Pt 3

LEARNING

When we think of learning, it might be easy to fall into the trap of only considering formal
education that takes place during childhood and early adulthood, but learning is actually an
ongoing process that takes place throughout the entire life of an individual. Learning is a key
process in human behavior. Our existence as humans is all about learning. Comparing the
simple ways of how a child learns (feels and behaves) to the complex ways of an adult behavior,
his skills, habits, thought, and sentiments, we will know what difference learning has made to
the individual.

Learning became a major focus of study in psychology during the early part of the twentieth
century as behaviorism rose to become a major school of thought. Today, learning remains an
important concept in numerous areas of psychology, including cognitive, educational, social,
and developmental psychology.

An individual is constantly interacting with and influenced by the environment, making him to
change or modify his behavior in order to deal effectively with it. Therefore, learning is a
change in behavior, influenced by previous behavior. The skills, knowledge, habits, attitudes,
interests and other personality characteristics are all a result of learning. Learning is defined as
“any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of practice and
experience”. Three important aspects emerge from this definition:

i. Learning is a change in behavior – better or worse. Sometimes people learn things that
help them become more knowledgeable and lead better lives. In other instances, people
can learn things that are detrimental to their overall health and well-being.
ii. It is a change that takes place through practice or experience, but changes due to
growth or maturation are not learning
iii. This change in behavior must be relatively permanent, and it must last a fairly long time.

All learning involves activities which are either physical or mental activities. They may be simple
physical activities or complex, involving various muscles, bones etc. the mental activities may be
very simple involving or two activities of the mind or complex which involve higher mental
activities.

Whatever activity that an individual learns e.g. skills, habits, facts etc. are referred to as types of
learning.

Types of Learning
 1. Motor Learning: Activities of daily Living such as running, driving, climbing, walking etc
are motor activities that all individuals engage in. The individual has to learn them in
order to maintain a regular life and it involves muscular coordination.
2. Verbal Learning: This type of learning involves the language we speak, communicating
with devices, signs, pictures, symbols, sounds, etc, are tools used in such activities
3. Concept Learning: This is the form of learning which requires higher order of mental
processes like thinking, reasoning, intelligence etc. Different concepts are learned from
childhood. E.g. when we see a dog and attach the term dog to it, we learn that the word
dog refers to a particular animal. Concept learning involves two processes, viz.
abstraction and generalization. This learning is very useful in recognizing, and identifying
things.
4. Discrimination Principles: Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing and
appropriate response to these stimuli is called discrimination learning. E.g.
differentiating the different horn sounds produced by different cars.
5. Learning principles: we learn different principles related to science, Maths, grammar, in
order to manage their work effectively. These principles always show the relationship
between two or more concepts.
6. Problem Solving: this is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use of
cognitive-abilities – such as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination,
generalization. Useful in overcoming difficult problems encountered by people.
7. Attitude Learning: attitude is a predisposition (susceptible, incline) which determines
and directs our behavior. We develop different attitudes from our childhood about the
people, objects, and everything we know. Our behavior may be positive or negative
depending on our attitudes. E.g. attitudes of a nurse towards her profession, patients,
colleagues etc.

How learning occurs

The process of learning new things is not always the same. Learning can happen in a wide
variety of ways. To explain how and when learning occurs, a number of different psychological
theories have been proposed.

Learning through Classical Conditioning

The concept of classical conditioning has had a major influence on the field of psychology, yet
the man who discovered it was not a psychologist at all. A Russian physiologist named Ivan
Pavlov first discovered the principles of classical conditioning during his experiments on the
digestive systems of dogs. Pavlov noticed that the dogs in his experiments had begun to salivate
whenever they saw the white coats of his lab assistants prior to being fed.
According to the principles of classical conditioning, learning takes place when an association is
formed between a previously neutral stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.

In Pavlov’s experiments, for example, he paired the natural stimulus of food with the sound of a
bell. The dogs would naturally salivate in response to food, but after multiple associations, the
dogs would salivate to the sound of the bell alone.

Learning through Operant Conditioning

The consequences of our actions can also play a role in determining how and what we learn.
Operant conditioning was first described by the behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner and
sometimes also referred as Skinnerian conditioning and instrumental conditioning.

Skinner believed that classical conditioning simply could not account for all types of learning
and was instead more interested in learning how the consequences of actions influence
behaviors. That is, he suggested that reinforcements and punishments were responsible for
some types of learning. When something immediately follows a behavior, it can either increase
or decrease the likelihood that the behavior will occur again in the future. This process is
referred to as operant conditioning.

For example, imagine that you just got a new puppy, and you would like to begin training it to
behave in specific ways. Whenever the puppy does what you want it to do, you reward it with a
small treat or a gentle pat. When the puppy misbehaves, you scold him and do not offer
affection. Eventually, the reinforcement leads to an increase in the desired behaviors and a
decrease in the unwanted behaviors.

Learning through Observation

While classical conditioning and operant conditioning can help explain many instances of
learning, one can probably immediately think of situations where he/she have learned
something without being conditioned, reinforced or punished.

Associations and direct reinforcements simply could not account for all learning. "Learning
would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the
effects of their own actions to inform them what to do," says Albert Bandura in his 1977 book
Social Learning Theory.

Instead, he proposed that much of learning takes place through observation. Children observe
the actions of those around them, particularly caregivers and siblings, and then imitate these
behaviors.
In his well-known He carried an experiment “Bobo doll” where it revealed just how easily
children could be led to imitate even negative actions. In a series of famous experiments,
Bandura was able to demonstrate the power of this observational learning. Children watched
video clips of adults interacting with a large, inflatable Bobo doll. In some instances, the adults
simply ignored the doll, while in other clips the adults would hit, kick and yell at the doll.

When kids were later given the chance to play within a room with a Bobo doll present, those
who had observed the adults abusing the doll were more likely to engage in similar actions.
Perhaps most importantly, Bandura noted that learning something does not necessarily result
in a change in behavior. Children frequently learning new things through observation but might
not engage in such behaviors themselves until there is actually a need or motivation to utilize
the information.

Therefore, it can be said that observational learning occurs by observing the actions and
consequences of other people’s behavior.

As seen, learning is a complex process that involves multiple factors. Psychologists today not
only study how learning occurs but also how social, emotional, cultural, and biological variables
might influence the learning process.

Key Difference in Learning Theories

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Social Learning

Learning occurs by forming Learning occurs when

associations between naturally behaviors are followed by Learning occurs through
occurring stimuli and a either reinforcement or observation
previously neutral stimuli punishment

The neutral stimulus must occur

The consequences must Observations can take place at
immediately before the
quickly follow the behavior any time
naturally occurring one

Focuses on the give-and-take

Focuses on automatic, naturally Focuses on voluntary interaction between social,
occurring behaviors behaviors cognitive, and environmental
influences

Laws of learning
For an individual to learn effectively, certain laws must be put in place so that learning can
effectively take place. The following laws are applicable and relevant to adults only.

For Adults

 Law of previous experience: New learning should be linked to (and build upon) the
experiences of the learner. Make sure the entry levels of the participants are checked
Remember adults bring a variety of rich experiences to any training session. Design
activities to ensure easy adjustments to fit different entry levels and to incorporate
relevant experiences.

 Law of relevance: Effective learning is relevant to the learner’s life and work.
Use simulations and role plays to increase the link between the learning situation and
the real world. After a training activity, debrief the participants and discuss strategies for
applying what they learned in the game to their real-world context.

 Law of self-direction. Most adults are self-directed learners. Don't force everyone to
participate in every activity. Identify training objectives and let participants select
among different resources and activities to learn at their own pace and according to
their personal preferences. Involve participants in setting training goals and selecting
appropriate types of learning activities.

 Law of expectations. Learners' reaction to a training session is shaped by their

expectations related to the content area, training format, fellow participants, and the
trainer. Some learners are anxious about mathematical concepts and skills. Encourage
them with intriguing puzzles and short-cut techniques. Other learners feel
uncomfortable about making fools of themselves in public while playing games.
Establish ground rules that reward risk-taking among participants. Demonstrate non-
judgmental behavior by applauding participants for their effort.

 Law of self-image. Adult learners have definite notions about what type of learners they
are. These notions interfere with or enhance their learning. Reassure participants about
their ability to learn new concepts and skills. Motivate them to attempt challenging
tasks. Ensure frequent and early successes by making initial tasks simple and by
progressing in small steps. However, avoid patronizing participants with simple, trivial
tasks. Incorporate learning tasks at different levels of difficulty in the activities.

 Law of multiple criteria. Adult learners use a variety of standards to judge their learning
experiences and accomplishments. Encourage participants to choose personal standards
and scoring systems. Provide different ways to "win" in the activities. In simulations and
role-plays, keep scores related to different criteria. During debriefing, discuss alternative
criteria for measuring participants' performance.
  Law of alignment. Adult learners require the training objectives, content, activities, and
assessment techniques to be aligned to each other. Create a training situation that
closely resembles the job situation. Teach and test for the same content, using similar
strategies. Make sure that the scoring system used in the training activities rewards the
mastery of the training objectives.

For the general public

These laws apply to all human beings, from infancy to old age.

 Law of active learning: Active responding produces more effective learning than passive
listening or reading. Intersperse lectures and reading assignments with active-learning
episodes such as quizzes and puzzles. Provide participants with ample opportunities to
respond by asking questions, encouraging them to ask questions, answering their
questions, and questioning their answers.

 Law of practice and feedback: Learners cannot master skills without repeated practice
and relevant feedback. Do not confuse understanding a procedure with ability to
perform it. Invest ample time in conducting activities that provide repeated practice and
feedback. Make sure that the training activities incorporate immediate and useful
feedback from peers and experts. Use rating scales, checklists, and other devices to
ensure that the feedback is objective and useful.

 Law of individual differences: Different people learn in different ways. Use training
activities that accommodate a variety of learning styles. Make sure that participants can
respond by writing, speaking, drawing, or acting out. Encourage and permit participants
to learn individually, in pairs, and in teams.

 Law of learning domains. Different types of learning require different types of

strategies. Learn to recognize different types of training content and objectives. Do not
use the same type of activity to teach different types of training. Use suitable designs to
help participants achieve different training objectives related to concepts, procedures,
and principles.

 Law of response level. Learners master skills and knowledge at the level at which they
are required to respond during the learning process. If the training activity requires
participants to merely talk about a procedure, do not assume that they will be able to
apply it in their workplace. If participants are required to solve workplace problems for
example, the learning activity should require them to solve problems. Avoid trivial,
closed questions with rote-memory answers in training (e.g. games). Challenge
participants with authentic that require innovative solutions.
For All Creatures (people and animals)

 Law of reinforcement: Participants learn to repeat behaviors that are rewarded. Make
sure that training activities provide several opportunities for earning rewards. Require
participants to make frequent decisions and responses. During the initial stages of
training, reward even partially-correct answers.

 Law of emotional learning: Events that are accompanied by intense emotions result in
long-lasting learning. Use training games, simulations, and role plays that add emotional
element to learning. Make sure that emotions do not become too intense and interfere
with learning. Make sure that participants do not learn dysfunctional behaviors because
of intense emotions. Debrief participants after emotional activities to reflect on their
feelings and learn from their reactions.