SALT AND MISCELLANEOUS SODIUM Uses

COMPOUNDS  used in detergents but also finds usage in sodium

sulfide production and glass, pulping and textile
 used as a seasoning in our foods or used for
applications
bleaching or for dirt removal
 used in the manufacture of Glauber's salt, sodium
A. Sodium Chloride or Common Salt silicate, sodium hyposulfite, nickel smelting

 essential part of the human diet Manufacturing Process of Salt Cake

 a form of currency in Tibet and Mongolia
 most common method for the production of salt
 distribution of salt as a political weapon by
cake is based on the reaction of sulfuric acid and
ancient governments
salt
Uses

 basic raw material for most of the sodium

compounds such as sodium hydroxide, sodium

carbonate, sodium sulfate
Hargreaves process is another method for
Manufacturing Process

1. Solar Evaporation Method

 an old method of salt production manufacturing sodium sulfate

i. Done by capturing salt water in shallow ponds
where the sun evaporated most of the water
ii. Done usually with two ponds i. Carried out by passing sulfur dioxide and air from
iii. Concentrating pond - where the salty water from a furnace over prepared salt lumps in vertical
the ocean is concentrated steel chambers
iv. Crystallizing pond - where salt is produced ii. Chambers run in series, and the gas is moved
 only useful in places where the climate is warmer counter currently
iii. Complete cycle for the reaction, cleaning, and
2. Rock Mining Method repacking is three days for each individual
 two methods in mining salt rocks chamber
i. Cut and blast mining - where a slots are cut in Manufacturing Process of Glauber’s Salt
face of the rock. Then, holes are drilled and
charged with explosives to blast the rock. Rocks i. Made by dissolving salt cake in mother liquor,
obtained are then crushed into pieces removing the impurities, clarifying, and
ii. Continuous mining - done by producing smaller crystallizing
lumps of rock using a machine similar to building ii. Solution is then treated with a paste of chloride
tunnels. Bores into the salt, extracting the lumps of lime followed by milk of lime in sufficient
then crushed into smaller pieces quantities to neutralize the solution
iii. Stirring is carried out by a paddle and heating by a
3. Vacuum Pan Refining lead pipe
 Evaporated Salt or known commonly as “refined iv. Precipitated impurities of iron, magnesium, and
salt” is produced by calcium can settle
 Solution mining an underground deposit and v. Clear solution is run to crystallizers, cools to room
removing the water from the saline brine temperature, the pan is drained and the crystals
pumped to the surface are collected and centrifuged
i. Process where wells are drilled into a salt deposit
ii. Wells are connected by lateral drilling and water
is pumped down one well dissolving the salt C. Sodium Bisulfate or Niter Cake
iii. The resulting brine is then forced to the surface
 also known as sodium hydrogen sulfate
through another well from where it is piped into
 an acidic salt of sulfuric acid
large tanks for storage.
 a monosodium salt of the diprotic sulfuric acid
 It is composed of the sodium cation (Na+ ) and
bisulfate anion (HSO4 - )
B. Sodium Sulfate (Salt Cake and Glauber’s Salt)
Uses
 the sodium salt of sulfuric acid
 Two types of sodium sulfate: anhydrous sulfate  used in toilet bowl cleaners and dishwashing
(salt cake) and decahydrate sulfate (Glauber’s cleaning products
salt)  used to control pH levels
  can even be found in dietary supplements and
antifungal foot creams

Manufacturing Process
F. Sodium Hydrosulfite
 was obtained by the almost obsolete reaction of
 called as sodium dithionite or “Hdryo”
sodium nitrate or “niter” with sulfuric acid
 a whitish to light yellow crystalline having a
sulfuric odor
 spontaneously heats on contact with air and
moisture
D. Sodium Bisulfite
Uses
 a common inorganic salt
 a universal reducing agent
 appears as white crystals or crystalline powder
 textile industry, used for indigo dyeing
Uses  used as a non-aggressive alternative as a bleach
for removing color
 industrial employment either in solution or as a
solid Manufacturing Process
 tanning industry, used as a reducing agent for
 There are two ways both includes zinc powder
chrome solutions
 First procedure
 textile field, a bleaching agent, an antichlor
i. done by the reaction of sulfur dioxide
 raw material for the manufacturing of
hydrosulfite solutions
 consumed in the paper, photographic and organic
chemical industries
 second
Manufacturing Process
ii. treating an aqueous suspension of zinc dust in
i. Produced by passing sulfur dioxide through formaldehyde with sulfur dioxide at 80°C
mother liquors from previous processes iii. double decomposition reaction is carried out with
containing in solution small amounts of sodium soda ash forming the sodium salt
bisulfite and soda ash iv. pure product is obtained by evaporation in
ii. product is obtained as a suspension which is vacuum
removed from the solution by centrifuging

G. Sodium Sulfide
E. Sodium Sulfite
 yellow to brick red crystalline mass or fused solid
 inorganic salt with a chemical formula of Na2SO3  exposed to moist air it is liable to spontaneous
 white crystal or powder with reducing property heating and may cause ignition of nearby
 a component in many drugs, which helps combustible material
maintain their potency and stability
Uses
Uses
 pulp and paper industry, water treatment, textile
 used for the prevention of the discoloration industry, and various chemical manufacturing
 acts as a preservative processes
 used to lower the chlorine levels of the waters  production of rubber chemicals, sulfur dyes and
 used in boilers, since sodium sulfite acts as an oil recovery
oxygen scavenger to avoid corrosion  gel form, sodium sulfide is used to soften toenails

Manufacturing Process Manufacturing Process

 prepared by treating a solution of sodium  oldest and most used is the reduction of sodium
hydroxide with sulfur dioxide sulfate with powdered coal in a reverberator
 With more SO2, the solid dissolves to give the furnace
disulfite, which crystallizes upon cooling  Another process is the reduction of barite in the
same manner, leaching, and double
decomposition with soda ash
  newest method involves the saturation of a
Industrially, sodium sulfite is made by treating sulfur caustic soda solution with hydrogen sulfide and
dioxide with a solution of sodium carbonate
 the addition of another equal portion of sodium  a reagent for conversion of amines into diazo
hydroxide compounds

H. Sodium Thiosulfate Manufacturing Process

 inorganic sodium salt Former:

 available as the white or colorless pentahydrate
New
 solid is an efflorescent crystalline substance that
dissolves well in water i. manufactured by passing the oxidation product of
ammonia into soda ash solution
Uses
ii. sodium nitrate also formed may be separated by
 as a food preservative crystallization
 available as a nonprescription oral product
 used as a treatment against arsenic, lead,
mercury and bismuth poisoning
 listed in the World Health Organization’s List of
J. Sodium Silicates
Essential Medicines
 used in photography in fixing developed  water glass is a compound containing sodium
negatives and prints oxide and silica
 acts by dissolving the part of the silver salts  forms a glassy solid
coated onto the film which remained unchanged  very useful property of being soluble in water
by exposure to light
Uses
Manufacturing Process
 sodium silicate adhesives bonding paper and
making corrugated boxboard, boxes, and cartons
 used in wood bonding and in bonding metal
First method (from
sheets to various substrates
i. reaction of the sulfur with a concentrated  in bonding glass to glass, porcelain, leather,
solution of sodium sulfite is carried out in a textiles
ceramic-lined iron pot
Manufacturing Process
ii. resulting liquor is concentrated and crystallized
iii. crystals formed, Na2S20∙5H20, should be packed i. made by fusing (melting) sand (silicon dioxide)
immediately In. airtight containers to prevent and soda ash (sodium carbonate) or sodium
efflorescence hydroxide in a gas-fired open hearth furnace
ii. products of this reaction are lumps of sodium
Second method (preparation is from sodium sulfide)
silicate that are broken apart and dissolved in a
i. Sulfur dioxide is passed into a solution of sodium stream of hot steam
sulfide and sodium carbonate of low
Determine the physical properties of the final product
concentration
ii. The sodium thiosulfate is obtained by 1. proportions of sand and soda ash used
evaporation and crystallization. 2. the temperature of the reaction
3. the amount of water that remains in the final
I.
product

Sodium Nitrite

 an inorganic sodium salt having nitrite as the

counter ion K. Sodium Peroxide
 appears as a clear colorless to yellow solution
 an anti-oxidant and serves to block the growth of  an inorganic compound
botulism-causing bacteria and prevents spoilage  appears as a yellow granular solid
 yellowish solid is the product of sodium ignited in
Uses oxygen
 used to cure meat products Uses
 an efficient treatment for cyanide
 poisoning  used in bleaching wood pulp for the production
of paper and textiles
 works as
  used for specialized laboratory operations, for ii. prepared by the reaction of sodium with
example, the extraction of minerals from various ammonia gas
ores iii. prepared by passing ammonia into metallic
 used as an oxidizing agent sodium at 200 to 300°C
 used as an oxygen source by reacting with carbon iv. reaction may be carried out in an iron equipment
dioxide to produce oxygen and sodium carbonate (a ball-mill type reactor)

Manufacturing Process Reaction is fastest at the boiling point of the ammonia

i. Prepared by burning sodium in an excess of air,

reaction is carried out in heated revolving drums
N. Sodium Cyanide
ii. Placing sodium in wagons and moving them
through a furnace maintained at 300°C  appears as a white crystalline solid, lump solid or
iii. Dry air is passed through the furnace powder
countercurrent  deadly human poison by ingestion
iv. Product has a purity of about 95 percent  appears as a clear colorless aqueous solution
v. Sodium peroxide must be packed in clean dry iron
or nickel Uses

When it is placed on paper or wood, the heat of hydration  used in the extraction of gold
of the material is sufficient to cause ignition.  used in the leeching process in most gold mining
operations
 occasionally used against predatory animals
L. Sodium Perborate

 a white powder and a boron compound Manufacturing process

 which hydrolyzes to hydrogen peroxide and
boron i. made from sodium amide heated with carbon at
 a mild, inexpensive and air-stable oxidizing agent 800°C., the carbon as charcoal being thrown into
 high affinity for water, usually found to be in its the molten sodium amide
dimeric monohydrated form, NaBO3∙H2O

Uses

 mostly used as a bleaching agent ii. Another way of preparing sodium cyanide is by
 used in many cleaning products treating hydrogen cyanide with sodium hydroxide
 could also be found in some whitening
toothpaste, denture cleaners, hair bleachers and
wound cleaners O. Sodium
Manufacturing process  odorless yellow solid that is soluble to water
i. made by heating a sodium perborate Uses
tetrahydrate. Sodium perborate tetrahydrate is
made by reacting hydrogen peroxide with borax  used as photographic materials
 preparation of red blood salts and pigments
 used for steel carburizing, tanning, dyeing,
printing and in the side of pharmaceuticals

M. Sodium Amide Manufacturing process

 a greyish-white powder with a slight ammonia i. manufactured from a crude sodium cyanide made
odor from calcium cyanamide by fusion with sodium
 reacts violently with water, acids and chloride in an electric furnace
halogenated compounds ii. ferrocyanide reaction is carried on in a hot
aqueous solution with ferrous sulfate
Uses iii. sodium and calcium ferrocyanides are formed
and calcium sulfate precipitated
 a strong base and is used in many chemical
iv. calcium ferrocyanide is changed to the sodium
reactions
salt by addition of soda ash precipitating calcium
 used in the preparation of some dyes and several
carbonate
important organic compounds
v. slurry is filtered and washed and the decahydrate
Manufacturing process Na4Fe(CN)∙1OH20 crystallizes out on cooling
 Lead-acid battery (lead storage battery) - the most
important secondary cell

 the oldest type of rechargeable battery.

 the electrodes of the cells in a lead storage
battery consist of lead grids
 Dilute sulfuric acid serves as the electrolyte
ELECTROLYTIC INDUSTRIES
Electrochemistry - deals with the relations between Electrical energy is generated when these reactions. To
electrical energy and chemical change recharge the battery, electrical energy is applied to it and
the reactions are reversed.
 involve electric charges moving between
electrodes and an electrolyte.  On discharge, the negative plate acts as an anode
 Electrolysis - which is the most important process and positive plate acts as a cathode
to produce chlorine, alkalis, many oxidizing  On charge, the positive plate acts as a cathode
agents, fluorine, and organofluorine compounds and positive plates acts as an anode
 Appliances like screws, nuts, electrical connectors
are finished by electroplating processes, to The liquid is effectively conducting the electrical current.
protect them from corrosion or to improve The charge particles that are moving are ions. If a liquid
electronic conductivity has free moving ions and can conduct like this, it is called
 Electrochemical processes provide significant an electrolyte.
benefits including easy integration with
renewable energy, minimization of purification
and separation costs, ease of operation at low
Aluminum
temperature and pressure, long term impact, and
ease of storage and transportation of feedstock  a silvery-white, lightweight metal that is soft and
and fuel easy to modify in form
 Electrochemical synthesis allow the direct  It is the most abundant metal in Earth making up
production of pure fuels or chemicals and takes over 8% of its mass
place at low temperatures and pressures  third most common chemical element on our
 reactions carried out electrochemically can be planet after oxygen and silicon
energy efficient and less polluting  Aluminum has a relatively high corrosion
 cost of electrical power is usually the deciding resistance and needs less protection compared to
factor in the electrochemical industries the other metals
 industries have tended to become established in  first obtained by Hans Christian Oersted in in
regions of cheap electrical power based on 1825. Oersted heated an alloy of potassium and
falling water mercury with aluminum chloride and distilled the
mercury from the resultant aluminum amalgam
 Henri Sainte-Claire Deville announced an
Primary and Secondary Cells improvement in the process in 1854. In this
Cells or batteries - unit specially designed for the purpose process, aluminum chloride is reduced by sodium
of obtaining the electrical energy
Production of primary aluminum
Primary cells - designed to be used once and discarded
 involves two independent energy-intensive
 It produces electricity by means of a chemical processes to transform the ore, which is bauxite,
reaction that is not easily reversible, and thus the to the metal by electrolytic reduction
chemicals must be replaced after the reaction has a. Bayer process, which makes alumina from
taken place bauxite, using thermochemical digestion
Secondary cells - can be charged and discharged into a b. Hall-Heroult process, which produces molten
load aluminum by electrolytic reduction of alumina
dissolved in a molten fluoride electrolyte
 The chemical reactions are reversible by electrical consisting mainly of cryolite
energy and thus do not require replacement of
the chemical components Cryolite is a mineral consisting of fluoride, sodium, and
aluminum, which is the solvent for alumina in the
Dry cell - common primary cell today smelting process
 consists of a zinc container which serves as one
electrode and a carbon rod which is the other
electrode
1. Process (Electrolytic aluminum cell)  magnesium ignites easily in air and burns with a
bright light, it's used in flares, fireworks and
 Graphite is a form of carbon and acts at the sparklers
negative cathode. The positive anodes are also
made of graphite but are immersed in the molten Manufacturing process
cryolite solution. Aluminum ions forms at the
cathode. On the other hand, the oxygen, from  two major routes practiced industrially for the
the aluminum oxide, forms at the positive anode production of primary magnesium metal
and reacts with the carbon of the graphite to
form carbon dioxide a. Electrolysis of magnesium chloride

2. Electrolysis of aluminum oxide to yield metallic

aluminum
 Steel acts
as the
cathode and graphite as the anode. Molten
magnesium is deposited at the cathode, while the

i. In the electrolysis of aluminum, bauxite is purified

to yield a white powder or aluminum oxide.
ii. aluminum oxide needs to be molten for electricity
can pass through. Using molten cryolite,
aluminum oxide is dissolved in it
iii. Alumina-cryolite solution is electrolyzed to form chlorine gas is released at the anode.
metallic aluminum. In the electrolysis, when
In the electrolysis of magnesium
electricity flows, Aluminum ions, from the
aluminum oxide, are formed at the negative i. Magnesium hydroxide is obtained from sea water
cathode and then sink to the bottom because or brine wells. Sea water is a major source of that
they are heavier than the cryolite solution. metal
iv. Then, the aluminum that has sunk to the bottom ii. Magnesium chloride is obtained by precipitating
is collected in liquid form magnesium hydroxide from seawater and
dissolving it in hydrochloric acid
iii. The magnesium chloride is then melted which is
Magnesium evaporated to solid magnesium chloride in direct-
fired evaporators followed by shelf drying and
 a very light silvery white alkaline-earth metal and electrolyzed, where it is decomposed into the
the eighth most abundant element and magnesium metal and chlorine gas.
constitutes about 2 percent of the Earth’s crust
 third most abundant element dissolved in
b. Thermal reduction of magnesium oxide
seawater
 Magnesium and magnesium compounds are
produced from seawater
 first person to recognize that magnesium was an
element was Joseph Black at Edinburgh in 1755
 Magnesium metal was first discovered in 1808 by
Humphry Davy through the electrolysis of
magnesium oxide
i. In this process, dolomite, a magnesium-rich
 French scientist, Antoine- Alexandre-Brutus
limestone is mixed with ferrosilicon
Bussy who first isolated the magnesium metal in
ii. Then, high vacuum and heat are applied and the
1831 by reacting magnesium chloride with
magnesium that is liberated is collected on the
potassium
lining of the condenser.
Uses iii. At the end of the run the furnace is partly cooled
and the magnesium is removed from the
 used in products that benefit from being condenser by the contraction of the magnesium
lightweight, such as car seats, luggage, laptops, and the steel
cameras
  unstable, decomposing readily to oxygen and
water with release of heat
Sodium  prepared by both electrolytic and chemical
methods.
 a silvery white, highly reactive metal that reacts
 Pure hydrogen peroxide was first obtained in
violently with water
1894 by Richard Wolffenstein
 It is the most common alkali metal and the sixth
 more efficient way of synthesizing hydrogen
most abundant element on Earth, comprising 2.8
peroxide by electrolysis with sulfuric acid
percent of Earth's crust.
 produced by electrolysis of dry molten sodium
chloride which much cheaper than the
electrolysis of sodium hydroxide
 first isolated in 1807 by Sir Humphry Davy, who
made it by the electrolysis of very dry molten Uses
sodium hydroxide, NaOH. Sodium collected at the
cathode  widely used as bleach, for wood pulp and animal
 Thenard and Gay-Lussac isolated sodium by products
reducing sodium hydroxide with iron metal at  a mild antiseptic and disinfectant
high temperatures  It is also ideal for explosives, rocket propellants,
and synthetic chemicals
Uses
Manufacturing process
 used as an anode material for rechargeable
batteries due to its large theoretical charging
capacity, low electrochemical potential
 vital in the manufacture of esters and in the
preparation of organic compounds
 used to improve the structure of certain alloys, to
descale metal, and to purify molten metals
 Molten (liquid) sodium is used as a coolant in
many nuclear reactors  reaction shown is the conversion of Sulfuric acid
into Peroxydisulfuric acid and hydrogen gas.
Manufacturing process Then, Peroxydisulfuric acid and persulfuric acid is

 Iron acts as
the cathode and carbon as the anode. Sodium-
calcium mixture is deposited at the cathode

hydrolyzed yield to hydrogen peroxide

i. In the production of hydrogen peroxide, active
oxygen is produced by the anodic oxidation of
sulfate radicals
i. The cell for this electrolysis consists of a closed, ii. These are supplied in the electrolyte from sulfuric
rectangular refractory lined steel box. acid or alkali sulfate.
ii. Sodium chloride has a high melting point, but iii. The electrolyte is fed into a typical electrolytic cell
calcium chloride is added to lower this. which is held at 35°C.
iii. A sodium-calcium mixture deposits at the iv. The products are then hydrolyzed at
cathode, but the solubility of calcium in sodium temperatures from 60°C to 100°C to yield
decreases with decreasing temperatures so that hydrogen peroxide.
the heavier calcium crystals, settle back at the
bath.
Chlorates and Perchlorate

 oxyanions containing chlorine and oxygen atoms

Hydrogen Peroxide
 Sodium chlorate is a white crystalline powder
 is a colourless liquid usually produced as aqueous manufactured in large quantities as a weedkiller
solutions of various concentrations
  used in textile printing and dyeing. It  Adiponitrile (ADP) is a key intermediate for the
cannot be employed in explosives because of its production of nylon 6, 6 polymers. It is used for
hygroscopicity the synthesis of hexamethylenediamine (HMD)
 Sodium perchlorate does not have many
commercial applications because of its extreme
solubility in water but is used to prepare
potassium and ammonium perchlorates which
are consumed in explosives

Manufacturing process

Electrothermal Industry
 Electrothermal means relation to or combining
heat and electricity
 Elctrothermal Industry is the industry that
a. Production of sodium chlorate requires an equipment that uses electricity to
produce heat in order to manufacture a product.
i. In the production of sodium chlorate, cell is filled This equipment is known as an electric furnace,
with brine solution. an integral part of the electrothermal industry
ii. The brine solution is made from soft water and
purified from any calcium and magnesium.
iii. The temperature of the cell is maintained at 40°C
by cooling water. Electric furnace
iv. Electrolysis of saturated acidulated brine is mixed
with sodium dichromate.  a heating chamber that uses electricity as the
v. Sodium hypochlorite is produced, and it is heat source for producing very high temperatures
oxidized to form chlorate in order to melt and alloy metals and refractories
 can reach temperatures as high as 4100°C
b. Production of sodium chlorate  This type of furnace allows for more precise
control and more concentration of heat with less
thermal loss than is possible with other types of
furnace. It is cleaner and more convenient to
operate than the combustion furnace
 usually operated with moderate voltage with
alternating current

Types of Electric Furnace

i. Potassium perchlorate is made by converting
a. Electric-Arc Furnace - is the commonly used type of
sodium chlorate into sodium perchlorate in steel
electric furnace.
electrolytic cells which have platinum anodes.
ii. Filtered potassium chloride is added to the  heat is produced by an electric arc and is
sodium perchlorate transferred through direct radiation or through
iii. Precipitating potassium perchlorate crystals reflected radiation off the internal lining of the
which are centrifuged, washed, and dried furnace
Other Products and Organic Compounds b. Induction Furnace - is made of an electric-induction
coil that is built into the walls of the furnace.
 most successful organic electrosynthesis process
that has been commercialized is the manufacture  An alternating current in the coil induces current
of adiponitrile from acrylonitrile in any metallic object that cuts off the
 electromagnetic flux. Both high and low iv. The product will consist of SiC crystals loosely
frequency current is used in an induction furnace knitted together that is surrounded by
unconverted raw material
c. Resistance Furnace - has a solid metal placed on each v. The lump aggregate is crushed, ground, and
of the two inclined hearths. screened into various sizes

 The electric-resistance coils located above it b. ESK Process - addresses the problem of loss of by-
subjects the furnace to heat radiation. The product CO, SO2 and dust content in the waste gases in
melted metal flows down into a reservoir. It has a the Acheson furnace
spout (hole) that is used to drain the molten
metal by tilting the whole furnace. This type of
electric furnace is used mainly for melting
aluminum and its alloys and for low melting
temperature metals

Products from Electrothermal Industries

a. Abrasives - used to form or finish a work piece

 manufacturing the first artificial abrasive which

ignited the evolution of modern grinding tools.  ESK furnace consists of floor electrode, gas-
 Before 1891, all the abrasives used were natural permeable furnace bed, gas collector, plastic
products such as diamonds, corundum, emery, sheet, and heating core which is horizontal
garnet, quartz, kieselguhr, and rouge.  A mixture of coke and sand is charged into the
 E. G. Acheson produced the first man-made reaction zone until the zone is full of the raw
abrasive in a homemade electric-arc furnace material or the charge reaches the top of the
while attempting to harden clay. Acheson found graphite columns.
these new hard purple crystals to be silicon  As the reaction mixture reaches the top of the
carbide. These crystals were hard enough to cut column level, the horizontal heating core (linear
glass or U shaped) is put in the position and connected
to a graphite column
b. Silicon Carbide - is a synthetically constructed  Then the heating core is covered with remaining
crystalline compound of silicon and carbon reaction mixture from wheel loaders, so it forms a
mound shape. The mound must be covered with
 It is very hard and has been mass produced for plastic sheet to trap the evolved gases.
sandpapers, grinding wheels, and cutting tools.  The furnace contains no walls while the electrode
 Sand and carbon are primarily the raw materials is located on the floor. An initial current of 6000
for the production of silicon carbide. amperes at 250 volts is passed and then
 Sources of carbon include anthracite, coke, pitch, increased to 20000 amperes.
or petroleum cokes. The sand contains 98 to 99.5  The CO evolved as a by-product is contained by
per cent silica the plastic sheet and collected in the gas
collection tube continuously
 Unconverted mixture is removed first and lumps
of silicon carbide are taken out of the furnace and
broken down with hydraulic equipment.
 The crystals in the outer zone will be further
Manufacturing Process of Silicon Carbide
reduced in size and recycled to the process. The
a. Acheson process coarse crystals in the inner zone of the SiC roll are
then sorted
i. involves a mixture of pure silica sand and carbon  Introducing chlorine gas will remove the
in the form of finely ground coke and a brick impurities from the reaction. Addition of boron,
electrical resistance-type furnace titanium, or zircon in small amount to the furnace
ii. The finely ground coke is used to build up around charged reduces the product sensitivity to
a carbon conductor within the said furnace oxidation at 900-1000° C
iii. Electric current is passed through the conductor
to bring about a chemical reaction to form SiC c. Fused Aluminum Oxide
and carbon monoxide gas. The furnace runs for
- known as Fused Alumina is the family name for
several days.
inorganic compounds with the chemical formula
Al2O3
 Manufacturing Process of Fused Aluminum Oxide: This method uses a lot of energy and time, making boron
carbide products up to 10 times more expensive than
 Raw materials used for aluminum oxide other, less hard wearing ceramic materials.
abrasives such as those sold under the trade-
marks Alumdum and Aloxite may be impure
bauxite called red bauxite
 Fused Alumina is made in electric arc furnace
by passing a current between vertical carbon
electrodes
 The heat generated from this procedure
melts the alumina feedstock
 Aluminum oxide manufacturing process e. Calcium Carbide
mainly includes electric furnace smelting,
cooling and granulating  is a chemical compound used in the commercial
 The Bayer process is the principal industrial manufacture of acetylene gas
means of refining bauxite to produce alumina  Calcium carbide is used to manufacture
(aluminium oxide) cyanamide by combining it with nitrogen and also
to prepare acetylene by reacting it with water.
Cyanamide is made through the heating of
calcium carbide in an atmosphere of nitrogen
 Quicklime and carbon are used to prepare
Calcium carbide at 2000 to 2200°C
 Source of carbon can be coke (most widely used),
anthracite, or petroleum coke. It should be
compact and have a low ash content, a low
ignition point, and high electrical resistivity so
that the bulk of the furnace charge is highly
resistant to the flow of energy
 Phosphorus should be absent as it forms a
phosphide which is converted to poisonous
phosphine, PH3, when the carbide is made into
d. Boron Carbide ( Norbide)
acetylene.
- extremely hard boron–carbon ceramic and
Manufacturing process of Calcium Carbide:
covalent material used in tank armor, bulletproof vests,
and engine sabotage powders. It is the hardest artificially
There are three ways that Calcium Carbide can be
made abrasive ever
manufactured

1. By standard process
Uses
i. Crushed dried coke and limestone are mixed and
then is charged into the furnace.
 specialized used is as a powdered abrasive and in
ii. The furnace is heated at 2000-2200°C. Air is
molded shapes such as nozzles for sandblasting.
allowed to go into the furnace in order to
Products such as tungsten and tantalum carbide
maintain the temperature.
are also manufactured
iii. The reaction product, calcium carbide, is sent to
Manufacturing process of Boron Carbide: the cooler to be cooled.

 Boric oxide is used to react with coke in a carbon

resistance furnace at a temperature of 2600°C.
The resulting product will yield 99 percent 𝐵4𝐶.
i. The industry currently produces boron carbide in
the form of large ingots.
ii. It is produced the same by mixing petroleum coke iv. The cooled calcium carbide is screened and is
with boron oxide at temperatures of up to sent to the packaging section
2000°C.
iii. These ingots then have to be ground into fine 2. By open furnace
grains before being manufactured into the
i. Dried coke and lime is mixed and is charged into
required shape.
the furnace.
 ii. The furnace is heated at 2200°C. Air is allowed to on the side of matchboxes, used to strike safety
pass into the furnace in order to maintain the matches against to light them
temperature. The reaction mass, which is the  The largest use of phosphorus compounds is for
mixture of dried coke and lime, is heated until off fertilizers. Most of the phosphorus used in
gases consisting of water vapor, CO, CO2, H2, and fertilizer comes from phosphate rock. Phosphorus
N2O4 are separated out of the dry collector. is also important in the production of steel.
iii. The reaction product is sent to the cooler to be Phosphates are ingredients in some detergents
cooled.
iv. Cooled calcium carbide is screened and then sent Phosphate Rock
to the packaging section.
 Finely pulverized phosphate rocks are used as a
3. Using water

This process involves dipping the electrodes in the charge.

The charge is almost fully filled in the furnace. The layer
of carbon or anthracite at the bottom acts as the bottom
electrode.

i. The coke is dried first using hot air and is charged

main raw material for the production of
together with lime at the top of the furnace.
phosphoric acid and superphosphate
ii. The coke and lime is first heated by the burning
 The matrix is composed of clay, slimes, silica
of carbon monoxide that is liberated during the
sand, and phosphate pebble
reaction. The furnace provides the additional heat
for the reaction mass to achieve a temperature of Beneficiation Process
2000°C. Calcium carbide is formed at the bottom.
iii. The reaction mass that contains off gases is sent i. It starts by washing, milling, classifying and
to the separator. Evaporative spray is used to screening to give coarse rock and fine rock
evaporate water from the reaction mass while ii. Then it goes to hydro-separation, classification,
the remaining off gases are sent back to the and table concentration of the -14 to +150-mesh
furnace via bag house. raw feed, to give classifier product and table
iv. The molten calcium carbide is periodically tapped concentrate product. It goes again to the hydro-
out of the furnace and new charges are added separation and flotation of the -35 to +150- mesh
into the cast iron chilled pots that have a capacity to give a flotation concentrate product.
of about 5000 kg each. iii. The ore is separated as a forth in the flotation
v. The reaction mass is cooled using water in the cells, from the sand which is sent to tailings
cooler. Water is also used to decrease the off waste.
gases in the furnace. iv. Then the phosphate ore is acidulated, deoiled,
vi. The reaction mass is crushed and sized before and subjected to another flotation machine
being sent to the packaging section where the remaining silica is floated off using an
amine as the flotation agent.
v. The coarse and fine rock and the other products
are taken to the phosphate plant for acidulation
or other chemical treatment.

Uses

 The main use of phosphate rock is in fertilizer

 Tricalcium phosphate in raw and/or steamed and
degreased bones and in basic slag is used after
grinding as a direct phosphate fertilizer.
 A small percentage of this is sometimes treated
PHOSOHORUS INDUSTRIES with sulfuric acid for superphosphate or as a
source material for phosphate chemicals
 cannot be manufactured or destroyed, and there
is no substitute or synthetic version of it The kind of phosphates compounds used as a fertilizer is
available. But animals and humans excrete almost dependent upon the solubilities or the availability to the
100 percent of the phosphorus they consume in plants
food
a) Water-insoluble products: rock phosphate or
 White phosphorus is used in flares and incendiary
fluorapatite, aF . Ca4(PO4)3
devices. Red phosphorus is in the material stuck
 b) Citrate-soluble products: dicalcium phosphate, vi. The superphosphate may be sold directly in this
CaHPO4 form, or it may be further dried and disintegrated
c) Water-soluble products: monocalcium
phosphate, CaH4(PO4)2 2. Continuous Process

Manufacture of Superphosphate a) Broadfield process

i. the preparation of phosphate rock, The acid and dust rock are fed simultaneously,
ii. then it mixes with acid, continuously, and automatically into a cast-steel trough
iii. followed by the curing and drying of the material, covered with hood. In the trough is a horizontal rotating
iv. finally the excavation, shaft with mixing blades which advances the material and
v. milling and bagging of the finished product. discharges it into a mechanical den. The den is a slow-
moving conveyer. Reaction time is 1 ¼ hr., after the
Although few plants use continuous processes, most material is stored
plants still conduct these operations in the various
separate steps. All plants first pulverize their rock. With b) Sackett Super-Flow process
modern pulverizing and air separation equipment, most
rock is ground to an average fineness of 80-90% through a This differs radically in the initial mixing of the rock and
100-mesh screen. Benefits of doing pulverizing the rock acid. Pulverized rock is delivered as a dust stream to be
first are: top of an acidulating tower along with an atomized spray
of sulfuric acid. During the movement through the tower
 The reaction rate is faster the material undergoes rapid and final acidulation
 More efficient use is made of the sulfuric acid evolving hydrogen, fluorine and other by-product gases
with consequent less acid which are flashed off, dissolved in water, and
 A higher grade of product in better condition is concentrated. The superphosphate drops from the
obtained bottom of the tower as thin slurry like material to a
puddler which conveys it to the solidifier. The solidifier, a
channel-like pallet conveyer, functions as the den in the
older process and the material leaving it is ready for
curing. The final product has a hard, porous grain
structure of good physical properties

Granular superphosphate

Oberphos process utilized a method to produce a

granular product. But it is expensive and other
methods of granulation are used.

Davison process the material as it comes from

the den in the regular process.
There are two processes that use this type of process:
Steps:
1. Den Process
i. The moist and warm crude superphosphate is
brought by crane from the den to a feed hopper
i. The reaction between the sulfuric acid and the
for the granulating and conditioning system.
mineral rock takes place in pan mixers.
ii. A variable-speed screw feeder transfers classifier
ii. The phosphate rock and a predetermined
dust to a conveyer system where it is mixed in
quantity of chamber or stronger sulfuric acid (50-
with this moist superphosphate.
56°Be) are usually added simultaneously to the
iii. The granulating properties of the superphosphate
mixer and agitated 1- 3 min
depend upon the moisture content.
iii. The syrupy mixture is usually dumped directly
iv. The superphosphate goes from the feeding
into a “den” below the mixture.
device to a “conditioner” which is a rotating
iv. To ensure complete reaction, the material is left
cylinder and where the material is subjected to
in the den for 6-24 hr. The temperature of the
water sprays to form balls or granules and to
mass is usually above 100°C, and carbon dioxide,
accelerate the chemical acidulation.
steam, and gaseous compound of fluorine
v. An operator is stationed at the discharge end, to
escape, leaving a fairly dry and porous product
watch constantly the material discharged and to
v. The superphosphate is removed from the den
adjust the sprays as necessary.
and after aeration it is transferred to the storage
pile where it is allowed to cure
 vi. The conditioned material is then fed into the oil-
fired rotary drier (d=8 ft. & l=50 ft.) and the
discharged into a pit at its lower end.
vii. The combustion gases are drawn from the lower
end and forced by a draft fan through a cyclone
dust collector.
viii. The material is aged for at least 10 days as
compared with the 4-12 weeks of storage
required by the den process. The shorter period
of cure is due to the accelerated acidulation of
this process caused by improved mixing, proper
moisture adjustment, and enhanced
temperature.
ix. The granular product also is free flowing and
handles and mixes better than the old powdery
den product

Nitric and Mixed Acid Acidulation of Phosphate Rock

3 processes

a) The phosphate rock is extracted by mixed nitric

and sulfuric acids, followed by ammoniation,
drying, and addition of potassium chloride
(optional).
b) The other mixed nitric and sulfuric acidulation
followed by the previously described steps and
the other two use nitric acid alone for the
acidulation.
c) These process along with the conditioning against
moisture adsorption as practiced for ammonium
nitrate, give promise to an extension of this use
of nitric acid

Triple Superphosphate

Much more concentrated than the superphosphate, it

contains 45%-50% P2O5 or nearly three times the amount
of regular superphosphate. Made by the action of
phosphoric acid on the phosphate rock, and thus no
diluent calcium sulfate is formed

Phosphorus Production