What Is Cognitive Psychology?

Cognitive psychology involves the study of internal mental processes—all of the things that go on
inside your brain, including perception, thinking, memory, attention, language, problem-solving, and
learning. While it is a relatively young branch of psychology, it has quickly grown to become one of the
most popular subfields.

Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology

1. It provides help in coping with memory disorders, increasing decision-making accuracy, finding ways
to help people recover from brain injury, treating learning disorders, and structuring educational
curricula to enhance learning.

2. Learning more about how people think and process information not only helps researchers gain a
deeper understanding of how the human brain works, but it allows psychologists to develop new ways
of helping people deal with psychological difficulties. For example, by recognizing that attention is both a
selective and limited resource, psychologists are able to come up with solutions that make it easier for
people with attentional difficulties to improve their focus and concentration.

3. Findings from cognitive psychology have also improved our understanding of how people form, store,
and recall memories. By knowing more about how these processes work, psychologists can develop new
ways of helping people improve their memories and combat potential memory problems. For example,
psychologists have found that while your short-term memory is quite short and limited (lasting just 20 to
30 seconds and capable of holding between five and nine items), rehearsal strategies can improve the
chances that information will be transferred to long-term memory, which is much more stable and
durable.

In cognitive psychology, the ways of addressing fundamental issues have changed, but many of the
fundamental questions remain much the same. Ultimately, cognitive psychologists hope to learn how
people think by studying how people have thoughts about thinking.

The progression of ideas often involves a dialectic. A dialectic is a developmental

process where ideas evolve over time through a pattern of transformation. What is
this pattern? In a dialectic:

• A thesis is proposed. A thesis is a statement of belief. For example, some people believe that human
nature governs many aspects of human behavior (e.g., intelligence or personality; Sternberg, 1999).
After a while, however, certain individuals notice apparent flaws in the thesis.

• An antithesis emerges. Eventually, or perhaps even quite soon, an antithesis emerges. An antithesis is
a statement that counters a previous statement of belief. For example, an alternative view is that our
nurture (the environmental contexts in which we are reared) almost entirely determines many aspects
of human behavior.

• A synthesis integrates the viewpoints. Sooner or later, the debate between the thesis and the
antithesis leads to a synthesis. A synthesis integrates the most credible features of each of two (or more)
views. For example, in the debate over nature versus nurture, the interaction between our innate
(inborn) nature and environmental nurture may govern human nature.

Philosophical Antecedents of Psychology

There are two approaches in understanding human mind: rationalism and empiricism.

A rationalist believes that the route to knowledge is through thinking and logical analysis. That is, a
rationalist does not need any experiments to develop new knowledge. A rationalist who is interested in
cognitive processes would appeal to reason as a source of knowledge or justification. Plato and Rene
Descartes were rationalists.

The empiricists like Aristotle and John Locke believed that we acquire knowledge via empirical
evidence — that is, we obtain evidence through experience and observation. In order to explore how
the human mind works, empiricists would design experiments and conduct studies in which they could
observe the behavior and processes of interest to them. Empiricism therefore leads directly to empirical
investigations of psychology.

We might see the rationalist view of the world as a thesis and the empirical view as an antithesis.
Most psychologists today seek a synthesis of the two. They base empirical observations on theory in
order to explain what they have observed in their experiments. In turn, they use these observations to
revise their theories when they find that the theories cannot account for their real-world observations.

Emergence of Cognitive Psychology

Early 1950’s - Cognitive Revolution

 Karl Spencer Lashley considered the brain to be an active, dynamic organizer of behavior.
 Donald Hebb proposed the concept of cell assemblies in the brain as the basis for learning.
 Noam Chomsky stressed both the biological basis and the creative potential of language.

Late 1950’s - Applied Cognitive Psychology

 Artificial Intelligence (AI)
 Solving practical problems
 Advertisement

1960’s - Cognitive Psychology became prominent.

 George Miller known for his article, “the magic number seven”.
 Ulric Neisser published the book "Cognitive Psychology", which marks the official beginning of
the cognitive approach. He defined cognitive psychology as the study of how people learn,
structure, store, and use knowledge.

1970’s - Modularity of the Mind

 Jerry Fodor popularized the concept of the modularity of mind. He argued that the mind has
distinct modules, or special-purpose systems, to deal with linguistic and, possibly, other kinds of
information.
 Franz-Joseph Gall believed that the pattern of bumps and swells on the skull was directly
associated with one’s pattern of cognitive skills.


Cognition and Intelligence

Human intelligence can be viewed as an integrating, or “umbrella” psychological construct for a
great deal of theory and research in cognitive psychology. Intelligence is the capacity to learn from
experience, using metacognitive processes to enhance learning, and the ability to adapt to the
surrounding environment. Metacognition is the people’s understanding and control of their own
thinking processes.
Intelligence may require different adaptations within different social and cultural contexts. People
who are more intelligent tend to be superior in processes such as divided and selective attention,
working memory, reasoning, problem solving, decision making, and concept formation. So when we
come to understand the mental processes involved in each of these cognitive functions, we also better
understand the bases of individual differences in human intelligence. There have been many models of
intelligence. Three models are particularly useful when linking human intelligence to cognition: the
three-stratum model, the theory of multiple intelligences, and the triarchic theory of intelligence.

Carroll: Three-Stratum Model of Intelligence

John B. Carroll in his three-stratum model of intelligence specifies what kinds of individual
differences in cognitive abilities exist and how those kinds of individual differences are related to one
another. He proposes that there are a fairly large number of distinct individual differences in cognitive
ability, and that the relationships among them can be derived by classifying them into three different
strata:
 Stratum I includes many narrow, specific abilities (e.g., spelling ability, speed of reasoning).
  Stratum II includes various broad abilities (e.g., fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, short-
term memory, long-term storage and retrieval, information processing speed).
 Stratum III is just a single general intelligence (sometimes called g).

Gardner: Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes that people are not born with all of
the intelligence they will ever have. This theory challenged the traditional notion that there is one single
type of intelligence, sometimes known as “g” for general intelligence, that only focuses on cognitive
abilities. To broaden this notion of intelligence, Gardner introduced eight different types of intelligences
consisting of: logical/mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalist,
interpersonal, and intrapersonal.

Sternberg: The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

According to Robert Sternberg, the triarchic theory of human intelligence comprises three aspects:
creative, analytical, and practical. This theory proposed that cognition is at the center of intelligence.
 Creative abilities are used to generate novel ideas.
 Analytical abilities ascertain whether your ideas (and those of others) are good
 ones.

 Practical abilities are used to implement the ideas and persuade others of their
 value.

Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology

Fundamental Ideas in Cognitive Psychology
1. Empirical data and theories are both important.
Data in cognitive psychology can be fully understood only in the context of an explanatory theory,
and theories are empty without empirical data.

2. Cognition is generally adaptive, but not in all specific instances.

We can perceive, learn, remember, reason, and solve problems with great accuracy. And we do so
even though we are constantly distracted by a plethora of stimuli. The same processes, however, that
lead us to perceive, remember, and reason accurately in most situations also can lead us astray. Our
memories and reasoning processes, for example, are susceptible to certain well-identified, systematic
errors. For example, we tend to overvalue information that is easily available to us. While this tendency
generally helps us to make cognitive processes more efficient, we do this even when this information is
not optimally relevant to the problem at hand.

3. Cognitive processes interact with each other and with noncognitive processes.
Although cognitive psychologists try to study and often to isolate the functioning of specific
cognitive processes, they know that these processes work together. For example, memory processes
depend on perceptual processes. What you remember depends in part on what you perceive. But
noncognitive processes also interact with cognitive ones. For example, you learn better when you are
motivated to learn. Cognitive psychologists therefore seek to study cognitive processes not only in
isolation but also in their interactions with each other and with noncognitive processes.

4. Cognition needs to be studied through a variety of scientific methods.

There is no one right way to study cognition. All cognitive processes need to be studied through a
variety of methods. The more different kinds of techniques that lead to the same conclusion, the higher
the confidence one can have in that conclusion. For example, suppose studies of reaction times, error
rates, and patterns of individual differences all lead to the same conclusion. Then one can have much
more confidence in the conclusion than if only one method led to that conclusion.

5. All basic research in cognitive psychology may lead to applications, and all applied research may lead
to basic understandings.
But the truth is, the distinction between basic and applied research often is not clear at all.
Research that seems like it will be basic often leads to immediate applications. Similarly, research that
seems like it will be applied sometimes leads quickly to basic understandings. For example, a basic
finding from research on memory is that learning is superior when it is spaced out over time rather than
crammed into a short time interval. This basic finding has an immediate application to study strategies.
At the same time, research on eyewitness testimony, which seems on its face to be very applied, has
enhanced our basic understanding of memory systems and of the extent to which humans construct
their own memories.
 Week 3 Neuro Science
What are the fundamental structures and processes within the brain?
The nervous system, governed by the brain, is divided into two main parts: the central nervous
system, consisting of the brain and the spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, consisting of the
rest of the nervous system (e.g., the nerves in the face, legs, arms, and viscera).

How do researchers study the major structures and processes of the brain?
For centuries scientists have viewed the brain by dissecting it. Modern dissection techniques
include the use of electron microscopes and sophisticated chemical analyses to probe the mysteries of
individual cells of the brain. Additionally, surgical techniques on animals (e.g., the use of selective
lesioning and single-cell recording) often are used. On humans, studies have included electrical analyses
(e.g., electroencephalograms and event-related potentials), studies based on the use of X-ray techniques
(e.g., angiograms and computed tomograms), studies based on computer analyses of magnetic fields
within the brain (magnetic resonance imaging), and studies based on computer analyses of blood flow
and metabolism within the brain (positron emission tomography and functional magnetic resonance
imaging).

What have researchers found as a result of studying the brain?

The major structures of the brain may be categorized as those in the forebrain (e.g., the all-
important cerebral cortex and the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the
limbic system, including the hippocampus), the midbrain (including a portion of the brainstem), and the
hindbrain (including the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the cerebellum).
The highly convoluted cerebral cortex surrounds the interior of the brain and is the basis for much
of human cognition. The cortex covers the left and right hemispheres of the brain. They are connected
by the corpus callosum. In general, each hemisphere contralaterally controls the opposite side of the
body.
Based on extensive split-brain research, many investigators believe that the two hemispheres are
specialized: In most people, the left hemisphere primarily controls language. The right hemisphere
primarily controls visuospatial processing. The two hemispheres also may process information
differently.
Another way to view the cortex is to identify differences among four lobes. Roughly speaking,
higher thought and motor processing occur in the frontal lobe. Somatosensory processing occurs in the
parietal lobe. Auditory processing occurs in the temporal lobe, and visual processing occurs in the
occipital lobe. Within the frontal lobe, the primary motor cortex controls the planning, control, and
execution of movement. Within the parietal lobe, the primary somatosensory cortex is responsible for
sensations in our muscles and skin. Specific regions of these two cortices can be mapped to particular
regions of the body.
What are the different brain disorders?
Vascular disorder is a brain disorder caused by a stroke. Strokes occur when the flow of the blood
to the brain undergoes a sudden disruption. People who experience stroke typically show marked loss of
cognitive functioning. The nature of the loss depends on the area of the brain that is affected by the
stroke. There may be paralysis, pain, numbness, a loss of speech, a loss of language comprehension,
impairments in thought processes, a loss of movement in parts of the body, or other symptoms.

Brain tumors, also called neoplasms, can affect cognitive functioning in very serious ways. Tumors
can occur in either the gray or the white matter of the brain. Tumors of the white matter are more
common (Gazzaniga, Ivry, & Mangun, 2009). Two types of brain tumors can occur. Primary brain tumors
start in the brain. Most childhood brain tumors are of this type. Secondary brain tumors start as tumors
somewhere else in the body, such as in the lungs.
Brain tumors can be either benign or malignant. Benign tumors do not contain cancer cells. They
typically can be removed and will not grow back. Cells from benign tumors do not invade surrounding
cells or spread to other parts of the body. However, if they press against sensitive areas of the brain,
they can result in serious cognitive impairments. They also can be life-threatening, unlike benign tumors
in most other parts of the body.
Malignant brain tumors, unlike benign ones, contain cancer cells. They are more serious and
usually threaten the victim’s life. They often grow quickly. They also tend to invade surrounding healthy
brain tissue. In rare instances, malignant cells may break away and cause cancer in other parts of the
body. Following are the most common symptoms of brain tumors (What you need to know about brain
tumors, 2009):
• headaches (usually worse in the morning)
• nausea or vomiting
• changes in speech, vision, or hearing
• problems balancing or walking
• changes in mood, personality, or ability to concentrate
• problems with memory
• muscle jerking or twitching (seizures or convulsions)
• numbness or tingling in the arms or legs

Head injuries result from many causes, such as a car accident, contact with a hard object, or a
bullet wound. Head injuries are of two types. In closed-head injuries, the skull remains intact but there is
damage to the brain, typically from the mechanical force of a blow to the head. Slamming one’s head
against a windshield in a car accident might result in such an injury. In open-head injuries, the skull does
not remain intact but rather is penetrated, for example, by a bullet.

The P-FIT Theory of Intelligence

This theory, called the parietal-frontal integration theory (P-FIT), stresses the importance of
interconnected brain regions in determining differences in intelligence. The regions this theory focuses
on are the prefrontal cortex, the inferior and superior parietal lobe, the anterior cingulated cortex, and
portions of the temporal and occipital lobes (Colom et al., 2009; Jung & Haier, 2007). P-FIT theory
describes patterns of brain activity in people with different levels of intelligence; it cannot, however,
explain what makes a person intelligent or what intelligence is.
 Week 4 Perception
1. How can we perceive an object like a chair as having a stable form, given that the
image of the chair on our retina changes as we look at it from different directions?
Perceptual experience involves four elements: distal object, informational medium,
proximal stimulation, and perceptual object. Proximal stimulation is constantly changing
because of the variable nature of the environment and physiological processes designed to
overcome sensory adaptation. Perception therefore must address the fundamental question of
constancy.

Perceptual constancies (e.g., size and shape constancy) result when our perceptions of objects
tend to remain constant. That is, we see constancies even as the stimuli registered by our
senses change. Some perceptual constancies may be governed by what we know about the
world. For example, we have expectations regarding how rectilinear structures usually appear.
But constancies also are influenced by invariant relationships among objects in their
environmental context.
One reason we can perceive 3-D space is the use of binocular depth cues. Two such cues
are binocular disparity and binocular convergence.
 Binocular disparity is based on the fact that each of two eyes receives a slightly
different image of the same object as it is being viewed.
 Binocular convergence is based on the degree to which our two eyes must turn
inward toward each other as objects get closer to us.
We also are aided in perceiving depth by monocular depth cues. These cues include
texture gradients, relative size, interposition, linear perspective, aerial perspective, height in the
picture plane, and motion parallax. One of the earliest approaches to form and pattern
perception is the Gestalt approach to form perception. The Gestalt law of Prägnanz has led to
the explication of several principles of form perception. These principles include figure-ground,
proximity, similarity, closure, continuity, and symmetry. They characterize how we perceptually
group together various objects and parts of objects.

2. What are two fundamental approaches to explaining perception?

Perception is the set of processes by which we recognize, organize, and make sense of
stimuli in our environment.
Bottom-up theoretical approaches describe approaches where perception starts with the
stimuli whose appearance you take in through your eye. You look out onto the cityscape, and
perception happens when the light information is transported to your brain. Therefore, they
are data-driven (i.e., stimulus-driven) theories. The four main bottom-up theories of form and
pattern perception are direct perception, template theories, feature theories, and recognition-
by-components theory.
 Direct perception theory states that the information in our sensory receptors,
including the sensory context, is all we need to perceive anything. As the
environment supplies us with all the information we need for perception, this
view is sometimes also called ecological perception.
 Template theory suggests that we have stored in our minds myriad sets of
templates. Templates are highly detailed models for patterns we potentially
might recognize. We recognize a pattern by comparing it with our set of
templates. We then choose the exact template that perfectly matches what we
observe (Selfridge & Neisser, 1960). We see examples of template matching in
our everyday lives. Fingerprints are matched in this way.
 Feature-matching theory. According to this theory, we attempt to match
features of a pattern to features stored in memory, rather than to match a whole
pattern to a template or a prototype (Stankiewicz, 2003).
 Pandemonium Model. One such feature-matching model has been called
Pandemonium (“pandemonium” refers to a very noisy, chaotic place and hell). In
it, metaphorical “demons” with specific duties receive and analyze the features
of a stimulus (Selfridge, 1959). In Oliver Selfridge’s Pandemonium Model, there
are four kinds of demons: image demons, feature demons, cognitive demons,
and decision demons.
Top-down theories, according to which perception is driven by high-level cognitive
processes, existing knowledge, and the prior expectations that influence perception (Clark,
2003).
 Configural-superiority effect (Bar, 2004; Pomerantz, 1981), by which objects
presented in certain configurations are easier to recognize than the objects presented in
isolation, even if the objects in the configurations are more complex than those in
isolation
 Object-superiority effect, in which a target line that forms a part of a drawing of a 3-D
object is identified more accurately than a target that forms a part of a disconnected 2-D
pattern (Lanze, Weisstein, & Harris, 1982; Weisstein & Harris, 1974). These findings
parallel findings in the study of letter and word recognition: The word-superiority effect
indicates that when people are presented with strings of letters, it is easier for them to
identify a single letter if the string makes sense and forms a word instead of being just a
nonsense sequel of letters. For example, it is easier to recognize the letter “o” in the
word “house” than in the word “huseo” (Reicher, 1969).

3. What happens when people with normal visual sensations cannot perceive visual stimuli?

Agnosias, which are usually associated with brain lesions, are deficits of form and pattern
perception. They cause afflicted people to be insufficiently able to recognize objects that are in
their visual fields, despite normal sensory abilities. People who suffer from visual-object agnosia
can sense all parts of the visual field. But the objects they see do not mean anything to them.
Individuals with simultagnosia are unable to pay attention to more than one object at a time.
People with spatial agnosia have severe difficulty in comprehending and handling the
relationship between their bodies and the spatial configurations of the world around them.
People with prosopagnosia have severe impairment in their ability to recognize human faces,
including their own. These deficits lead to the question of whether specific perceptual
processes are modular—specialized for particular tasks. Color blindness is another type of
perceptual deficit.