistical data on content of principal minerals in coppernickel
ore delivered to dressing
The studies of pyrrhotite ore mineral compositon of both deposits showed that the
high variation ratio of mineral content is preserved in the slurry. The multipeak nature of
distribution curve series (Fig.4.28) and the absence of correlations among individual
mineral content prove different types of technological mixtures.
The minetal composition of daily ore delivery was studied using methods of
taxonomy and principal components. The studies showed that despite random chanracter
of actual mixtures their totality is broken to four steady and one intermediate types of
technological associations (Fig.4.29). The comparison of average figures and standard
deviations testify to their substantial diversity in symptom space and distribution density
close to normal in all associations.
In irder to interpret assocations the mineral composition of all samples
transformed by the method of principal components was presented as a component
diagram in the plane of two weightfirst factors showing the main portion of the system
dispersion (Fig.4.30). It is evident that the factor structure is close to that for natutal types
(Fig.4.29) not is not identical.
It was found that association II may be approvimated with a natural pyrrhotite
body, association III is a mixture of the latter with chalcopyrite and talnakhitemoihukite
ores while association IV is a mixture with cubanitepyrrhotite ores. Association I is the
most intimate mixture of all natural types. The component diagram also manifests that the
leading internal trend in all th associations is connected with impoverishment by
nonmetllic minerals but is accompanied by some antagonism of pyrrhotite and cubanite
tpgether with greater pentlandite importance in the two first associations, and another
255
trend transversal to the above one which is predetermined by antipathy of cubanite
against chalcopyrite and magnetite.
That the above associations are technologically expedient to be identified is
confirmed by the fact that their replacement in time takes place gradually. The
examination of decade deliveries display that they are fairly uniformly presented by the
three first associations (Fig.4.31). The fact that there is no association IV in the examined
period can be explained by processing of less cubanite ore but one cannot disregard its
possible appearance. The studies by the method of canonical correlation permitted an
evaluation of significant correlation between databases of technological associations
indentified and dressing parameters (0.53).
It means that the conventional statistical approach to simulation of connection
bwtween the material composition and the derssing mode is unsuitable for dressing
process control.
At the first stage the control system must rest on identification of technological
mineralogical types and on content of chemical elements at the second stage, especially
in ores of complex composition, when the ore may have different dressability with
identical content of some element.
Ore type is recognized not by regressive dependencies on element content but by
idenfitication of component ratioes. This identification, as evident from Fig.4.30, can be
fairly clear.
In so doing, the results presented can be the basis for improvement of a
computerized system of flotation process control using a mathematical model. Natutal
factors, besides technological ones, will be incorporated into the model. This will permit
to find the most profitable values of controling actions with a view to achieving optimal
process parameters in real time under the conditions of varying types of technological
associations. Interactive process control will afford inline transformation of correlative
ore quality function with lowfrequency oscillations excluded, hence possible stability
and higher dressing parameters are achieved.
4.8.5. Structural Peculiarities of Concentrators
A sophisticated problem in many unknowns is to develop an efficient and
economical dressing schedule. This calls for an attentive comparison of many often
contradictory data as well as an experimental study. The difficulties of this study is
assoviated with that a complex of dissimilar minerals having variants and different
compositions even within one deposit. Here Here allowances must be made for
comprehensive dressing with output of several concentrates or oner concentrate of
minerals differing in properties but containing one and the same element.[11].
The presentday dressing methods offer a great number of scheduls differentiated
in operations and sequence. Bearing in mind that the possibilities of experimental
schedule control are very limited, the preliminary justified choice is a vital constituent of
the study.
The dressability study can be broken up into several successive stages when a
definite objective interconnected with other stages is pursued by each stage.
The objective of the first stage is selection of barren rock maximum with
minimum of crushing by any simple and cheap technique. This stage is neccitated by that
256
when a deposit is mined by highproductive methods (openpit working, bulk caving
sysem, placer opening) a considerable amount of rock contains no valuable minerals. The
dump tailings of the first derssing stage are perceived to contain no more valuable
component than talings of a concentrator without a silimar preliminary derssimh
operating. However highergrade tailings of the first stage may be economically justified
since the high concentration rate at this stage not only substantially lowers the overall
processing costs but permits higher recovery rate to be attained in downstream operations
as well. Gravitational dressing processes are for the most part applied at this stage. They
are heavymedia separation, jigging, sluicing (and dressing in other machines as well),
sometimes magnetic separation, bulk flotation of sulfides, and, lately, bacterial leaching.
The objective of the second stage (sometimes it is the first one) is to prepare raw
materials for subsequent dressing: maximum opening of valuable minerals with potential
application of one or other dressing method.
Here it is must be kept in mind, on one hand, potential losses of valuable
components with slimes during grinding at next stages and, on the other hand, valuable
mineral impregnation size. Besides grinding, the preparatory stage may incorporate
magnetizing, sulfation or other roasting and conditioning of slurry prior to flotation
(aeration, peelingoff, treatment with agents). The size of particles attributed to slime is a
function of dressing method and mineral resource type: (31)mm in heavymedia
separation, (0.50.1) mm in jigging, (0.10.05) mm in table concentration, (0.10.05) mm
in magnetic separation, 0.1 mm in flotation. This stage affords the highest dressability of
entry stock to be achieved by methods which will be applied at the next (third) stage).
The third stage of the study includes identification of an oprimal dressing mode
for production of rough concentrate. The objective of the stage is maximum recovery of
all valuable components and the problem of comprehensive ore processing is solved. The
parameters of dressing machines of rougher operations are evaluated in accordance with
this objective.
The fourth stage is aimed at clarifying the possibility of producing fininshed
products of preset quality (prime concentrates), type and mode of finnising operations are
established, necessity and possibility of chemical and metallurgical methodsto be used for
processing of middlings.
Gravitational and magnetic methods are the simplest, most economical and fairly
effective in case of mineral impregnation is not very fine. Of particular high production
rate are gravity methods, like jigging, heavymedia and scre separator dressing. As a rule
68 mm material is dressed in heavy media, and 06(8) + 0.5 mm material is jigged.
Gravity dressing of below 2 mm material is carried out in a stream flowing along the
inclined plane (concentration tables, screw separators, sluices, cone separators, troughs,
etc.). Offshore sands, tin, diamondbearing and ratemetal ores are dressed in screw
separators. Jigging is one of the widelyused gravitational dressing methods due to fairly
high efficiency with low capital inverstments and operating costs. Prior to jiffing mineral
product is usually deslimed. Jigging exhibiting definite advantages against heavymedia
dressing falls behind the latter in dressing efficiency.
Gravity fressing methods are mainly impeived by means of vibrations imposed or
ultrasound applied wnich intensify the process by destroying structurized suspensions.
Here high stability of dispersive medium is provided, without delamination of weihting
compounds (which is vital to heavy suspensions) , and heavy fractions rapidly precipitate
257
as a result of lower medium viscosity . A number of new machines have been developed
on the basis of vibraions: vibrating separator, vibrating sluice, vibrating concentrator;
highfrequency vibrations and ultrasound treatment applied also increase effecicency of
jigging anf table concentration. There are proposed aerosuspension dressing and
application of ultrasound in centrifugal dressing.[84].
Several innovative gravitational machines are offered. They are turbocyclone,
shaking sluice, worm separator and classifiers of new design. Ther was an attempt to
dress finer fractions by gravitational methods after pretreatment with flocculants.[84].
Magnetic separation is used in dressing of magnnetic and lowmagnetic ores. Dry
magnetic separtion and electric separation after dry grinding (aerophole, jet, ballless) are
very effective. Polygradient separtion is also and effective method of rextracting low
magnetic minerals in dressing of raremetal ores.[85].
Three directions of increasing efficiency of magnetic separation may be singled
out: rise of separating forces (magnetic and centrfugal), higher field intensity,
neutralization of surface forces causing adhesion flocculation.
Magnetic separation id heading in direction of new separators designed and new
projects involved. As there is iron iron present in extractable or associate minerals the
latter can have lowmagnetic properties and de dressed in uto=dare separators with high
magnetic fields (for example, copper, asbestos, tungsten, cassiterite, kaoline, limonite and
phosphate ores). Magnetic separation is more and more widely applied in finishing of
raremetal ore concentrates.
Fullscale separators with up to 20,000 Or intensity field have appeared. New
designs are being developed, in particular, on superconductors in which field intensity
can be an order of magnetude increased. This will permit wider range of ores to be
dressed,, higher accuracy and efficiency of separation.
Various designs of polygradient (ball) filter separators are being developed and
put into practice.
New designs of a jet electromagnetic separator, a mustistage separator with
demagnetizing of material after each stage, a rotating double magnetic field separator for
dry dressing of iron ore are offered. An electromagnetic hydrocyclone with a magnetic
field concentrator which affords 89 times lower field intensity in iron ore dressing was
tested.
Material dressability can be improved by reduction magnetizing roasting as well
as processing in highfrequency magnetic field.
Magnetic flocculation on carrier with downstream magnetic separation of
floccules is offered in dressing of fine fractions.
Separation in isodynamic magnetic fields where change in magnetic force
affecting minerals is continuous in different areas of the working separator zone is
applied (in laboratory conditions as yet) at present. Isodynamic electromagnetic
separation is intended for parting of minerals in a magnetic field of required
heterogeneity with an intensity maximum of about 18,000 Oe. The isodynamic field is
provided for by a special configuration of pole tips. Minerals of 1 to0.05 mm in size with
similar magnetic susceptibility, for instance, olivine and pyroxene, glauconite and garnet,
phlogopite and hornblende, hematite and staurolite, calcite and phlogopite, etc., can be
separated. The material to be delivered to separation must be classified and
dedusted.[85].
258
Innovative dressing methods are magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) and
magnetohydrostatic (MHS) separtion: processes of separting solid mineral particles for
density, magnetic susceptibility and electric conductivity. The material is separated due
to the effect of ponderomotive forces acting on the particles from the side of separating
fields or liquids.
MHD separation is performed at joint action of crossed electric and magnetic
fields on electrolyte owing to the ponderomotive Lorentz force appeared here. Electric
current passes the electrolyth in MHD separation. MHS separation takes place when a
heterpgeneous magnetic fields affects the paramagnetic liquid owing to the
ponderomotive force of the magnetic field. Electric current does not pass the
paramagnetic liquid in MHS separation. The process of separting particles in magnetic
and ferromagnetic liquids and electrolytes may be used at considerable contrast of
gravitational properties amd small contrast of magnetic properties. Methods of magnetic
and ferrohydrostatic separation supplant conventional garvitational processes in derssing
of nonmagnetic ores from 20 to +0.2 mm in size bcause these methods e separating
efficiency nearing the ideal one, and their application affords an oder of magnetude
higher productivity per unit of area.
Electric dressing methods may be used individually for direct dressing and in
combination with magnetic, magnetizing roasting and other methods.
Greater efficiency of electric separation is achieved preliminary treatment of
material surface, for instance, triboadhesive, mechanical and radiation effects. Another
way is material treatment with agents, mainly organic surfactants: fatty acids, amines,
milk acid, chloroacetic acid, etc. An electrostatic concentrator applied for fluidized iron
and other ores is a promising version.
Nowadays flotation is applied for extraction of approximately one hundred of
minerals (the total tonnage of processed mining products is more than 650700 mln
tonnes per year, besides coal and iron ore). Flotation is likely to keep its leading position
in the nonferrous metals ores processing technology. The application scope is widening.
It is used in dressing of several metallurgical products, fly ash of power plants, chemical
products, for treatment of waste water, soluble salts and even for separation of bacteria.
New flotation types are being put into practioce. They are columnar and foam flotation,
electric flotation, ion and emulsion flotation, etc. which will widen the application scope
of this dressing method.
Conditions of flotation separation of any mineral can be selected for any mineral
complex in theory. Mineral floatability much depends on flotation conditions, fraction
size, presence of other minerals, etc.[76,91,92].
Slimes of 0.05 mm in size are inefficiently dressed by gravitational methods, and
flotation is the main method of dressing them. Techniques of selective delotation of
slimes are different: some are grounded on aggregating assisted by flocculants, emulsions
of apolar agents, agents, others are based on perculiarities of hydrodynamics. Relevant
size of air bubbles is required to selective flotation of slimes. Special flotation cells, for
instance, columnar machine, were developed. Besdes, fine particles can be extracted by
electric flotation. Aerofloccular flotation is a process which combines aggregating of
particles and emanation of gas from solution.
The key trends of further flotation improvement are connected with higher
selectivity and wider range of selectively floated particle size.
259
Control of flotation process and rise in its selectivity are based on detailed study
of physicochemical composition of characteristics of slurry, different physical and
physicochemical actions applid to slurry during preparation and flotation.[96].
The vital directions of the study are methods of supply, pretreatment and
preparation of agents. Effective techniques are supply of agents to grinding plants,
individual conditioning of sands and slimes, aerosol supply of agnets with air to flotation
cells.
Widely applied will be different ways of preparing ore, slurry and agnmets for
flotation by means of physical actions: photon and radioactive rays, ultrasound effect and
thermal treatment. In some cases thermal treatment permits better parameters of ore
flotation. Preroasting is used for carbonate manganese and nodular phosphorites
Dramatic field of improving flotation technology is the study of particle size.
Possible ways of flotation dressing of coarse particles and slimes are being looked for.
The interrelation of particle size with adsorptive properties involves the necessity of
elaborating unique modes of slurry processing with agents. The method of individual
tratment of sand and slime fractions with agents and downstream joint flotation is he
simplest and promising one.
Combined processing schedules, for example, flotation and hydrometallurgy, will
be more often used as the size of floatable particles is reduced. Extractive flotation and
ion flotation exemplify such combination of processes.
The value of agent form (molecular or ionic) and conditions of supplying agents,
especially, slightly soluble collector agents, is identified, the latter are supplied in the
most active abd suitable form (emulsions, pastes) and in the form of conbinations from
two or more agents often belonging different functional groups.
Flotation results depend on a range of agents and their efficiency to a considerable
extent. An agent mode improved by more purposedesigned (selective) agents applied
permits reduced agent consumption and higher recovery rate and product quality.
Inorganic agents account for about 15 % (3540 names). The problem of search
for new and more effective flotation agents will remain one of the important tasks in
futire development of flotation. Progress in chemistry of complex compounds and pysical
chemistry allows a supposition to be made that akready in the years ahead there will be
elaborated the basic concepts of “designing” flotation agents (in partucular, collectors)
with required properties. Encouraging works in this field have been already conducted.
A great number of new agents, mainly collectors, is offered for flotation. Already
known agents are being put into production, and their application scope is being widened.
Among the latter there must be noted IM50, polyethylene glycols, polyglycerin ethers,
amines, various fractions of fatty acids and soaps, sulfonated petroleum products and
other collectors, as well as depressants and controllers based on fluorides.Of interest from
new agents are collectors as follows: butyl ethers of fatty acids for carbonate fluorite
quartz ores, hydrochloride thiuram3chlorbutane2 for sulfide and goldbearing ores. H
alkulsulfosuccinamates for cassiterite, sulfocarboxylic acids for apatite, chlorinated and
dehydrochlorinated fatty acids for iron oxides, ethylene oxide for sulfide polymetallic
ores, isoamyl ether of isonicotinic acid for gold and chalcopyrite, tallactam6 for
hubnerite, hydrogenated olefin products for coal and compunds based on furan series for
polymetallic ores. Polyesters of different acids, ethers of monohydric and dihydric
alcohols, etc. were patented as folamers.
260
Substantial changes have become evident in designing of flotation cells.
Columnar flotation cells have several advantages in production rate and separation
parameters as well as in convenience of additional slurry treatment in flotation process by
different effects: magnetic, radiation, ultrasound, etc. Magnetic flotattion with/out carrier
had been tested in a columnar machine on manganese slimes and was a success. New
designs of flotation machines are used for treatment of waste water using ion flotation of
sediments and ultrafine particles. Machine elements (chamber shape, foam removal
technique, impeller, etc.) are being modified. A specialized flotation cell combined with a
hydrocyclone has been offered. [92].
Fullscale implementation of columnar ion, floccular, segragation, electrolytic
flotation, foam separation, selective flocculation permits an expansion of size range for
particles suitable for flotation dressing both towards size enlargement and towards slime
flotation with simultaneous increase in racovery of valuable components from ores and
their additional extraction from industrial solutions and waste water.
In the last decades extensive investigations on intensification of flotation process
by imposition of energetic effects (electrochemical, vibrating, ultrasound, thermal, etc.)
on flotation systems have been carried out.
Distribution of slurry flows in flotation flow has a great influence on dressing
results. It was more than once intimated that yield of foam product in intermediate
operations and dividion of flotation front between operations are of vital importance,
sometimes even greater one than optimization of agent mode.
In engineering an optimal flotation cascade it is required to keep in mind
heterogeneity of products in separability with identical compositions. In each particular
case the relatisnship between composition and separability of middling product may be
obtained experimentally or by statistical processing of trial results. Some required kinetic
regularities, dependence of separation results on slurry flow passing the flotation cell, etc.
can be also obtained by means of experiments.
Being aware of statistical data for a certain ore type, one can engineer a cascade
adequately close to an optimal one. The control of this cascade at variable quality of entry
material can be gained by redistribution of flows of middling products, foam and
foamless, or by redistrribution of chambers among stages. In this sense flotation cascade
are more flexible than in other separating processes.
In so doing, optimal flotation schedules must be grounded, first, on calculation of
flotation kinetics for each cascade step which depends on mode process parameters,
floatability and flows; second, on minimum impoverishment of products during agitation
in a flotattion cascade (keeping in mind different floatability and not valauble component
content).
Obviously there is an optimal distribution of flotation chambers among operations
(rougher, cleaner and recleaner) when at the plant the recovery rate will be maximum
with the preset concentrate quality. This chamber distribution is possible when products
with close floatability are agitated at stages. An indirect indicator of optimal schedule
layout with different distribution of flotation front among stages may be total recovery to
prime concentrate at stable agent mode and entry material quality.
Optimization of the process arranged according to the concept of separating
cascade is connected first of all with regulation of output and quality of flows produced at
individual dressing stages. Product yield and quality are interrelated in dressing of ore
261
and coal materials. This relationship ia characterized by dressability curve. Theoretically
possible quality of products and recovery of valuable components can be evaluated for
each output of dressed product. Dressing curves which pass a little below do not virtually
coincide with dressability curves because flotation separation is less effective than heavy
media separation.[18].
In some cases output increase brings about a drastic reduction in concentrate
quality at a small rise in output. In other cases recovery drastically grows with a small
deterioration of concentrate quality. The most representative dressability characteristica
are the function of material distribution by flotation activity and its parameters.
If the flotation kinetics of particular schedule stages is defined at the optimal
agent mode, there is a clear flotation front optimal with these process kinetics in each
operation, i.e., the number of flotation cells is distributed in an optimal way. Being ware
of the content in the entry ore, an approximate recovery and concentrate yield with
quality of foam product in each chamber can be estimated by the kinetic equation.[91].
At some flotation plants various turn schedules, jet flotation modifications, etc.
were adjusted in practice. Evidently these schedules are efficient just in case they are
neare to the perfect cascade than the conventional ones. In turn it is established by ore
nature, relative rate of different composition aggregate flotation, etc.
4.9. Interaction of Conversion Stages. Production Combination
The efficiency of a mine & concentrator depends not only on the ore extraction
efficiency in the mining operations and the recovery rate for the valuable component at
the concentrator but on parameters connecting the mining and concentrating operations.
The recovery to concentrate, the concentrate quality, the prime cost of ore processing and
especially the prime cost of the product made at the plant are substantially controlled by
the original ore quality, in particular, by the valuable component content in the ore,
impurities detrimental to the dressing technology, blending rate, sequence of delivery of
various ore grades to the plant, etc. The ore qaulity is in turn rely on the parameters of
mining operations. Here the prime cost of the runof0mine ore is the lower the higher the
impoverishment is. Ore standards are established with the help of economic &
mathematical simulation. Of concern is the interaction of the mining and dressing cycles
in the plane of setting up optimal parameters of ore impoverishment during mining, ore
output and processing tonnage (the optimal production rate of the plant), evaluating
allowable limits of ore impoverishment by impurities of barren rock, clay minerals,
filling concrete, etc. In the majority of cases ore blending which can be performed both
during mining and directly before dressing as well improves process parameters. If there
is no inline monitoring and process control blending permits the more appropriate
selection of optimal processing conditions.
A prognostic dressability map for individual deposit areas is required in order to
arrange blending in mining or ore output by grade (for establishing the optimal process
dressing conditions for each ore grade).
Methods of rapid control of material composition are of vital value to dressing
process control and better process parameters. Alongside this the methods also afford in
line control of mining operations. The joint examination of mining and dressing cycles
262
based on common ecomonic criteria will make pi possible to raise economic efficiency of
mining & processing operations.
To link mining and derssing is especially promising from the viewpoint of
economics and environment control. Among these processes one must intimate
underground (in particular, bacterial) leaching, extraction of valuable components
dissolved in marine water, dressing in a natural basin.
The multicomponent composition of raw materials of virtually any deposit calls
for such a combination of processes during processing which involves the most
comprehensive (in number of extractiable components) and complete (in recovery rate
and utilization of components) processing of ore. It may be exemplified by combined
dressing & hydrometallurgical processes which which comprehensive ore processing is
associated. Process flowsheets of a lot of concentrators fail to provide for recovery of all
valuable metals as well as nonmetallic resources which are irrevocable lost in waste.
Several types of nonferrous and rare metals deposits are distinquished.
(1) Within the industrial outline of deposits identified by a single ore mineral
there are other useful minerals which can be extracted to selective ore bulk concentrate
during comprehensive dressing. The examples of the like complex deposits are deposits
of polymetallic ores, ratemetal pegmatites containing spodumene, beryl, tantalite and
cassiterite, tungstenmolybdenum deposits containing beryl and zinnwaldite concurrent
with wolframite and molybdenite. Of primary importance for involvement of similar
complex deposits into industrial usage is the elaboration of an economically rational
dressing circuit. Here it must be kept in mind that the majority of the like deposits can be
profitably mined only if all valuable components are comprehensively extracted.
(2) In ore deposits there are minerals of not only iron and nonferrous metals but
nonmetallic minerals which can be emplyed by the industry. For instance, raremetal
pegmatiotes may be the source of ceramic materials, pyrochlore of lime and apatite,
polymetallic ores of barite, etc.
(3) Ore mineral contains several valuable components. In this case all components
which are further divided in metallurgical operations are extracted to concentrate as a
result of drssing. These minerals may be exemplified by fergusonite, euxenite and priorite
which contain rare earths of ittrium group, niobium, tantalum and scandium; loparite
which contains niobium, tantalum, rare earths of cerium group; phosphorites which
contain uranium, rare eartjs, fluorite together with phosphate raw materials; sphalerite,
which often contains cadmium, indium, germanium besides zinc. It must be noted that
when establishing the industrial oitlines of the deposit not only the principal valuable
component but useful components which accompany the principal one as well must be
incorporated.
The ratio between the costs of valuable constituents may vary in a wide range.
Whether or not it is of necessity to extract valuable compoenents is dictated by an
economic estimate. In some cases the value of associate components is very essential
(Table 2.27).
Relevant estimations must be made for each process flowsheet with due regard to
shortage and significance of finished products, established wholesale prices, cost of
individual process operations, etc. In some cases an innovative technology which affords
a profitable extraction of all valuable components is required to be developed.
263
Table 4.27. Specification of some nonferrous metal ore complexity
Combined processing of mineral products is a cross between methods and
processes of derssing and metallurgy for more efficient seperation of components.
This is achieved by combination of physical fields in one machine (a combined
process0 or in a straightaway arranged machine row (a combined process flowsheet).
These dressing circuits as a rule include gravity separation (heavymedia dressing,
jigging, screw separation, sluicing, etc.) and then magnetic separation or flotation.
Similar schedules are applied in dressing of raremetal pres (gravitation magnetic or
electric separation flotation).
The most widelyused combined derssing processes are gravity flotation: table
concentration (diamond ores), jigging flotation (raremetal ores). Besides, magnetic filed
sorting (magnetite, titanomagnetite ores), flotation in magnetic, highfrequency current,
vibration or ultrasound fields.
If prime concentrates cannot be produced by dressing methods or their
combination, comprehensive processing with hydro or pyrometallurgical final operation
is used. Hydrometallurgical final operation is performed by means of leaching of
deleterious components from concentrates, foe example, phosphorus or silica from iron,
manganese, tungsten concentrates. Deleterious components can be also removed by the
pyrometallurgical process (for example, concentration of useful components can be
substantially increased by roastiing of carbonatite ores due to CO2 combustion. Roasting
permits a change in magnetic properties of minerals (magnetizing roasting of oxidized
iron ores) for downstream magnetic separation and floatability of certain minerals as well
(phosphorites). A special pyrometallurgical flotation schdule is used in processing of
coppernickel ores. Another unique schedule of processing these ores is bulkselective
264
flotation with nickelpyrrhotite concentrates produced which undergo pressure oxidizing
leaching with downstream flotation of sulfur.
Ion flotation belongs to combined dressing & hydrometallurgical processes.
Combined schedules afford the highest recovery of valuable components from mineral
products and purity of concentrates.
Elaboration of combined schedules does not mean a simple uniting of processes
but requires their functions to be redistributed. For instance, advance in hydrometallurgy
permits selective flotation circuits to be avoided and replaced by bulk flotation circuits
because pure selective monometallic concentrates can be produced by hydrometallurgical
methods, application of chloride sublimation during roasting to cement clinker (Waelz
slag ?) brings about higher recovery of metals.
Chemical metallurgical methods can be applied for dressing of original ore proper
and different dressing products as well as dressing tailings in some cases. These methods
make it possible to solve many problems of complex utilization of raw materials and
certain associated but essential problems, like extraction of valuable components from
mine water and treatment of industrial sewage.
Different types of roasting (oxidizing, reducing, chloridizing, sulfatizing,
carnonizing, etc.), different types of leaching, among them bacterial one, recovery of
valuable components from solutions using ion exchange, extraction, ion flotation, etc.
The objective of roasting is to intensify the difference in properties of extractable
components, transformation of this or that component into a more or less extractable
form.
Magnetizing roasting is applied in dressing of hard todress iron and manganese
ores, calcination in dressing of phosphorite and raremetal ores, chloridizing and
sulfatizing roasting in dressing of hardtodress raremetal ores.
Different types of leaching are of vital importance in chemical and
hydrometallurgical methods of dressing. In particular, leaching of copper with
downstream cementation and flotation are applied in dressing of hardtodress ores.
Chemical and microbacteriological (bacterial) leaching are more and more widely applied
in dressing of hardtodress copper and uranium ores.
The development of complex ore processing flowsheets must follow the way of
linking the widelyused (conventional) methods of dressing with pyro and
hydrometallurgy (sorption, extraction, flotation of sediments, reliminary roasting of ore
with downstream dressing). In the progress of such flowsheets one may mark the
following trends: primary dressing with dump tailings produced and downstream
chemicometallurgical treatment of concentrates and middlings; production of prime
concentrates and hydrometallurgical processing of tailings, bacterial, underground and
heap leaching with downstream sorption, extraction and flotation of metals from
solutions; preliminary chemical or thermal treatment of ores with a view of partial
recovery of valuable components or their conversion to the state which provides efficient
dressing.
Puttingintopractice of new hydrometallurgical methods of pressure leaching,
sorption from slurries and solutions as well as combination of flotation and
hydrometallurgy allowes lower cost of processing of raw materials, solution of
comprehensive processing problem, reduction of ore and concentrate deviations and
avoidance of selective flotation.
265
As the scope of industrial application of hydrometallurgical technology in
production of sulfide concentrates is widened, circuits of selective flotation will be
replaced by circuits of bulk flotation with downstream production of pure selective
monometallic concentrates by hydrometallurgy. In so doing, recovery of valuable
components and complexity of utilization of raw materials will be increased and
redundant operations at concentrators will be reduced. The routine practice of producing
rich concentrates of copper, lead, zinc, tungsten, molybdenum and other metals with
downstream pyrometallurgical processing is accompanied with substantial losses of
metals with tailings. The higher the metal content in concentrate is, the greater loss of the
metal with tailings. Since metallurgical engineers are in need of concentrates in which
metal content is 507 per cent, If pyrometallurgical processing of rich concentrates is
applied, metal content in slag remains to be higher than in the original ore, and the total
metal losses are no less than 2030 per cent.
A radically different process flowsheet is more efficient. Only the easytodress
part of valuable minerals can be extracted to rich concentrates. The ore residues are used
for lean middlings to be produced which contain several metals and lean tailings suitable
to production of building materials. The middlings, maybe, together with
pyrometallurgical slags enter hydrometallurgical processing, and the entire complex of
valuable components is stagbystage extracted from them. (Fig.4.32). Here the recovery
rate in the dressing cycle is increased to 9095 per cent, the recovery rate in the
hydrometallurgical cycle is 9598 per cent, and the total metal losses to waste are reduced
to 720 per cent.
In this way there may be solved, for example, problems attributed to processing of
the Ural copperzinc ores: dumps of pyrite residues containing nonferrous metals will
disappear, the chemical industry will receive elementary sulfur instead of pyrite
concentrates for production of sulfuric acid which will sunstantially simplify the
production cycle at chemical plants, problems of atmosphere sanation together with
improvement of labour conditions and increase in labour productivity will be radically
solved while recovery of essential and associate metals will grow 710 per cent, reaching
9997 per cent in metallurgical operations.
The key concept of wastefree technology is extraction of complex of valuable
components in one process. For example, the process of producing glass, cement clonker,
ceramic tile, aggloporite and other types of building materials is connected with heating
of material to 12001400 o C. Sublimation of a majority of metals as oxides or chlorides is
possible at this temperature, it is required only to select appropriate additions to burden
and install machiney for trapping of sublimates.
The ratio of metal losses during mining, dressing and metallurgical operations
(Table 4.28) indicates that there is a definite interaction of total recovery and recovery at
each conversion stage. Recovery should be optimized with due regard to the cost of
material processing at each conversion stage.
Table 4.28. Recovery (%) of mineral resources (valuable components)
Chemico
Mineral resource Mining Dressing metallurgica Total figure
l
266
operations
Copper ores 92 87 96 77
Leadzinc ores 90 80 95 68
Nickel ores 95 90 84 76
Tungstenmolybdenum
ores: 95 76 72
W
Mo 95 83 79
Tin ores 92 64 96 57
In connection with drastic sharpening of ecological problems environment control
is an essential requirement to the technology of mineral processing. Form this viewpoint
on must consider the most promising schedules those with closed water circulation and
development of wastefree dressing technology with complete utilization of the enture
raw materials entering the process. Problems of water treatment with associated
extraction of valuable components and organic impurities gain a primary value.
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