AQA Further Mechanics Final Files Sample

A LEVEL FURTHER MATHEMATICS FOR AQA MECHANICS STUDENT BOOK (AS/A LEVEL)
Brighter Thinking
9781316644539 A LEVEL FURTHR MATHEMATICS FOR AQA MECHANIC SB BARKER, BARKET, CONWAY, SUCH C M Y K
A Level Further Mathematics for AQA

Mechanics Student Book (AS/ A Level)
This Student Book has been written for the AQA AS/A Level Further Mathematics
specifications, for first teaching from 2017. Developed by a highly experienced author team
with a wealth of maths teaching expertise, teachers and students can be confident that the A Level Fur ther
Mathematics for AQA
content matches the course requirements.
For this linear course in 2017, AS/A Level Further Mathematics learning needs to go beyond
rote techniques; students should develop a coherent understanding of mathematics as a whole
subject. This is why our resources focus on promoting a deeper understanding throughout.
Mechanics Student Book (AS/A Level)
Jess Barker, Nathan Barker, Michele Conway and Janet Such
• Overarching themes of problem-solving, • Continual assessment is embedded at

proof and modelling are built into every chapter, strand and course level to help
chapter, with additional Focus on pages build student and teacher confidence
to further develop students’ proficiency in with the new linear assessment.
these key mathematical skills.
• Further requirements for the
• A synoptic approach underpins all the specifications are fulfilled through
resources. This includes cross-topic review opportunities to practise incorporating
exercises and fast forward/rewind technology throughout.
signposts to reinforce concepts and
connect Pure and Applied topics. • The unique Work it out feature challenges
common misconceptions.
• An extensive question bank includes
discussion, synoptic, past paper and a Visit cambridge.org/education for details of
wealth of practice questions, which are all AS/A Level Mathematics resources.
colour-coded for different skill levels.
Contents
Contents
Introduction.............................................................. iv 6 Momentum and collisions 2 145
How to use this book................................................ v 1: Variable force and vector notation.................. 145
2: Oblique impacts and the impulse–
1 Work, energy and power 1 1
momentum triangle..........................................148
1: The work done by a force.....................................2
2: Kinetic energy and the work–energy principle....5 7 Circular motion 2 160
3: Potential energy, mechanical energy and 1: Conservation of mechanical energy................ 161
conservation of mechanical energy....................9 2: Problem solving situations............................... 172
4: Power��14
8 Centres of mass 185
2 Dimensional analysis 23 1: Centre of mass of a system of point masses....186
1: Defining and calculating dimensions................24 2: Centres of mass of standard shapes..............190
2: Units and dimensions of sums, differences 3: Centres of mass of composite bodies............ 196
e
and angles............................................................29 4: Centres of mass by integration........................205
3: Finding dimensions from units and 5: Equilibrium of a rigid body............................... 215
derivatives, conversion of units and
9 Moments and couples 235
4: Summary of dimensions and units....................42
3 Momentum and collisions 1
2: Collisions and the principle of conservation

pl
predicting formulae............................................35
47
1: Momentum and impulse....................................48
1: Moments............................................................236
2: An introduction to couples..............................242
3: Vector methods.................................................246
4: Problem solving using moments and
couples............................................................... 251
m
of momentum......................................................57
3: Restitution and kinetic energy...........................67 Focus on … Proof 2............................................ 262
Focus on … Problem solving 2.......................... 264

4 Circular motion 1 84
1: Linear speed versus angular speed...................85 Focus on … Modelling 2.................................... 267
Sa
2: Acceleration in horizontal circular motion........89 Cross-topic review exercise 2............................ 269

3: Horizontal circular motion in 3D........................95
5 Work, energy and power 2 107 AS Level practice paper.......................................273

1: Work done by a variable force f(x)...................108 A Level practice paper..........................................275
2: Hooke’s law, work done against elasticity Formulae................................................................277
and elastic potential energy............................. 110 Answers ..................................................................278
3: Work done by a force at an angle to the Glossary..................................................................295
direction of motion........................................... 119 Index...................................................................... 296
4: Problem solving involving work, energy and Acknowledgements..............................................298
power .................................................................122
Focus on … Proof 1..............................................135
Focus on … Problem solving 1.......................... 138
Focus on … Modelling 1.....................................141
Cross-topic review exercise 1............................ 143
© Cambridge University Press

iii
1 Work, energy and power 1
In this chapter you will learn how to:
•• calculate the work done by a force

•• calculate kinetic energy
•• use the work–energy principle
•• equate gravitational potential energy to work done against gravity
•• understand and use the power of a driving force.
Before you start…
e
GCSE You should know how to convert units of 1 Convert 15 000 metres to kilometres.
distance, speed and time.
A Level
Mathematics
Student
Book 1,
Chapter 18
the unit of weight.
pl
You should know how to calculate the
weight of an object from its mass, and know
2 Calculate the weight of a car of mass
1150 kg, stating the unit with your
answer.
m
A Level You should be able to use Newton’s second 3 A resultant force of 50 N acts on an object
Mathematics law of motion: F = ma. of mass 2.5 kg. Calculate the acceleration
Student of the object.
Book 1,
Chapter 18
Sa
The relationship between work and energy Rewind

In this chapter, you will learn the definition of the work done by a force,
You have already studied the
which is a quantity that is measured in joules, the same units that are
effect of a force or system of
used for energy. You will learn about propulsive and resistive forces.
forces in A Level Mathematics
You will learn that work done by a propulsive force is equivalent to
Student Book 1, Chapter 18.
kinetic energy gained. Work done against a resistive force is equivalent
to kinetic energy lost. The driving force of a car engine can cause a car to
accelerate; work done by the car engine increases the kinetic energy of
Fast forward
the car. Resistances to motion can cause a car to decelerate; work done
against these forces decreases the kinetic energy of the car. You will also In Chapter 5, you will learn
learn about power, which is the rate of doing work. about elastic potential energy
and its conversion to kinetic
Principles of work, energy and power are crucial in engineering,
energy.
enabling engineers to design machines to do useful work. Hydroelectric
power stations work by converting the work done by falling water first
into kinetic energy, as the hydroelectric turbines rotate, and then into
electricity.

1
A Level Further Mathematics for AQA Mechanics Student Book
Section 1: The work done by a force

Work is done by a force when the object it is applied to moves.
Some forces promote movement while others resist it. For example,
when you cycle into a breeze, your pedalling promotes movement but
the breeze acts against your movement. Forces that promote movement
are propulsive forces and those that resist movement are resistive
forces.
Other propulsive forces include the tension in a rope being used to drag
an object across the ground and the driving force of a vehicle engine. The
driving force of an engine is often described as its tractive force. Other
resistive forces include vehicle braking and resistance from still air.
Weight is a special case because it can either resist or promote

movement. When you cycle uphill your weight acts as a resistive force –
you do work against your own weight. But when you cycle downhill
e
your weight acts as a propulsive force – your weight does work on you.
Work done by weight is usually described as ‘work done by gravity’. Work
done against weight is usually described as ‘work done against gravity’.
Key point 1.1

For a force acting in the direction of motion:
pl
work done = force × distance
m
Work done is measured in joules (J):
1 joule = 1 newton × 1 metre

1J = 1N m
Sa
For example, a force of 5 newtons acting on an object that moves

15 metres in the direction of the force does 5 × 15 = 75 joules of work.
Doubling the force to 10 newtons over the same distance would double
the amount of work done to 150 joules. Likewise, doubling the distance
moved to 30 metres with an unchanged force of 5 newtons would double
the amount of work done to 150 joules.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.1
A box is pushed 5 m across a horizontal floor by a horizontal force of 25 N. Calculate the work done by
the force.
Work done = force × distance Use the definition of work done.
= 25 × 5 J State the units of work done (J) with your answer.
= 125 J

2
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.2
A lorry driver driving along a horizontal road applies a braking force of 75 kN for 25 m. Calculate the work
done by the brakes, giving your answer in kilojoules (kJ).
75 kN = 75 000 N Convert 75 kN to 75 000 N as you need to

work in standard units.
Work done by brakes = braking force × distance Use the definition of work done.
= 75 000 × 25 J
= 187 5000 J
= 1880 kJ (3 s.f) Change J to kJ.
e
Tip
Work done by the brakes
against movement is equivalent
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.3

pl to work done by the lorry
against the brakes.
m
A 50 kg crate is lifted 12 m by means of a rope and pulley system. Calculate the work done against gravity.
Work done = force × distance Apply the definition of work done to the
∴ Work done against gravity = weight × height gained gravitational force. Force becomes weight
and distance becomes height gained.
Sa
Weight of crate = 50 × 9.8 Calculate the weight of the crate, using the
= 490 N approximation for the acceleration due to
gravity of 9.8 m s −2 .
Work done against gravity = weight × height gained

= 490 × 12 J You have used a value of g to 2 s.f. so this is
= 5880 J an appropriate degree of accuracy for your
= 5900 J (2 s.f.) final answer.
Key point 1.2 Fast forward

In Section 3 you will learn the
When a mass, m, is raised or lowered through a height h:
equivalence of work done
work done by or against gravity = weight × height by or against gravity and
work done = mg × h gravitational potential energy.

3
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.4
A competitor of mass 75 kg dives from a diving board that is 10 metres high into a pool. Air resistance
averages 12 newtons as he descends 10 metres through the air. Resistance from the water then averages
3000 newtons as he descends 2.0 metres further. Calculate:
a the total work done by gravity as he descends 12 metres

b the total work done against air and water resistance during this descent.
a Work done by gravity = mgh You have used a value of g

= 75 g × 12 (9.8 m s-2) to 2 s.f. so this is an
≈ 8800 joules (2 s.f.) appropriate degree of accuracy for
your final answer.
b Work done against air resistance = 12 × 10 = 120 joules
Work done against water resistance = 3000 × 2 = 6000 joules Use force × distance to calculate
the work done by each of the
e
Total work done against resistances = 6120 joules resistances.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.5

pl
A van of mass 1250 kg travels along a straight road. The driving force of the vehicle engine is 500 newtons
and resistance to motion is 220 newtons, on average. The van travels 1.5 km from one delivery to the next,
descending 8 metres in height. Find:
m
a the work done by the vehicle engine
b the work done by gravity
c the work done against resistance.
. km = 1500 metres
a 15 Convert distance to SI units.
Work done by vehicle engine = 500 × 1500
Sa
Use force × distance to calculate the

= 750 000 joules work done by the vehicle engine.
b Work done by gravity = mgh
= 1250 g × 8
= 98 000 joules
c Work done against resistance = 220 × 1500 Use force × distance to calculate the
= 330 000 joules work done against resistance.
EXERCISE 1A
In this exercise, unless otherwise instructed, use g = 9.8 m s −2 , giving your final answers to an appropriate degree
of accuracy.
1 A parcel is dragged 5 metres across a horizontal floor by means of a horizontal rope. The tension in the rope
is 12 N. Calculate the work done by the tension in the rope.
2 Susan climbs a vertical rock 32 m high. Susan’s mass is 65 kg. Calculate the work done by Susan against
gravity.
4
3 Sunil descends a vertical ladder. His mass is 82 kg and the work done by gravity is 2150 J. Find the height
Sunil descends.
4 In this question use g = 10 m s −2, giving your final answer to an appropriate degree of accuracy.
A ball of mass 100 g is dropped from a window. Calculate the work done by gravity as it falls vertically to the
ground 6.0 m below.
5 A puck slides 50 metres across an ice rink, against a resistive force of 2.5 N. Calculate the work done against
resistance.
6 A cyclist travelling on horizontal ground applies a driving force of 25 N against a headwind of 10 N and a
resistance from friction of 5.0 N. The cyclist travels 1.2 km. Find:
a the work done by the cyclist
b the total work done against wind and friction.
e
7 A fish basket is raised from the sea floor to a fishing boat at sea level, 18 metres above. The mass of the
basket is 15 kg. The resistance to motion from the seawater is 50 N. Calculate the total work done, against
gravity and water resistance, in raising the fish basket.
8
pl
A driving force of 400 N does 50 kJ of work moving a van along a horizontal road from A to B. Resistance to
motion averages 185 N. Calculate the work done against resistance as the van moves from A to B.
m
Section 2: Kinetic energy and the work–energy
principle
Kinetic energy is the energy an object has because it is moving.
Key point 1.3 Tip

Sa
If speed is not given in m s −1,

An object of mass m moving with speed v has kinetic energy 1 mv 2 .
2 you should convert to m s −1
If mass is measured in kilograms (kg) and speed is measured in metres per before you start the rest of your
second (m s −1 ), kinetic energy is measured in joules (J). calculations.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.6
A particle of mass 1.5 kg is moving with kinetic energy 48 joules. Calculate the speed of the particle.
1
Kinetic energy = mv 2 Use the formula for kinetic energy.
2
Substituting and rearranging to find speed:
1
48 = × 1.5 × v 2 As mass was given in kg and kinetic
2
energy in joules, speed is in m s −1.
∴ v 2 = 64
⇒ v = ± 8 m s −1
Since speed is a positive quantity, v = 8 m s −1

5
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.7
A cyclist slows down from 25 km h −1 to 10 km h −1 . The combined mass of the cyclist and her bicycle is 95 kg.
Calculate the loss of kinetic energy.
Let u be the starting speed and v be the final speed.
To convert km h −1 to m s −1 you must
25 10
u=
3.6
= 6.944 m s −1 and v =
3.6
= 2.778 m s −1 multiply by the conversion factor 1000 ,
3600
which simplifies to division by 3.6.
Loss of kinetic energy = initial kinetic energy - final kinetic energy
1 1
Loss of kinetic energy = mu2 − mv 2
2 2
1 1
Loss of kinetic energy = × 95 × 6.9442 − × 95 × 2.7782
2 2
= 1920 J (3 s.f.)
e
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.8
Calculate the increase in kinetic energy when a boat of mass 2.0 tonnes changes velocity from (3.0i + 4.0j) m s −1
to (4.5i + 4.5j) m s −1. Give your answer in kJ.
(Starting speed)2 = 32 + 42 = 25
(Final speed) = 4.5 + 4.5 = 40.5
2 2 2
pl
Gain in kinetic energy = final kinetic energy – initial kinetic energy
Use Pythagoras’ theorem to convert the
velocity vectors to speeds. You need the
square of the speed, not the velocity
vector, for the kinetic energy formula.
m
1
Gain in kinetic energy = m(v 2 − u2 ) You can write 1 mv 2 − 1 mu 2 in
2 2 2
factorised form.
2 tonnes = 2000 kg
Convert 2 tonnes to 2000 kg.
1
Sa
Gain in kinetic energy = × 2000 × (40.5 − 25)

2
≈ 15.5 kJ Divide by 1000 to convert joules to kJ.
The work–energy principle is an essential idea in mechanics that

enables you to calculate and compare the work necessary to cause a
change in kinetic energy.
Key point 1.4 Tip
The work done by a force on an object causes an equal increase in its kinetic Remember that gravity acts as:
energy. • a propulsive force when
Work done = 1 mv 2 − 1 mu 2 the object is moving
2 2
downwards
• a resistive force when the
Work done by propulsive forces causes an increase in kinetic energy. Work
object is moving upwards.
done against resistive forces causes a loss of kinetic energy. To use the work–
energy principle you must calculate the total work done on the moving object.
Total work done = work done by propulsive forces
− work done against resistive forces
6
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.9
A particle of mass 1.6 kg is at rest on a smooth horizontal plane. It is acted on by a constant horizontal force of
8.0 N. Find the speed of the particle after it has travelled 5.0 metres.
Work done = force × distance Work done = force × distance

= 8×5
= 40 joules
Applying the work–energy principle: Work–energy principle: work done = 1 mv 2
2
40 = 1 × 1.6 × v 2
2
v 2 = 50
⇒ v = 7.1m s −1 (2 s.f.)
e
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.10
Stephen is driving his car along a horizontal road at 55 km h −1 when he notices a broken-down vehicle,
just off the road, 150 m ahead. Stephen and his car together have a mass of 1025 kg and the total resistance
pl
to motion is assumed constant at 500 N. Stephen believes he should slow down and that he can slow
down sufficiently without applying the brakes. Calculate Stephen’s speed, in km h −1, as he reaches the
broken-down vehicle, taking account of the resistance to motion.
Assume that Stephen allows the resistance

m
to motion to slow his car down over 150 m.
There is no driving or braking force.
Work done against resistance = resistive force × distance Calculate the work done against
= 500 × 150 resistance.
Sa
= 75 000 J
55
55 km h−1 = Convert 55 km h −1 to m s −1 .
3.6
≈ 15.28 m s −1
Loss of kinetic energy = initial kinetic energy - final kinetic energy
Loss of kinetic energy = 1 × m × (u 2 − v 2 ) Write down the expression for loss of
2
Using the work–energy principle: kinetic energy.
1
75 000 = × 1025(u2 − v 2 ) Work–energy principle:
2
Rearranging and solving for v : work done against resistance = loss of KE
2 × 75 000
u2 − v 2 =
1025
≈ 146.3
v 2 ≈ 15.282 − 146.3 Substitute in the value for u.
v = 9.337 m s −1
v ≈ 9.337 × 3.6 km h−1 Convert back to km h −1
v = 33.6 km h−1 (3 s.f.)

7
EXERCISE 1B
In this exercise, unless otherwise instructed, use g = 9.8 m s −2, giving your final answers to an appropriate degree
of accuracy.
1 Calculate the kinetic energy of a cyclist and her bicycle, having a combined mass of 70 kg, travelling at
12 m s−1 . Give your answer in kJ.
2 Calculate the mass of an athlete who is running at 8.5 m s−1 , with kinetic energy 3500 J.
3 Calculate the speed of a bus of mass 20 tonnes with kinetic energy 1100 kJ. Give your answer in km h −1.
4 A box of mass 5.0 kg is pulled from A to B across a smooth horizontal floor by a horizontal force of
magnitude 10 N. At point A, the box has speed 1.5 m s−1 and at point B the box has speed 2.8 m s−1 .
Ignoring all other resistive forces, find:
a the increase in kinetic energy of the box
e
b the work done by the force
c the distance AB.
5
its occupants is 1150 kg.
a Find the loss in kinetic energy.
pl
A car driver brakes on a horizontal road and slows down from 20 m s−1 to 12 m s−1 . The mass of the car and
b Given that the work done against resistance to motion is 50 kJ, find the work done by the brakes.
m
6 A child of mass 35 kg descends a smooth slide, after propelling herself onto the top at 1.6 m s −1.
Ignoring air resistance, calculate her speed at the bottom of the slide, which is 2.1 metres lower than the top.
7 A bullet of mass 10 grams passes horizontally through a target of thickness 5.0 cm. The speed of the bullet is
reduced from 240 m s−1 to 90 m s−1. Calculate the magnitude of the average resistive force exerted on the bullet.
Sa
8 A train of mass 100 tonnes is travelling at 108 km h −1 on horizontal tracks, when the driver sees a speed
reduction sign. The train’s speed must be reduced to 75 km h −1 over 500 m. Resistance to motion is
approximately 8 kN. Calculate the braking force required, in kN.
9 A package of mass 500 grams slides down a parcel chute of length 3.5 metres, starting from rest. The bottom
of the chute is 2.2 metres below the top. The speed of the package at the bottom of the chute is 4.5 m s−1.
Find the resistance to motion on the chute.
10 Eddy cycles up a hill. His mass, together with that of his bicycle, is 92 kg. His driving force is 125 N and
resistance from friction is 45 N. Eddy travels 350 metres along the road, which rises through a vertical height
of 32 metres. His starting speed is 8.2 m s−1. Find his final speed.

8
Section 3: Potential energy, mechanical energy

and conservation of mechanical energy
Consider an object of mass m falling freely under gravity from height h1 u
to height h2 , with starting speed u and final speed v.
h1 – h2
Since the only external force acting on the object is gravity, the
h1 v
work–energy principle becomes:
h2
work done by gravity = increase in kinetic energy
⇒ mg (h1 − h2 ) = mv − mu
2 2
ground level
2 2
Rearranging this gives:
mgh1 − mgh2 = mv − mu
2 2
2 2
mu 2
mv 2
e
⇒ mgh1 + = mgh2 +
2 2
Each side of this equation is made up of the sum of two terms,

one of which is kinetic energy. The other term is gravitational
pl
potential energy. Gravitational potential energy is equal to the work
done by gravity causing an object of weight mg to fall through
height h if no external forces act on the object.
Key point 1.5 Tip

m
Whilst you can choose any
Gravitational potential energy (GPE) = mgh , where h is the height above
ground (zero) level. height as your ground (zero)
level it is usually best to choose
the lowest height reached by
If no external force acts on the object, the sum of kinetic energy and the moving object.
Sa
gravitational potential energy is conserved. The sum is usually called

mechanical energy.
Key point 1.6

If the only force acting on an object is its weight then mechanical energy is
conserved.
GPE + KE = mgh + 1 mv 2 = constant

2
where h is the vertical height above the zero level.

9
This diagram may help you to understand the formula for conservation
of mechanical energy more easily. As an object descends vertically in
height it speeds up, so gravitational potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy. As an object ascends vertically in height it slows down, so
kinetic energy is converted into gravitational potential energy.
An object will stop its vertical ascent when all of its kinetic energy has
been converted to gravitational potential energy.
n
1 mu2
s ow
mechanical energy
nd s d
ob
ce w
is conserved
j
as ect sp
as lo
1 mv 2
it t s
it d mghmax
y
esc eeds
as bjec
2
nt ed rg
te rt ne
u
y
po en
ds p
l e to
rg
o
po nv ic e
ten
ne
con tia
co net
mgh1 l
kin verte ener
e
ia
eti gy ki
c e d to
ne
rgy mgh2
ground level
e
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.11
Assuming no external forces apply, calculate:
a the speed of the ball after it has risen 5.0 metres

b the maximum height gained by the ball.
pl
Faisal throws a ball of mass 125 grams upwards from ground level, with a speed of 12.5 m s−1.
m
a Starting KE = 1 × 0.125 × 12.52 Convert 125 g to 0.125 kg .
2
= 9.766 J
Starting KE = mgh + final KE Use conservation of mechanical energy over

Sa
9.766 = 0.125 g × 5 + final KE the first 5 metres of the ascent.

Final KE = 3.635 J Take the gravitational potential energy at
ground level to be zero.
Calculate the final kinetic energy of the ball.
1 2 Calculate the final speed of the ball.

mv = 3.635
2
3.635
Final speed =
0.5 × 0.125
= 7.6 m s −1 (2 s.f.)
b Starting KE = mghmax Use conservation of mechanical energy over

the whole ascent (final kinetic energy is zero).
All the kinetic energy will have been converted
into gravitational potential energy.
= 0.125 g × hmax Calculate the maximum height gained.

⇒ hmax = 8.0 metres (2 s.f.)

10
Using energy to solve problems

The principle of conservation of mechanical energy applies to the
situation where the only force acting on an object is its weight.
You have already used the work–energy principle to solve problems

involving other propulsive and resistive forces. You are now ready to combine
the work–energy principle and the principle of conservation of energy:
(GPE1 + KE1 ) + work done by driving forces
− work done against resistive forces = (GPE 2 + KE 2 )
When using this formula you must remember that you do not need to
include work done by gravity or work done against gravity as these are
already accounted for.
When an object moves vertically upwards or downwards you can work

out the change of gravitational potential energy. When an object moves
e
diagonally upwards or downwards it is only the vertical component of
the movement that causes a change in gravitational potential energy –
you need not consider the horizontal component of movement. This
simplification often makes the energy approach to problems very useful.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.12 pl

A 1.5 kg package is attached to one end of an inextensible string. The string and package are being raised by
the action of a pulley. The tension in the string is 18 N. Find the height gained by the package as it increases
m
in speed from 1.2 m s−1 to 3.2 m s−1.
1
Increase in KE = × 1.5 × (3.22 − 1.22 ) Calculate the increase in kinetic energy
2
= 6.6 joules
Propulsive work done − resistive work done = 6.6 joules work–energy principle:
Sa
total work done = increase in KE
18 × h − 15
. g × h = 6.6 work done = tension × h − mg × h
6.6
h = = 2.0 metres
18 − 1.5 g
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.13
Helen cycles from rest at the top of a sloping track, 35 m above the valley floor. She pedals downhill, then
continues along a horizontal track, before ascending 10 m on an uphill track and stopping. The total
distance she travels is 500 m. The average resistance to motion is 55 N. The combined mass of Helen and
her bicycle is 62 kg. Calculate the total work done by Helen and the average driving force she applies.
35 m
10 m
valley floor
Continues on next page

11
mgh1 + KE1 + work done by Helen − work done Use the work–energy principle and the
against resistance = mgh2 + KE2 principle of conservation of energy.
KE1 = KE2 = 0
Helen has no kinetic energy at the start of
her ride and none at the end.
You do not need to consider her motion
throughout her ride – just at the start and
at the end.
Work done against resistance = resistive force × distance Calculate the work Helen does against
= 55 × 500 resistance.
= 27 500 J The distance used is the total distance
along the road.
e
62g × (35 − 10) + work done by Helen = 27 500 Let both kinetic initial and final energy be
zero and rearrange:
mgh1 − mgh2 + work done by
Work done by Helen ≈ 27 500 − 15 200

pl Helen − work done against resistance = 0
mgh1 − mgh2 is the loss of potential energy
of Helen and her bicycle.
m
≈ 12 000 J
Helen’s average driving force Use Helen’s work done, together with her
work done by Helen distance travelled, 500 m, to calculate her
= average driving force.
distance
Sa
12 000
=
500
= 25 N (2 s.f.)
Did you know?

Conservation of energy is an important principle throughout Physics.
Work done by a moving object against resistance, which is lost
mechanical energy, is converted to other forms of energy such as heat
and noise. This means that total energy is still conserved. The mechanical
equivalent of heat was first proposed by James Joule and explains the
relationship between mechanical energy and heat energy.

12
EXERCISE 1C
In this exercise, unless otherwise instructed, use g = 9.8 m s −2 , giving your final answers to an appropriate degree
of accuracy.
1 Calculate the increase in potential energy when a mass of 5.0 kg is raised by 25 m.
2 In this question, use g = 10 m s−2, giving your final answers to an appropriate degree of accuracy.
Calculate the loss of potential energy when a mass of 2 tonnes is lowered through 10 m.
3 A boy of mass 68 kg gains 3600 J of potential energy by climbing a vertical rope. Calculate the height he gains.
4 A toy train loses 1.5 J of potential energy when it descends a spiral track, losing 50 cm in height. Find the
mass of the toy train.
5 Felipe strikes a golf ball off an elevated tee. The golf ball has mass 45 grams and Felipe imparts an initial
speed of 35 m s−1 to the ball.
e
a Find the initial kinetic energy of the golf ball.
The ball lands on the green 25 metres below the tee.
6
pl
b Calculate the loss of potential energy of the ball.
c Calculate the kinetic energy of the ball as it lands on the green.
d Calculate the speed of the golf ball as it lands on the green.
Anita dives off a highboard into a diving pool. When Anita leaves the highboard she has a speed of 7.5 m s −1
m
and she is 8.0 metres above the water surface. Anita’s mass is 60 kg.
a Find Anita’s kinetic energy as she leaves the highboard.
b Calculate Anita’s kinetic energy as she enters the water.
c Calculate Anita’s speed as she enters the water.
Sa
d What modelling assumptions have you made to simplify your calculations?
7 Wing serves a 58 gram tennis ball with a speed of 9.5 m s −1 from a height 3.0 metres above the level of the
tennis court. Assuming there are no resistive forces acting on the ball, calculate:
a the kinetic energy of the ball as Wing serves it
b the potential energy lost by the ball as it descends to the level of the court
c the kinetic energy of the ball as it strikes the court
d the speed of the tennis ball as it strikes the court.
8 Preeti descends a smooth slide starting from rest. Her mass is 58 kg. Overall, her change in vertical height
above the ground is 5.8 m and her speed at the bottom of the slide is 6.5 m s −1. Calculate the work done
against resistance during her descent.
9 A package of mass 0.80 kg is projected down a smooth sloping parcel chute with a speed of 2.2 m s −1. The
height of the bottom of the chute is 7.5 m vertically below the top. Assuming there are no external resistive
forces, calculate:
a the loss of potential energy of the package
b the speed of the package at the bottom of the chute.
13
10 Karol slides on his sledge down a straight track of length 210 m, descending 32 m . The combined mass of
Karol and his sledge is 72 kg . Karol’s starting speed is 2.8 m s −1 and his speed at the end of his descent is
10.5 m s −1 . Calculate the average resistance to motion, R N, during Karol’s descent.
11 Loretta and her bicycle have a combined mass of 75 kg. Loretta cycles up a straight hill AB, accelerating
from rest at A to 4.0 m s −1 at B. The level of point A is 5.5 m below the level of B. Find:
a the increase in kinetic energy of Loretta and her bicycle as she cycles from A to B
b the increase in potential energy of Loretta and her bicycle.
During her ride, the resistance to motion is constant at 60 N parallel to the road surface and Loretta does
8500 J of work.
c Calculate the distance from A to B.
Section 4: Power
e
Power is the rate of doing work. Average power is defined as the total
work done by a force divided by the time taken.
Key point 1.7

When the force applied is constant:
average power =
pl
work done
time taken
m
Often, you consider power in relation to a driving force but it applies
equally to any constant force acting on an object. Power is measured in
watts (W). 1 joule per second is equal to 1 watt.
Did you know?

Sa
James Watt (1736–1819) was a Scottish engineer and

scientist.
The unit of power is named after him.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.14
A crane lifts a 2.5 tonne concrete block 35 m in 25 seconds. Calculate the average power rating of the crane
during the lift, giving your answer in kW.
Work done against gravity = weight × height gained Calculate the work done by the crane
= 2500 g × 35 lifting the block against gravity.
= 87 500 g J
87 500 g work done
Power = Use the definition of power =
25 time taken
= 34 000 W or 34 kW (2 s.f.)

14
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.15
The engine brakes on a truck have a power rating of 25 kW. Calculate the total work done in 5.0 seconds by
the braking force at this average power rating, giving your answer in kJ.
Work done by brakes = 250 000 × 5 Rearrange the definition of power to

make work done the subject.
work done = power × time
= 1250 000 J or 1250 kJ Convert your answer to kJ.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.16
A pump is used to raise water from a well. In one minute, 1500 litres of water are raised 8 metres before being
e
ejected into a tank at a speed of 7.5 m s−1. The density of water is 1000 kg m−3.
a Calculate the gain of potential energy of the water per second.

b Calculate the gain of kinetic energy of the water ejected per second.
pl
c Calculate the power of the pump, in watts.
There are 1000 litres in 1m3 , with a mass of 1000 kg.
The mass of 1500 litres of water is 1500 kg.
1500 g × 8
Work out the mass of 1500 litres of water.
Use mgh to calculate the gain in

m
a Gain of PE of water per second =
60 potential energy of the water per second.
= 1960 J
1
2
× 1500 × 7.52 Use 1 mv 2 to calculate the gain of kinetic
b Gain of KE of water per second = 2
60 energy of the water per second.
= 703.125 J
Sa
Use conservation of mechanical energy:

c Total gain of mechanical energy per second = 2700 W
work done by the pump
= gain in GPE + gain in KE
The gain of total mechanical energy per
second is the power of the pump.
You can use an alternative formula for power when solving problems.
From the definitions of power and work done:
Power = work done = force × distance = force × distance = force × speed

time taken time taken time
This definition allows you to work out power at a specific point in
time if you know the force and the speed. This is often referred to as
‘instantaneous power’ and can be used to work out power when either
the force or the velocity varies over time.
Key point 1.8

Power = tractive force × speed
15
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.17
Chris is cycling on a horizontal road. He is moving at a constant speed of 8.0 m s −1 with a power output
of 200 W . Calculate the total resistance to Chris and his bicycle, in newtons.
200 = tractive force × 8 Power = tractive force × speed
⇒ tractive force = 25 N
Tractive force − total resistive force = 0 As Chris is travelling at constant speed

∴ tractive force = total resistive force the resultant force is zero.
∴ total resistive force = 25 N
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.18
Julia is riding her motorbike along a horizontal road. She is travelling with constant speed 90 km h −1, at
e
an engine power of 15 kW . Julia decides to overtake and increases to full power, 20 kW. Assuming the
resistance to motion is unchanged, calculate Julia’s acceleration. Julia and her motorbike have a combined
mass of 465 kg .
90 km h−1 = 25 m s −1
Power = tractive force × speed
⇒ tractive force =
power
speed
pl Convert Julia’s speed to m s−1.
Use the definition of power, but

rearrange to make tractive force the
subject.
m
For the motorbike: Calculate the tractive force of Julia and
15 000 her motorbike when she is travelling at
Tractive force = = 600 N
25 constant speed.
tractive force − resistance to motion = 0 As Julia is cruising at constant speed the

Sa
∴ tractive force = resistance to motion resultant force is zero. Hence calculate

the resistive force.
∴ resistance to motion = 600 N
When Julia increases to full power: When Julia increases the power, the
tractive force increases so that it is
power
Tractive force = greater than the resistive force, and
speed
she accelerates. Calculate the resultant
20 000
= force.
25
= 800 N
Resultant force = tractive force − resistance to motion
= 800 N − 600 N
= 200 N
Using F = ma : Use F = ma to calculate Julia’s initial
acceleration.
200 = 465 × acceleration
= 0.430 m s −2 (3 s.f.)

16
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.19
1
A car of mass 1250 kg is travelling along a straight horizontal road against a resistance to motion of kv 2 N ,
where v is the speed of the car and k is a constant. When the engine is producing a power of 13.5 kW , the car
has speed 12.5 m s−1 and is accelerating at 0.45 m s−2.
a Find the value of k.

The maximum constant speed of the car on this road is 28 m s−1.
b Find the engine’s maximum power, giving your answer in kW.
0.45 m s–2
R
12.5 m s–1
e
1
kv 2 T
Let T be the tractive force of the car

engine.
a Resultant force = T − kv 2
T=
power
1250g N
1
pl 1
Resistance varies with v 2 .
Resultant force = T − resistance.
Rearrange the formula:

m
speed power = force × speed.
13 500 Calculate T .
⇒T =
12.5
= 1080 N
Resultant force = mass × acceleration Use F = ma.
Sa
1
1080 − k × 12.5 = 1250 × 0.45
2
1080 − 1250 × 0.45 Rearrange to find the value of k.

k=
12
= 146 units (3 s.f.)
1
b T ′ − kv 2 = 0 Let the new driving force be T ′.
As the car is now moving with constant

speed the resultant force is now zero.
maximum power
T′ =
speed
maximum power 1
⇒ − 146.4 × 28 2 = 0
28
1
Maximum power = 146.4 × 28 2 × 28 Rearrange to find the maximum power
= 22 kW (2 s.f.) rating of the car engine.

17
EXERCISE 1D
In this exercise, unless otherwise instructed, use g = 9.8 m s −2, giving your final answers to an appropriate degree
of accuracy.
1 A 38 tonne truck is able to brake from 65 km h −1 to rest in 20 seconds. Find the average power rating of
the brakes.
2 A crane lifts a 2 tonne concrete block 25 m in 12 seconds. Find the average power of the crane.
3 A lift of mass 800 kg can accommodate up to 12 people, who are assumed to have combined mass no more
than 1500 kg. Calculate the average power required by the lift motor to raise the maximum load through
60 m in 45 s.
4 A car engine has a maximum driving force of 750 N when travelling at 80 km h −1. Calculate the average
power of the engine.
e
5 A train engine has a power rating of 2.5 MW . Calculate the tractive force when the train is travelling at
216 km h −1 .
6
7
3 minutes. pl
Find the average power exerted by a climber of mass 78 kg when climbing a vertical distance of 35 m in
A boat is travelling at a constant speed of 16 km h −1. The boat has mass 10.5 tonnes and the engine is
working at its maximum power output of 8 kW. Calculate the work done when the boat is displaced
m
(5.0i + 6.0j) km.
8 Find the average power of an engine that lifts 500 bags of flour 5 m in 1 hour. Each bag of flour has mass
50 kg.
9 A pump is used to raise water from a well that is 12 metres deep. Water is raised at a rate of 50 kg per second.
Sa
It is ejected into a pipe at a speed of 5.5 m s−1 .

a Calculate the gain of potential energy of the water per second.
b Calculate the gain of kinetic energy of the water ejected per second.
c Calculate the average power of the pump, in watts.
10 Victoria is cycling on level ground. Victoria and her bicycle have a combined mass of 61.5 kg and she is
working at a rate of 380 W. Given that Victoria is accelerating at 0.65 m s−2, find the sum of the resistive
forces acting on Victoria and her bicycle at the instant when her speed is 7.5 m s−1 .
11 Stan is driving his 35 tonne truck on a horizontal road. Stan accelerates from 50 km h −1 to 65 km h −1, which
is his maximum speed at 500 kW power output. Find the maximum acceleration of the truck, assuming that
total resistance is constant.
12 Vince is driving his van against a constant resistance to motion of 5500 N . The van has mass 2.8 tonnes and
engine power 125 kW . Vince’s acceleration at the instant when his speed is u m s−1 is 0.90 m s −2. Calculate u.
3
13 The resistance to motion of a car is kv 2 newtons, where v m s−1 is the speed of the car and k is a constant.
The power of the car’s engine is 12 kW and the car has a constant speed of 27.5 m s−1 along a horizontal
road. Show that k ≈ 3.0.
18
14 A rocket, Athena, of mass 500 kg is moving in a straight line in space, without any resistance to motion.
Athena’s rocket motor is working at a constant rate of 500 kW and its mass is assumed to be constant.
Athena’s speed increases from 90 m s−1 to 140 m s−1 in time t seconds.
a Calculate the value of t .
b Calculate Athena’s acceleration when its speed is 120 m s−1 .
Checklist of learning and understanding

In this chapter you have learned the relationship between mechanical work and mechanical energy. You have
learned the work–energy principle and the principle of conservation of energy. You have used the definition
of power to solve problems.
• Work done = force × distance

• Work done against gravity = weight × height gained
e
• Gravitational potential energy: GPE = mgh
• Kinetic energy =
1 mv 2
2
• Work–energy principle: work done = change in energy
work done
• Average power = time taken
• Power = tractive force × speed

pl
m
Sa

19
Mixed practice 1
In this exercise, unless otherwise instructed, use g = 9.8 m s −2 , giving your final answers to an appropriate
degree of accuracy.
1 An osprey, flying at 5 m s−1, is carrying a 2.5 kg salmon towards the chicks in its nest, when it drops the
fish 15 metres into the loch. Assume there is no air resistance and calculate:
a the kinetic energy of the salmon when it is dropped by the osprey
b the potential energy lost by the salmon as it falls to the water surface
c the kinetic energy, and hence the speed, of the salmon as it enters the water.
2 Inge, who has mass 62 kg, takes part in a ski-jumping contest. She achieves a speed of 20 m s−1 at the
point of take-off and lands at a point in the landing zone 18 metres vertically below. Assuming there is
no air resistance, calculate:
a Inge’s kinetic energy at take-off
e
b Inge’s loss of gravitational potential energy as she descends through 18 metres
c Inge’s kinetic energy and hence her speed, as she lands.
3
pl
Leo throws a stone of mass 500 grams into the sea from the top of a cliff 50 metres above sea level.
He throws the stone with speed 8 m s−1.
a Calculate the kinetic energy of the stone as it leaves Leo’s hand.
b Calculate the potential energy lost by the stone as it enters the sea.
m
c Calculate the kinetic energy of the stone as it enters the sea and, hence, its speed at this time.
4 Carol, a circus performer, is on a swing. She jumps off the swing and lands in a safety net. When Carol
leaves the swing, she has a speed of 7 m s−1 and she is at a height of 8 metres above the safety net.
Sa
Carol is to be modelled as a particle of mass 52 kg being acted upon only by gravity.

a Find the kinetic energy of Carol when she leaves the swing.
b Show that the kinetic energy of Carol when she hits the net is 5350 J, correct to 3 significant figures.
c Find the speed of Carol as she hits the net.
[© AQA 2013]
5 A car travels along a straight horizontal road. The resistance to motion is kv N, where v is the speed
of the car, measured in m s−1 . The car travels at a constant speed of 25 m s−1 and the engine of the car
works at a constant rate of 21 kW. Show that k = 33.6.
6 Find the average power produced by a climber of mass 82 kg in climbing a vertical distance of
65 metres in 3 minutes.

20
7 A pump is being used to empty a flooded basement.

In one minute, 400 litres of water are pumped out of the basement.
The water is raised 8 metres and is ejected through a pipe at a speed of 2 m s−1.
The mass of 400 litres of water is 400 kg.
a Calculate the gain in potential energy of the 400 litres of water.
b Calculate the gain in kinetic energy of the 400 litres of water.
c Hence calculate the power of the pump, giving your answer in watts.
[© AQA 2011]
8 A cyclist rides from rest up an inclined rough track with an average pedalling force of 38 N. She travels
a distance of 850 metres along the track, whilst gaining 25 metres in height. Resistance to motion from
the track averages 18 N. The cyclist and her bicycle have a mass of 68 kg . Calculate her speed at the
end of her ride.
e
9 A child of mass 28 kg descends a slide of length 25 metres, losing 4.5 metres in height. She starts from
rest and reaches the bottom of the slide at 6.5 m s−1 . Find the average resistive force from the slide
during her descent.
pl
10 A car travels along a straight horizontal road. When its speed is v m s −1 , the car experiences a
resistance force of magnitude 25v newtons.
a The car has a maximum constant speed of 42 m s−1 on this road.
m
Show that the power being used to propel the car at this speed is 44 100 watts.
b The car has mass 1500 kg.
Find the acceleration of the car when it is travelling at 15 m s−1 on this road under a power of
44 100 watts.
[© AQA 2012]
Sa
11 A train consists of an engine and five carriages. A constant resistance force of 3000 N acts on the
engine and a constant resistance force of 400 N acts on each of the five carriages.
The maximum constant speed of the train on a horizontal track is 90 km h −1.
a Show that this speed is 25 m s−1.
b Hence find the maximum power output of the engine. Give your answer in kilowatts.
[© AQA 2011]
12 A train, of mass 22 tonnes, moves along a straight horizontal track. A constant resistance force of
5000 N acts on the train. The power output of the engine of the train is 240 kW.
Find the acceleration of the train when its speed is 20 m s−1.
[© AQA 2013]

21
13 Alan is driving a train of mass 65 tonnes at its maximum speed of 42.5 m s−1 on a straight horizontal
track. Its engine is working at 850 kW .
a Find the magnitude of the resistance acting on the train.
When the train is travelling at 42.5 m s−1, Alan disengages the engine and the train slows down.
Assume that the total resistance is unchanged.
b Use a work–energy calculation to find how far the train travels as it reduces its speed from
42.5 m s−1 to 32.5 m s−1 .
14 Calculate the loss of kinetic energy when a boat of mass 3.5 tonnes reduces in velocity from
(3.0i + 4.0j) m s −1 to (2.5i + 3.0j) m s −1.
15 Use the equation of motion, F = ma, together with the formula v 2 = u 2 + 2 as , to derive the relation
Fs = 1 m(v 2 − u 2 ).
2
16 A particle of mass 500 grams moves along the x-axis under the action of a propulsive force F .
e
The particle’s displacement, s metres, depends on time, t seconds, as shown: s = 3t 2 + 2t
Find the power of force F when t = 5 seconds.
17 A van of mass 1500 kg travels along a horizontal road against a constant resistive force of 225 N. The
pl
van travels with constant acceleration from rest, at time t = 0 seconds, to 15 m s −1 at time
t = 30 seconds. It then travels at constant speed for 120 seconds before decelerating to rest over
25 seconds. The speed–time graph illustrates the motion.
speed (m s–1)
m
15
Sa
time (seconds)
O 30 150 175
Calculate the power of the vehicle engine when:

a t = 20 seconds
b t = 120 seconds.
Calculate the power of the van’s brakes when:
c t = 160 seconds.

22
2 Dimensional analysis
In this chapter you will learn how to:
• understand the concept of dimensions

• use the language and symbols of dimensional analysis
• understand the connections between units and dimensions
• check the validity of a formula by using dimensional considerations
• predict formulae by using dimensional analysis.
Before you start…
e
A Level You should be able to work 1 Simplify each expression.
Mathematics with indices and surds. r 5r 8
a b (r 4 )3
Student Book 1,
Chapter 2
GCSE You should be able to

rearrange formulae.
pl c 8
r9
y = x zt
2
−4
3
3
d 3 6
27
2 Make x the subject of the formula.
m
t +1
GCSE You should be able to solve 3 Solve these simultaneous equations.

simultaneous equations. 2x + 3y = 2
3 x − 2 y = 16
Sa
GCSE You should be able 4 P is inversely proportional to r 2 . If P = 2 when r = 2, what

to express direct and is the value of P when r = 6?
indirect proportion in
mathematical terms.
GCSE You should know common 5 What, in terms of π, is:
area and volume formulae. a the volume
b the surface area
of a sphere of radius 3 cm?
A Level You should be familiar 6 What are the SI units of velocity?
Mathematics with the SI units of
Student Book 1, mass (kg), length (m) and
Chapter 16 time (s).

23
A Level You should know the 7 What is the angle, in radians, of a sector of a circle of
Mathematics definition of a radian. radius 4 cm and arc length 5 cm?
Student Book 2,
Chapter 7
A Level You should know the 8 A particle moving in a straight line with constant velocity
Mathematics definitions and units of travels 10 m in 2 seconds. What is its velocity? State the units.
Student Book 1, velocity and acceleration. 9 A particle moving in a straight line with constant
Chapter 16 acceleration increases its velocity from 8 m s −1 to
15 m s −1 in 10 seconds. What is the acceleration? State
the units.
A Level You should know the 10 A mass of 3 kg is acted on by a constant force of 12 N.
Mathematics definition and units of What is its acceleration? State the units.
Student Book 1, force.
Chapter 18
e
Chapter 1 You should know the 11 A mass of 3 kg is held at a height of 2 metres vertically above
definitions of kinetic the ground. The particle is released from rest. By equating
( )
energy 1 mv 2 and
2
its loss in potential energy to its gain in kinetic energy,
find its speed at the instant when it hits the ground. Use
potential energy (mgh ).
What is dimensional analysis?

pl g = 9.8 m s−2, giving your final answer to an appropriate
degree of accuracy.
m
In dimensional analysis you look at the type of quantity you
are dealing with rather than the specific units. You use it as a
mathematical way of checking that equations and formulae are
consistent, and that you are combining like quantities, and also to
predict and establish formulae.
Sa
Section 1: Defining and calculating dimensions

The dimension of a given quantity describes what sort of quantity you
are measuring; for example, any distance or length, whatever its units,
has the dimension of length and has the symbol L.
You can use square brackets to represent ‘the dimension of’ so, for
example, [metres] = L .
The dimension of distance is L. The diameter of a pin, the radius

of a circle, the length of a running track and the distance from
London to Hong Kong would all be measured in different units
but they are all measurements of length or distance and have the
dimension L.
The other common dimensions that you use in Mechanics are M for mass
and T for time.

24
The mass of a spider, the mass of an elephant, the mass of a sphere might
all be measured in different units but they are all measurements of mass
Did you know?
with the dimension M. In the USA, there is a unit of
Similarly time, whether measured in seconds, days or centuries, has the mass called a slug!
dimension T. If t is a time in seconds, then it has dimension T. 2t and
60t will also be times with dimension T. The 2 and the 60 do not affect
the units as they are numbers and numbers are dimensionless.
Some branches of science use other dimensions, for example, the
dimensions of temperature, electric current, amount of light and amount
of matter.
Did you know?

There is a connection between dimensional
analysis and the greenhouse effect.
e
The concept of dimensional analysis is often
attributed to Joseph Fourier, a famous French
mathematician and physicist. He is best known for
the Fourier series, which is widely used in Mathe-
pl
matics and Physics, and for his work on heat flow.
Fourier is widely recognised as being the first
scientist to suggest that the Earth’s atmosphere
would act as an insulation layer – the idea now
known as the greenhouse effect.
m
Key point 2.1 Fast forward
The dimensions of quantities in Mechanics can be expressed in terms of M Dimensionless constants are
for mass, L for length and T for time. explored in greater detail later
Sa
in this chapter.
Square brackets are used to abbreviate the phrase 'the dimension of', so for
example, [time] = T.
Finding dimensions
To find the dimensions of quantities that are multiplied or divided,
you combine their dimensions in the same way as the quantities are
combined.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2.1
Find the dimensions of:

a velocity b acceleration c force = mass × acceleration.
a If an object is moving with constant velocity v in a straight line and
it moves a distance s in time t, then you have the relationship:
v=s State an equation for velocity.
t

25
[s] Write down the dimensions of the

[v ] =
[t ] right-hand side of the equation
=L and simplify. The dimension of
T distance is L and of time is T. Use
= LT −1 negative indices when you divide by
dimensions.
In more general terms: State the general case.

v = ds
dt
[ ds ] Find the dimensions – ds has the
[v ] =
[ dt ] same dimensions as s and dt has the
[s] same dimensions as t.
=
[t ] ds has the same dimensions as s .
L dt t
=
e
T
= LT −1
b If a particle starts from rest and moves with constant
acceleration a in a straight line gaining speed v in time t, then:
a=
[a ] =
dv
dt
[dv ]
[dt ]
pl State a definition of acceleration.
Find the dimensions. dv has the

same dimensions as v .
dt
m
[v ] t
=
[t ]
LT −1
=
T
= LT −2
Sa
c F = ma State an equation for force…
[ force ] = [m ][a ] …and take dimensions of both sides

= MLT −2 of the equation.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2.2

Tip
Vector quantities such as
Work out the dimensions of: velocity and displacement
have the same dimensions as
a area b kinetic energy.
their scalar equivalents (speed
a [area] = [length][length] Area formulae always and distance). Remember that
= L2 involve multiplying vectors have magnitude and
two lengths together or direction, but scalar quantites
squaring a length. have only magnitude, not
direction.

26
1
b Kinetic energy = mv 2 State the formula for kinetic
2
energy.
[kinetic energy] = ( 21 ) [m][v ]

2 To find the dimensions,
you need to multiply the
= [m ][v ]2 dimension of m by the
square of the dimensions
of v.
1
2 is a constant so has no
dimensions and does not
affect the calculation of
dimensions.
[m ][v ]2 = M(LT −1)2 Remove the brackets and

= ML2T −2 simplify the result.
e
Dimensionless quantities
pl
If all the dimensions cancel out, then the quantity is dimensionless. This
is true of many quantities in Mechanics that are described as coefficients.
Examples are the coefficient of restitution (which you will meet in
Chapter 3) and the coefficient of friction.
Rewind
You met the coefficient of
friction in A Level Mathematics
Student Book 2, Chapter 18.
m
The coefficient of friction, µ , between two surfaces is defined as the ratio
In this chapter, you will be
of the limiting frictional force, F, to the normal reaction force, R. Both
given the definition when it is
FLIM and R have the dimensions of force that you worked out in Worked
required, as a reminder.
example 2.1.
FLIM
µ=
Sa
R
[ FLIM ]
[µ ] =
[R]
−2
= MLT −2
MLT
= M0L0 T 0
=1
So µ is dimensionless.
You can leave out dimensionless quantities when you are working out the
dimensions of a formula or expression, or you can put in the number 1 to
represent the dimensionless quantity.
Key point 2.2

Numerical constants, such as the real numbers, π and e, are dimensionless.
For example, in the formula C = 2 πr, 2 and π are dimensionless.

27
EXERCISE 2A Tip
1 Find the dimensions of each quantity, or state if it is dimensionless. Once you have established
the dimensions of a quantity,
a linear acceleration (a) b acceleration due to gravity ( g ) then the dimensions will be the
c force (ma) d weight same however you calculate it.
e momentum (mv ) f π in the formula C = 2 πr Kinetic energy and potential

energy have different formulae
g volume h density (mass per unit volume) but they are both expressions
i moment of a force F (force × distance) of mechanical energy and so
have identical dimensions.
j pressure (force per unit area)
Forces such as friction, tension,
2 State the dimensions of sin θ . thrust and reaction force all
have the same dimensions
3 State the dimensions of tan 2 θ . however they are described.
e
4 a Find the dimensions of potential energy (mgh ).
b Are these the same as the dimensions of kinetic energy?
5
(work done = force × distance). pl
a Work out the dimensions of work done
b How does this compare to the dimensions of kinetic or potential

energy?
m
6 The coefficient of restitution e is defined as
relative velocity of separation
e= . Find [e ].
relative velocity of approach
7 The refractive index n of a material is defined as n = c where c is the
v
speed of light in a vacuum and v is the speed of light through the
Sa
material. Find [n ].
8 State the dimensions of dF where F is a force and t is time.

dt
9 a G
iven that all forms of mechanical energy have the same
dimensions, find the dimensions of mechanical energy.
b The mechanical energy stored in an elastic string of initial length
l extended by a distance x is λ x , where λ is the modulus of
2
2l
elasticity of the string. Find [ λ ].
10 Newton’s law of gravitational attraction states that the force of

attraction between two masses m1 and m2 that are a distance r apart
Gm1m2
is , where G is the gravitational constant. Find [G ].
r2
11 The energy–frequency relationship for slow moving particles is
given by the formula λ = h , where λ is the wavelength, m is the
mv
mass of the particle, v is the velocity of the particle and h is Planck’s
constant. Find the dimensions of h.

28
Section 2: Units and dimensions of sums,

differences and angles
Key point 2.3

You can only add and subtract terms that have the same dimensions.
When you add or subtract two or more quantities with the same dimensions,
then the resulting sum or difference will also have the same dimensions.
If you add two or more lengths, then the answer is also a length with
dimension L. If you add and subtract several forces the answer is also a
force.
You can add 10 minutes to 3 hours or you can add 6 kilometres to

5 miles but you cannot add 10 seconds to 6 metres to give any form of
Common error
e
meaningful result. Remember that you can only
add or subtract quantities if
You can only add or subtract terms with the same dimensions to give a
they have the same dimensions.
consistent formula. You can use this principle to check whether or not a
They do not however have to
pl
formula is dimensionally consistent; this is called an error check.
The sum u + v where u and v are speeds is also a speed and has the
dimension of speed.
In dimensional terms:
have the same units.
m
[u + v ] = [u ] + [v ]
= LT −1 + LT −1
= LT −1
n
∑ m v has the same dimensions as mv which is:

Sa
The sum i i
i =1
[m ][v ] = (M)(LT −1 )
= MLT −1
∫ v dt is a sum and has the same dimension as v dt

t
The integral Tip
0
which is:
Many dimensional analysis
[v ][dt ] = (LT −1 )T questions look very
=L complicated as they involve
For sums and differences, you should check that the dimensions of formulae, often with indices.
the terms that you are adding or subtracting are the same. Then the Do not let the look of the
dimensions of the answers will also be the same. question put you off, it’s just
about applying rules!
For products and quotients you must multiply or divide the dimensions.

29
WORKED EXAMPLE 2.3
Given that a , r , r1 , r2 and h are lengths and m1 and m2 are masses, check that the terms being added or
subtracted have the same dimensions and find the dimensions of the result.
 m r + m2r2  r13 + r2 3
a ar 2 + arh b  1 1 c
 m1 + m2  r1 + r2
a [ar 2 + arh ] = [ar 2 ] + [arh ]

The dimensions of both terms are L3 , so
= L3 + L3 the dimension of their sum is also L3 .
= L3
 m r + m2r2  [m1r1 ] + [m2r2 ] The dimensions of both terms in the
b  1 1 =
 m1 + m2  [m1 + m2 ] numerator are ML so the dimension of
their sum is also ML. The dimensions of
= ML both terms in the denominator are M,
M
so the dimension of their sum is also M.
e
=L
The dimension of the quotient is L.
The dimensions of both terms of the

c  r1 + r2   r13 + r23 
3 3
 =  r + r 
 r1 + r2 
= L
L
3
3
1 2
[r1 ] + [r23 ]
[r1 ] + [r2 ]
pl numerator are L3, so the dimension of
their sum is also L3.
The dimensions of both terms of the

denominator are L, so the dimension of
their sum is also L.
m
=L
Divide L3 by L giving L2 and take the
square root.
Sa
WORKED EXAMPLE 2.4
Is the equation v 2 = u 2 + 2 gt , where u and v are velocities, g is the acceleration due to gravity and t is time,
dimensionally consistent?
Checking the dimensions of each term: To check an equation for consistency
you need to find the dimensions of each
term and show that they all have the
same dimensions.
Velocity involves dividing distance by time so has Find the dimensions of v 2 by squaring
dimensions LT −1. the dimensions of v.
[v 2 ] = [v ]2
= (LT −1)2
= L2T −2

30
Similarly [u2 ] = L2T −2 The dimensions of u 2 will be the same as

those of v 2 as they are both velocities.
[2gt ] = [2][g ][t ]

Find the dimension of 2 gt by
= [g ][t ] multiplying the dimensions of 2 and g
[g ][t ] = (LT −2 )T (acceleration) and t .
= LT −1
As the dimensions of the three terms are not the same

the equation is not dimensionally consistent so cannot
be correct.
Dimensions of angles and trigonometric functions

Rewind
e
The definition of an angle in radians is the ratio:
You learned about radians in
arc length A Level Mathematics Student
angle in radians =
radius Book 2, Chapter 7.
L
pl
As both arc length and radius are lengths then the dimensions of angle
are L = L0 (= 1) which is dimensionless.
All trigonometric functions are dimensionless for the same reason – each
is the ratio of two quantities with the same dimensions.
m
Key point 2.4
An angle has units but is dimensionless.
Sa
WORKED EXAMPLE 2.5
What are the dimensions of angular velocity, ω = dθ where θ is an angle in radians?

dt
Angular velocity ω = dθ radians per second Define the quantity involved – angular
dt
where θ is the angle in radians velocity is rate of change of angle and
has the symbol ω .
[dθ ] Equate the dimensions of all terms in

[ω ] =
[dt ]
the equation.
=1
T
= T −1

31
Did you know?

The metric system originated during the French Revolution of the 1790s.
It was intended to provide a unified system of measures that used the
metre and kilogram as standard units of length and mass, respectively.
The name of the system, SI, stands for système international d’unités.
The units are now commonly used by the scientific communities of most
developed nations. The main units are metres for length, kilograms for
mass and seconds for time. The wider adoption of this system, sometimes
known as MKS after the units, was the result of an initiative, started
in the late 1940s, to standardise units. At that time, the UK was using
feet, pounds and seconds as standard and most of Europe was using
centimetres, grams and seconds (cgs).
Definitions of some SI units
e
Some common SI units have particular names.
Rewind
The newton is the unit of force. 1 newton (N) is the force required to give
Recall the formula for force
a mass of 1 kilogram an acceleration of 1 metre per second per second.
from A Level Mathematics
pl
The joule is the unit of work and energy. 1 joule (J) is the work done (or
energy transferred) to an object when a force of 1 newton acts on that
object in the direction of motion for a distance of 1 metre.
The newton metre is the unit of moment (or torque). It is the effect of a
Student Book 1, Chapter 18:
force = mass × acceleration.
Rewind
m
force of 1 newton applied perpendicularly to a moment arm of 1 metre.
Recall the formula for work
The moment of a force about a point is force × perpendicular distance to done from Chapter 1,
the line of action of that force.
work done = force × distance.
The watt is the unit of power. 1 watt (W) is a rate of energy transfer or a
Sa
rate of working of 1 joule per second.
The pascal is the unit of pressure. 1 pascal is the pressure exerted by a

force of 1 newton acting on an area of 1 square metre. Pressure is force
per unit area.
EXERCISE 2B
In this exercise, these letters refer to specific quantities:
• u and v represent velocities • a represents acceleration

• r , s , h , x and y represent distance or displacement • θ represents an angle
• F represents force • t represents time.

32
1 Given that r , l and h are measurements of length, state the dimensions of:
a r + l + h b h 2 + rl c r 2l − h 3 .
2 Given that mi are masses, xi are distances and vi are speeds, state the dimensions of:
a m1v1 + m2v2 b 1 mv22 − 1 mv12
2 2
n
c ∑m x
1
i
2
i d ∫ v dt .
n
∑m x i i
3 Given that mi are masses and xi are distances, state the dimensions of 1
n
.
∑m 1
i
4 Given that m represents mass, u and v represent speeds, a represents acceleration, t and T represent times
and l and h represent distances, find the dimensions of each term in these equations and hence determine
e
which equations are dimensionally consistent.
a v 2 = u 2 + 2 as b s = ut + 1 at
2
c 1 1
mv − mu = mgh
2 2
d impulse (force × time) = change in momentum
5
2
e T = 2 π l
2
g
2
pl
a Write down the dimensions of angular acceleration, commonly written as θ .
g
b Is the formula θ = − θ dimensionally consistent? Give a dimensional argument for your answer.
m
l
6 In simple harmonic motion (SHM) the restoring force measured towards the centre of the motion is
proportional to the displacement, x , measured away from the centre of the motion.
a Write this as an equation, in terms of m , x and t, using k as the constant of proportionality.
Sa
b Find the dimensions of k.
7 Angular momentum is defined as Iω where I is the moment of inertia ( ∑ mr ) and ω is angular velocity.
2
a Work out the dimensions of angular momentum.

b Are these the same as the dimensions of linear momentum, where linear momentum is defined
as ∑ mv?
c Explain why angular momentum is sometimes call ‘moment of momentum’.
8 The rotational kinetic energy of a rigid body about an axis is defined as 1 Iω 2 where I is the moment
2
of inertia (∑ )
mr 2 of the body about that axis and ω is the angular velocity.
a Work out the dimensions of rotational kinetic energy.

b Is this the same as the dimensions of translational kinetic energy?

33
9 Young’s modulus, E , for a solid is defined as E = stress . Stress is the pressure in the solid and strain
strain
is defined as the ratio of extension to the original length.
a Write a formula for E in terms of F , A , l , and x , where F is the force exerted on the solid, A is its
cross-sectional area, l is the original length and x is the extension.
b What are the dimensions of E?
10 A student writes the equation for the path of a projectile as:
gx
y = x tan θ − 2 sec2 θ
2v
a Find the term in this equation that is dimensionally inconsistent.
b Suggest an alteration to one variable in this term that would make it dimensionally consistent.
WORK IT OUT 2.1
e
A particle of mass m is fixed at the midpoint of an elastic string of natural length 2l. The string is then
fixed to two points A and B on a smooth horizontal surface, AB = 2a and a > l. When the particle is
pl
displaced through a small distance x along the perpendicular bisector of AB it is thought to perform
small oscillations. The modulus of elasticity of the string is λ and it has the dimensions of force. Use
dimensional analysis to determine which option gives the correct formula for the periodic time of
these oscillations.
m
A T = 2 π ma 2l B T = 2 π mal C T = 2 π mal
2 λ (a − l ) 2 λ (a − l ) 2 λ (a − l ) 2
Which is the correct solution? Identify the errors made in the incorrect solutions.
Solution 1 Solution 2 Solution 3

Sa
Formula A: Formula B: Formula C:

ma l 2
mal mal
T = 2π is correct T = 2π is correct T = 2π is correct
2 λ (a − l ) 2 λ (a − l ) 2 λ (a − l ) 2
because the right-hand side has because the right-hand side has because the right-hand side has
the dimensions of time. the dimensions of time. the dimensions of time.
Tip
You can derive dimensions of a quantity either from its formula or from
its units. Any formula for that quantity will have the same dimensions.
The volume of an icosahedron will have the same dimensions as the
dimensions of a cube: L3. You only need to know that it is a volume to
state its dimensions; you do not need to know the specific formula.

34
Section 3: Finding dimensions from units and

derivatives, conversion of units and predicting
formulae
This process is similar to finding the dimensions of a quantity from its
formula.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2.6
( )
A pascal is a unit of pressure. Pressure is force per unit area force . The poiseuille (PI) is the (very rarely
area
used!) SI unit of dynamic viscosity. It is equivalent to pascal seconds (Pa s). Find the dimensions of a
poiseuille.
To find the dimensions of dynamic
viscosity you do not need to know its
formula, or even what it is, as long as
e
you know its units. You are told that it is
measured in pascal seconds.
pressure = force
area
 
[Pa ] =  force 
 area 
pl A pascal is a unit of pressure so you can
find its dimensions from the definition
of pressure as force per unit area.
Simplify the dimensions of a pascal…

m
[mass][acceleration]
=
[area]
−2
[Pa ] = MLT
L 2
= ML–1T –2
Sa
[poiseuille] = [Pa ][s ] …then multiply by the dimension

= ML–1T –2T of seconds to give the required
= ML–1T –1 dimensions.
You have seen that angles have units but not dimensions. This makes it
difficult to predict units from dimensions. For example, angular velocity,
ω , has dimension T −1 but units of radians per second. Frequency also has
dimension T −1 but has units of hertz (Hz, sometimes called cycles
per second).
Key point 2.5

You can predict dimensions from units or formulae but it is not always
possible to predict units from dimensions.

35
There are quantities that you might think of as constants that have
dimensions even if they are not always written with units.
Common error
Do not assume that a quantity
The tension T in an elastic string of initial length l which has been
represented by a letter is
stretched to (l + x ) is given by the formula T = λ x , where λ is the dimensionless unless you are
l
modulus of elasticity for the string. told specifically that it is.
λ is a physical constant, so if the string were made of a different
material, then it would have a different value. λ has the same units and
dimensions as the tension. Other examples of physical constants are Fast forward
surface tension and the gravitational constant. You will study the tension in an
elastic string in Chapter 5.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2.7
a Derive the dimensions of λ , the modulus of elasticity.

b State the units of λ .
e
a The tension (force) T in an First state a formula
elastic string or spring of involving λ .
initial length l, which has
been stretched to (l + x ),
is given by:
T =λ x
λ= Tl
x
l
pl Then rearrange it to
give a formula for λ .
m
[T ][l ] Find the dimensions of
[λ ] =
[x ] each term and combine
−2
= MLT L them.
L
= MLT −2
Sa
b The units are newtons as As x and l have the

x is dimensionless.
l same dimensions,
their quotient will be
dimensionless so it is
reasonable to assume
that T and λ will
have the same units –
newtons – which is
in keeping with the
dimensions.
Finding dimensions of second derivatives Rewind

You saw in Worked example 2.1 that the dimensions of acceleration are You learned about non-
LT −2. You know that acceleration can be written as a = d x2 , but how do
2
uniform acceleration in A Level
dt Mathematics Student Book 1,
you find the dimensions of acceleration from this?
Chapter 16.

36
You know that:

Common error
[dx ]
[v ] = You should recognise that
[dt ]
( )
2
[x] d 2 x ≠ dx
= dt 2 dt
[t ]
so you cannot say that:
= LT −1
[ a ] =  d x2 
2
It follows that:  dt 
d2 x = d dx
dt 2 dt dt ( ) =  dx 
 dt 
2
So  d x  =  d ( dx ) 
2 [ x ]2
=
 dt   dt dt 
2 [t ] 2
  = L2 T − 2
=  x2 
t 
= L2
T
e
= LT −2
Using dimensions to convert units
pl
If two quantities are equal, then their dimensions must be the same,
whatever their units. So to find a conversion factor you first need to
find the dimensions of the quantities involved and then put these
into the expressions for each quantity in the formula. For example,
if you are converting hours to seconds, the conversion factor for the
m
T dimension is 60 × 60 = 3600. So if the dimension of the quantity
required involves T 2, then the conversion factor involves 36002.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2.8

Sa
In the centimetres, grams and seconds (cgs) system, a force measures 30 000 dynes. What is this in newtons?
[force] = MLT −2 You do not need to know the definition

of a dyne to solve this problem, since
For M, 1gram = 0.001kg you are told that it is a force. You just
For L, 1centimetre = 0.01metres need to know the dimensions of force.
For T, 1second = 1second State the dimensions of force

(mass × acceleration).
For each dimension, put in its

conversion factor from cgs to SI units.
The conversion factor is Put these conversions into the

0.001 × 0.01 × 1−2 = 0.000 01 dimensions MLT −2 to find the
conversion factor.
30 000 dynes = 30 000 × 0.000 01newtons Apply this to the question.

= 0.3 N

37
Using dimensions to predict formulae
Key point 2.6 Rewind

You can use dimensional analysis to predict formulae by equating the Recall from Section 1 that
dimensions of the terms of the proposed formula. numerical constants, and other
dimensionless quantities such
as trigonometric functions,
If you take dimensions of both sides of a proposed formula and then
ratios and angles, can be left
equate the indices of each dimension, you will get a set of simultaneous
out of the calculation or given
equations. You will need to know, or be able to derive, the dimensions of
the dimension 1.
common quantities such as density, force, pressure and acceleration.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2.9
Pressure, P , is measured in newtons per square metre. Surface tension, S, is defined as force per unit
 
e
length  force  .
 length 
a Derive the dimensions of pressure.
b Find the dimensions of surface tension.
find the formula for P.

a [pressure (P )] = 

newtons 
metres 2

pl
c The pressure P inside an ideal soap bubble is given by the formula P = 2 Rα S β , where 2 is a dimensionless
constant, R is the radius of the sphere and S is the surface tension. Find the values of α and β and hence
Use the units of pressure given to write

an expression for the dimensions.
m
[force] Newtons are units of force so have the
=
[metres]2 units of force or mass × acceleration.
[mass × acceleration] Metres are units of length.
[P ] =
[metres]2
M × LT −2 Simplify the indices to give a single
=
Sa
L2 expression for the dimensions.

= ML T
−1 −2
force
b [surface tension (S )] =  length  Use the definitions of force and length to
  find the dimensions of surface tension
[mass × acceleration] in the same way.
=
[length]
MLT −2
[S ] =
L
= MT −2
c P = 2Rα S β Write down the formula given in the
question.
[P ] = [R ]α [S ]β Write the dimensional equation,

remembering that 2 is dimensionless so
can be left out.
ML−1T −2 = Lα (MT −2 )β Substitute in the dimensions of each

quantity…
38
For M : 1 = β …and equate the indices of the

For L : –1 = α dimensions on each side of the equation
to find the values of α and β .
For T : –2 = –2β
This gives α = −1and β = 1. Put these values of α and β back into the
∴ P = 2R S −1 1 given formula and simplify.
= 2S
R
WORKED EXAMPLE 2.10
A simple pendulum consists of a particle of mass m suspended at the end of an inextensible string of
length l. The pendulum is initially hanging at rest and then it is displaced through a small angle θ and
e
released to make small oscillations.
a It is thought that the formula for the periodic time T of the small oscillations is of the form T = Amα l β g γ ,
where A is a dimensionless constant and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Use dimensional analysis to
a T = Amα l β g γ (1)
pl
find the values of α , β and γ and hence find an equation for T .
b What deductions can you make from this formula?
c In an experiment it is found that T =
2π
5
when l = 2. Using g = 10 m s −2, find the value of A.
The periodic time T has dimension T.

m
[T ] = T
T = [Amα l β g γ ] The dimensions of both sides of the

= [A ][m ][l ][g ]
α β γ equation must be the same and are
equal to T.
Sa
A is dimensionless. State the dimensions of each of the

[m ] = M terms…
[l ] = L
[g ] = LT −2
T = Mα (LT −2 )γ Lβ …then combine them as the formula

states and simplify.
= Mα Lβ +γ T −2γ
Equating indices of T:
T1 = T −2γ so 1 = −2γ giving γ = − 1

2
Equating indices of M:
M0 = Mα so 0 = α
Equating indices of L:
L0 = Lβ +γ so 0 = β + γ giving β = 1
2

39
This gives: Solve the equations to find the values of

α =0 α , β and γ ...
1
β =
2
1
γ =−
2
1
−
1 ...and then substitute these values into
So T = Am 0l 2 g 2
equation (1) and state a formula for A.
l
=A
g
b You can deduce that for displacements through a You now need to consider your answer
small angle θ the periodic time is independent of θ and as the question asks for a deduction.
is also independent of m. T will be the same whatever You see that the formula does not
the mass m of the particle. include m or θ , so the periodic time T
will be the same whatever the mass of
e
the particle as long as the length of the
string is unchanged, for small angle
displacements θ .
T 2g
c A2 =
l
A2 = 4 π × 10 = 4 π2
A = 2π
2
5
2
pl Rearrange the expression for T to make
A the subject and substitute the values
given to find A.
m
So T = 2π l
g
EXERCISE 2C
Sa
1 A watt is a unit of 1 joule per second. Derive the dimensions of watts.
2 The sievert is a unit of 1 joule per kilogram. Derive the dimensions of sieverts.
Work out the dimensions of d ω2 , where ω is an expression for angular velocity.

2
3
dt
4 A yank is defined to be the rate of change of force with time. What are the dimensions of yank?
5 Using the standard notation, the area of a triangle can be written as area = 1 ab sin C . By stating the
2
dimensions of each of the components (area, 1 , a , b and sin C) and combining them, show that this formula
2
is dimensionally correct.
6 In a simple harmonic motion the displacement x can be written as x = asin ω t, where x is the displacement
and a is the amplitude (greatest distance from the centre of oscillation).
a Use a dimensional argument to explain why this formula is dimensionally consistent.
b Find the dimensions of ω .

40
7 a State the dimensions of force.

b In the centimetres, grams and seconds (cgs) system, a force has magnitude 45 000 dynes. Calculate this
in newtons.
8 The sine formula states that a = b = c = 2 Rα , where R is the radius of the circumcircle of the
sin A sin B sin C
triangle and α is a constant. Use dimensional analysis to find the value of α , showing the steps in your
argument clearly.
9 Decibels are used to describe how loud a noise is. A formula for sound level in decibels is sound intensity
(dB) = 10 log10  I  , where I is the sound output, in watts, and I 0 is the threshold level sound output, in watts.
 I0 
a Write down the dimensions of decibels.
b A speaker has a sound output of 100 000 times the threshold level. Express this in decibels.
10 a State the dimensions of acceleration.
e
b An equation for oscillations of a damped simple harmonic motion when a system is displaced through a
small distance x is given by d x2 + A dx = −Bx where A and B are constants. Given that this equation is
2
dt dt
dimensionally consistent find:
i the dimensions of A
11 a What are the dimensions of force?

pl ii the dimensions of B.
b The thrust, F, of a propeller blade is a force which is thought to have a formula of the form:
F = 0.5 ρ α A β (v12 − v02 )γ
m
where r is the density of the air, A is the surface area and v0 and v1 are velocities.
Use dimensional analysis to find the values of α , β and γ and hence find a formula for F in terms of
ρ , A , v12 and v02 .
12 a Tension is a force. What are the dimensions of tension?

Sa
b The periodic time, t, of the vibration of a piano wire, of mass m, length l and tension F is thought to be of
the form
t = 2 πF α m β l γ
where 2 and π are dimensionless constants.
Use dimensional analysis to find the values of α, β and γ and hence find a formula for t in terms of F, m and l.
13 The Froude number, Fr, is a dimensionless constant which can be used in analysing channel and river
flows. The formula for Fr is of the form:
Fr = v α g β h γ
where v is the velocity of the water in the channel, g is the acceleration due to gravity and h is a relative depth.
a Use dimensional analysis to find β and γ in terms of α.
b Take α = 1 to find a formula for Fr in terms of v, g and h.
14 A light inextensible string of length l is fixed at one end and has a particle of mass m fixed at the other end.
The mass m is moving at constant speed v in a horizontal circle of radius r and the string is fully extended.
The string makes an angle θ with the downward vertical. Given that tan θ = v α r β g −1, use a dimensional
argument to find a formula for tan θ in terms of v , r and g , where g is the acceleration due to gravity.

41
Section 4: Summary of dimensions and units

Exercise 2D is a summary of common units and dimensions.
EXERCISE 2D
Copy and complete this table.
Quantity Dimension SI unit

Time
Mass
Weight (mg ) newton (N)
Length/displacement
Area
Volume
e
Velocity
Acceleration LT −2
Acceleration due to gravity m/s 2 or m s −2
Force (ma)
(
Kinetic energy 1 mv 2
2 )
Gravitational potential energy (mgh )
pl newton (N)
joule (J)
m
Work done (force × distance moved) joule (J)
Moment of a force (force × distance) newton metres (N m)
(
Power rate of doing work: dW
dt ) watt (W)
Momentum (mv ) kg m s−1

Sa
Impulse (force × time) newton seconds (N s)
Moment of inertia ( ∑ mr ) 2
Angular velocity ( ω = dθ )
dt
Density ( mass )
volume
Pressure ( force ) pascal (Pa)

area
Periodic time (time for one complete cycle)
Frequency (1 ÷ periodic time) hertz (Hz)
 
Surface tension  force 
 length 

42
Checklist of learning and understanding

• In Mechanics, dimensions describe a quantity in terms of three basic dimensions Mass, Length and Time.
Other dimensions are used in other branches of Mathematics and Science.
• Square brackets are used to denote ‘the dimensions of’, for example, [time] = T .
• You can only add and subtract terms that have the same dimensions; the resulting sum or difference will
also have the same dimensions.
• A formula must be dimensionally consistent to be valid.
• Angles and numerical constants are dimensionless.
• If two quantities are equal, then they have the same dimensions.
• You can find the dimensions of a quantity from its definition, from an equation describing it or from its
units.
• Quantities can have units but be dimensionless, for example, radians are dimensionless.
• You cannot predict units from dimensions as some dimensionless quantities have units.
• In dimensional calculations, you can give dimensionless quantities the dimensional value 1.
• You can use dimensional analysis to predict formulae by equating dimensions on both sides of a proposed
e
formula.
pl
m
Sa

43
Mixed practice 2
1 Given that a , b , h , l and r are lengths and that numerical constants are dimensionless, what could be a
formula for volume? Choose from these options.
A V = 2 πrl B V = h (a + b) C V = hl (a + b)
2 2
2 If [ density ] = Mα Lβ Tγ , what is the value of β ? Choose from these options.
A 3 B −3 C −2
3 State the dimensions of:

a 2 π l b d v2 , where v is an expression for speed.
2
g dt
4 Heron’s (or Hero’s) formula for the area of a triangle with sides of length a, b, and c is
A = s ( s − a)( s − b)( s − c ) , where s is half the perimeter. Show, with full explanation, why this formula
is dimensionally consistent.
e
5 a Tension in a string is a force. What are the dimensions of tension?
b In each formula, T is the tension in a string, m is a mass, v is a velocity, r is a length and θ is an
angle. Which of the formulae is/are dimensionally consistent? If the formula is inconsistent state
6
which term is incorrect.
i T − mg cos θ = mv
r
pl ii T − mg cos θ = mv
a State the dimensions of potential energy.

r
2
iii T − g cos θ = mv
r
2
m
b In the centimetres, grams and seconds (cgs) system a particle has potential energy of 5.2 × 108 ergs.
Calculate this in joules.
7 In a simple harmonic motion of a mass m the restoring force is proportional to the displacement.
It can be shown that, at time t , the displacement x and the acceleration a are:
Sa
 
x = A cos  k t 
 m 
 
a = − k A cos  k t 
m  m 
Find the dimensions of:
a A b k.
8 The radial force on a particle moving in a circle is thought to be of the form F = mα v β r γ . By writing
each of the components in term of its dimensions, and equating indices, form three equations to find
the values of α , β and γ and hence find the formula for F .
9 a State the dimensions of force.

b Newton’s law of gravitational attraction states that the force of attraction, F , between two bodies
of masses m1 and m2 is dependent on the masses, the distance r between them and the constant G
and it can be written as F = G α m1β m2γ r δ .
Write down, with reasons, the relationship between β and γ .
c Given that the dimensions of G are M −1L3 T −2, use a dimensional proof to find a formula for F .

44
10 a Give the dimensions of angular acceleration.

b An equation for oscillations of a damped pendulum of length l displaced by a small angle θ is
given by d θ2 + A dθ = −Bθ , where A and B are constants. Given that this equation is dimensionally
2
dt dt
consistent, find the dimensions of A.
c By expressing B as a product of powers of l and g , find an expression for B in terms of l and g .
11 Surface tension is defined as force per unit length.

a State the dimensions of surface tension.
b When liquid forms a puddle on a clean horizontal surface, the depth d of the puddle has a
maximum value which can be written as d = AS α ρ β g γ , where A is a dimensionless constant, S is
surface tension, g is the acceleration due to gravity and ρ is the density of water. Use dimensional
analysis to find a formula for d.
c Given that d = 5.4 mm when S = 0.073 N m −1, and 1 m 3 of water has a mass of approximately 1000 kg,
find the value of A.
e
12 Tension is a force.
a State the dimensions of tension.
2
pl
b Frequency, f , has dimension T −1. Mersenne’s law states that the fundamental frequency of a string
is of the form f = 1 l α F β µ γ , where 1 is a dimensionless constant, l is the length of the string, F is
2
the tension in the string and µ is the mass per unit length of the string. Use dimensional analysis to
find the values of α , β and γ and hence find the formula for f .
m
13 A ball of mass m is travelling vertically downwards with speed u when it hits a horizontal floor. The
ball bounces vertically upwards to a height h.
It is thought that h depends on m , u , the acceleration due to gravity g , and a dimensionless constant k,
such that h = kmα u β g γ , where α , β and γ are constants.
Sa
By using dimensional analysis, find the values of α , β and γ .
[©AQA 2009]
14 a Pressure is force per unit area. Derive the dimensions of pascals – the units of pressure.
b Dynamic viscosity µ is measured in pascal seconds. Derive the dimensions of µ .
c The terminal velocity vT of a small spherical particle, of radius r and density ρ , falling vertically
r α g β ( ρ − ρ1 )
down though a medium of density ρ1 and dynamic viscosity µ , is given by vT = A ,
µ
where A is a dimensionless constant and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Use dimensional
analysis to find the values of α and β .
e formula for the lifting force F generated on a wing of an aeroplane is of the form F = kρ α v β Aγ ,
15 Th
where k is a dimensionless constant, ρ is the air density, v is the air speed and A is the surface area of
the wing. Use dimensional analysis to find the values of α , β and γ and hence find the formula for F .

45
16 The speed, v m s −1, of a wave travelling along the surface of the sea is believed to depend on:
the depth of the sea, d m
the density of the water, ρ kg m −3
the acceleration due to gravity, g m s −2 and
a dimensionless constant, k
so that v = kd α ρ β g γ , where α , β and γ are constants.
By using dimensional analysis, show that β = 0 and find the values of α and γ .
[©AQA 2008]
17 Surface tension, S, is defined as force per unit length.

a State the dimensions of S.
b State the dimensions of density.
e
c The average height, h, of a liquid in a capillary tube can be written as h = ASρ α r β g γ , where A is a
dimensionless constant for the liquid, S is the surface tension, ρ is the density of the liquid, r is the
internal radius of the tube and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Use a dimensional argument to
pl
find the values of α , β and γ and hence find a formula for h.
d In this question part use g = 9.8 m s-2, giving your final answer to an appropriate degree of
accuracy. 1 m 3 of water has a mass of approximately 1000 kg . Water rises up a vertical capillary
tube which has a diameter of 0.3 mm. Given that A = 2 and S = 0.072 N m −1, what is the height of
water in the tube, in millimetres?
m
18 The equation:
F =c
dαuβ ργ
where c is a constant, F is a force, d is a diameter, u is a velocity and ρ is a density is dimensionally
Sa
consistent. Find the values of α, β and γ and hence find a formula for F.

46

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A LEVEL FURTHER MATHEMATICS FOR AQA MECHANICS STUDENT BOOK (AS/A LEVEL)

A Level Further Mathematics for AQA

• Overarching themes of problem-solving, • Continual assessment is embedded at

3 Momentum and collisions 1

2: Collisions and the principle of conservation

Focus on … Problem solving 2.......................... 264

2: Acceleration in horizontal circular motion........89 Cross-topic review exercise 2............................ 269

5 Work, energy and power 2 107 AS Level practice paper.......................................273

Focus on … Proof 1..............................................135

Focus on … Problem solving 1.......................... 138

Focus on … Modelling 1.....................................141

Cross-topic review exercise 1............................ 143

© Cambridge University Press

•• calculate the work done by a force

Before you start…

The relationship between work and energy Rewind

© Cambridge University Press

Section 1: The work done by a force

Weight is a special case because it can either resist or promote

Key point 1.1

1 joule = 1 newton × 1 metre

For example, a force of 5 newtons acting on an object that moves

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.1

© Cambridge University Press

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.2

75 kN = 75 000 N Convert 75 kN to 75 000 N as you need to

= 1880 kJ (3 s.f) Change J to kJ.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.3

Work done against gravity = weight × height gained

Key point 1.2 Fast forward

© Cambridge University Press

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.4

a the total work done by gravity as he descends 12 metres

a Work done by gravity = mgh You have used a value of g

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.5

Use force × distance to calculate the

Key point 1.3 Tip

If speed is not given in m s −1,

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.6

© Cambridge University Press

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.7

Gain in kinetic energy = × 2000 × (40.5 − 25) 

The work–energy principle is an essential idea in mechanics that

Key point 1.4 Tip

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.9

Work done = force × distance Work done = force × distance

Assume that Stephen allows the resistance

© Cambridge University Press

© Cambridge University Press

Section 3: Potential energy, mechanical energy

Each side of this equation is made up of the sum of two terms,

Key point 1.5 Tip

gravitational potential energy is conserved. The sum is usually called

Key point 1.6

GPE + KE = mgh + 1 mv 2 = constant

© Cambridge University Press

Assuming no external forces apply, calculate:

a the speed of the ball after it has risen 5.0 metres

Starting KE = mgh + final KE Use conservation of mechanical energy over

9.766 = 0.125 g × 5 + final KE the first 5 metres of the ascent.

3 Momentum and collisions 1

2: Collisions and the principle of conservation

5 Work, energy and power 2 107 AS Level practice paper.......................................273

Gain in kinetic energy = × 2000 × (40.5 − 25)