Stone Architecture

STONE
AND
ARCHITECTURE
225
AK
STONE AND ARCHITECTURE
in the mountainous regions of Jordan and Syria
Juliane Jäger
Ingo Helmedag
Thomas Maria Weber
Nizar Abu-Jaber
Abdulhamid Suleiman
Berthold Burkhardt
Olaf Reiter
Margaret Louderback
Ammar Khammash
© 2012
Amman - Damascus - Berlin
ISBN: 978-3-9811040-9-7
editors in chief
Ingo Helmedag, Juliane Jäger
text & layout editor

Margaret Louderback
photographs and illustrations

All photographs and illustrations were taken by the authors, unless otherwise mentioned.
All rights reserved.
This publication has been generously funded and supported by
DAAD
German Academic Exchange Service
[Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst]
Special thanks to Dr. Christian Hülshörster and Dr. Renate Dieterich for their help and on-
going motivation as the DAAD representatives for North Africa and the Middle East.
For their cooperative spirit, we would like to thank the experts who contributed to this book,
the German-Jordanian University and Damascus University.
Front cover and inside photographs: panoramic views taken from Schobak Castle, Jordan.
Chabur
River
Al Assad
Reservoir
Euphrates
River
Orontes River
Mediterranean Sea
°C mm
30 350
20 300
10 250
temperature
0 200
-10 150
annual precipitation
DAMASCUS -20
218 mm
100
33°51 02 N
l ll
Latitude -30 50
36°29l13ll E Longitude
680 m (2,231 ft.) Altitude -40 0
JFMAMJJASOND
Tiberias
Yarmouk River
Lake
Jordan
River 31°57l18ll N Latitude °C mm
35°56l42ll E Longitude
735 m (2,493 ft.) Altitude 30 350
AMMAN 20 300
Dead 10 250
Sea temperature
0 200
-10 150
annual precipitation
-20 100
277 mm
-30 50
-40 0
JFMAMJJASOND
Red Sea /
Gulf of Aqaba
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8 Ingo Helmedag & Juliane Jäger Preface

10 Introduction of the authors
13 Juliane Jäger Describing traditional architecture

in rural areas, examples from Syria and Jordan
61 Ingo Helmedag Contemplations on contemporary

construction routines, examples from Amman
121 Thomas Maria Weber Rock and order

stone masonry in a historical context
157 Nizar Abu-Jaber Geological outline of Syria and Jordan
171 Abdulhamid Suleiman Accumulative architecture as a sustainable

process at the Deir Mar Mousa monastery
181 Berthold Burkhardt The sight behind the façade

contemporary stone façades and surfaces
195 Olaf Reiter Passive housing projects in Germany
213 Margaret Louderback Waiting for the rain

a phenomenological perspective on site analysis
225 Ammar Khammash The stone man of the third millennium

architecture from material to non-material
232 Ingo Helmedag & Juliane Jäger Impressions of Syria and Jordan
PREFACE
From its earliest beginnings as a naturally In contrast to the standardized and mono-
found building material to current construc- tonous placelessness of Amman, stone na-
tion, stone is a material frequently used in turally occurs in an immense variety of col-
the arid and mountainous regions spanning ors and shapes with numerous technical
the nation states of Jordan and Syria. building properties from Aleppo to Petra.
While the extensive use of stone for early In this wide region one can find stone‘s dif-
human sheltering was substantiated by sim- ferent material properties meaningfully ap-
ple necessity, influenced by prevailing envi- plied in traditional buildings. As concerned
ronmental conditions and a lack of choices, architects, we find that both natural and
present-day applications unfortunately have traditional aspects are sources of inspiration
been widely reduced to surface refinements. when contextually applied in the building of
Stone used in cladding and pavement, most new environments.
often in repetitive and monotonous ways,
prevails in contemporary building contexts Following this enthusiasm to demonstrate
through out Syria and Jordan. Acknowledg- the technical and aesthetic possibilities of
ing the inherently rich qualities of stone, its stone as a material with abundant untapped
architectural potential is currently not being potential, the idea of a comprehensive con-
realized in either an aesthetic or a technical templation on the material’s use was conceiv-
sense. For example, as a result of restric- ed. Developing this idea, it became important
tive building codes, Amman‘s contemporary to address the topic from different perspec-
architecture is perceived as made of solid tives, which it is hoped will encourage contin-
white stone. In reality surface cladding ued critical investigation. We maintain that
exists generating similarity of urban eleva- the use of local building materials, like stone,
tions and proliferating uniformity. The aris an important part in forwarding sustain-
chitecture of the city is less personalized, able and meaningful architecture. Includ-
showing only a few nondescript faces and ed in this realization is the utmost impor-
landmarks. As a consequence people find it tance of energy discussions in these environ-
hard to orientate themselves in this urban mentally and financially conscious times. In
sameness. Quality sense of place is lacking. examining the energy question contributions
8
have been included, which are currently ap- and other interested persons, intentionally
proved and widely used, as well as upcoming initiating critical thinking on contemporary
methods to forward efficiency and sustaina- architecture and prevailing local building
bility in the building of quality environments. practices. “Learn from yesterday, live for to-
There is an awareness of the wide-ranging day, hope for tomorrow. The important thing
scope opened by these different topics, and is not to stop questioning.” Albert Einstein.
the intentional sentiment to connect local To be prompted are thoughts concerning ur-
stone architecture with modern, environmen- gent energy questions and a visible progres-
tally friendly design and energy efficient sive destruction of authentic regional land-
techniques. It is believed that stone as a scapes. As a collection of observations and
native building material should be used nei- insights on the topic of stone architecture
ther in an unreflected historicizing way nor in Jordan and Syria, this publication reflects
as a more or less fashionable dressing for on energy efficient methodology for build-
built environment design solutions. Instead ings without claiming to be exhaustive or
we propose a meaningful interaction with purely scientific, but with a relatedness to
resources and possibilities of place that for- the region, its people and culture...
wards a new environmentally aware archi-
tecture which addresses energy issues. Juliane Jäger & Ingo Helmedag
“Tradition is to pass on the fire, and not to
worship the ashes.” Gustav Mahler.
Architectural quality is a process that starts

by analyzing the specific characteristics of a
certain location as a base for design inter-
linked with the technical possibilities of our
time. Through the production of this book it
is hoped to communicate this architectural
attitude. The book at hand stands as a the-
matically wide spread reading for students
9
INTRODUCTION OF THE AUTHORS
Juliane Jäger began teaching Architecture Dr. Thomas Maria Weber is an archaelo-
in 2005 at Brandenburg University of Tech- gist with extensive research and field expe-
nology in Cottbus, Germany. In 2007 she rience in the Middle East and North Africa.
became a lecturer for the German Academic As a professor at the University of Mainz, he
Exchange Service (DAAD) at Wadi Interna- became the director of the German Protes-
tional University and Damascus University tant Institute of Archaeology in Amman in
in Syria. In the first article she describes 1985. Currently, he is teaching at the Uni-
traditional stone architecture in the rural versity of Jordan in Amman as a professor
areas of Syria and Jordan. Currently, she for DAAD. His research focuses on the Clas-
is working on a PhD extending these ideas sical periods. In his article, Rock and order,
into contemporary applications at the Tech- he concentrates on stone building tech-
nical University in Braunschweig, Germany. niques from prehistoric to Roman times.
Working under the umbrella of DAAD since Dr. Nizar Abu-Jaber is a geologist with
2008, Ingo Helmedag is a professor at the much international experience, a professor
German Jordanian University in Amman. and currently the Dean of Scientific Research
Focusing on building technique and design, at the German Jordanian University. His
he began teaching at the Technical Universi- article focuses on the geological outline of
ty in Dresden in 1993 where he also organ- Syria and Jordan, concentrating mainly on
ized academic contacts and exchange pro- stone occurrences and material properties in
grams world-wide. Prior to running his own terms of architectural usage.
office as a licensed architect in Dresden, he
worked at well-known offices in Graz, Austria. Abdulhamid Suleiman is an architecture
Continued travel affords opportunities to student at Damascus University. During uni-
follow his cultural interests and their respec- versity studies he lived at Deir Mar Mousa,
tive architectural approaches. The aricle Syria as part of the monastic community. His
on construction routines highlights obser- article describes on-going construction at
vations on contemporary architecture in the monastery.
Amman, and points out resulting problems
from urban scale to building techniques.
10
Berthold Burkhardt held the chair of Statics Motivated by a love for landscape architec-
and Structural Design at the Technical Uni- ture in arid regions, Margaret Louderback,
versity in Braunschweig. His academic ca- a residential landscape designer from Ari-
reer started at the Technical University in zona, USA, has traveled extensively in the
Stuttgart as a collaborator of Frei Otto, who Middle East and North Africa. She taught at
inspired his special interest in tensile struc- the German Jordanian University for two
tures and tents. In the course of continu- years, before beginning current work on a
ous historical research he has assimilated a PhD concerning phenomenology and land-
unique collection of tents. As a member of scape architecture theory at the University
DOCOMOMO and ICOMOS he concentrates of Malta. Her article, Waiting for the rain, ad-
on the protection and status of existing mod- dressses this interest. She continues to be
ern architecture. His professional practice engaged in regional landscape architecture
focuses on rehabilitation projects. The sight projects.
behind the façade discusses material proper-
ties and techniques of stone façades. Ammar Khammash as a prize winning
Jordanian architect and artist, is well known
Olaf Reiter is a highly experienced Passive for eco-tourism concepts and hotel designs
House architect in Dresden, Germany. Travel- through out Jordan. He has taught at sever-
ing for the first time to Jordan in 2010 as an al universities, including Columbia Univer-
invited critic for a Jordanian-Syrian work- sity in New York, and his artwork has been
shop on Architecture, he initiated fruitful exhibited in selected galleries. In an early
discussions on the adapted use of Passive publication, Notes on Village Architecture
House architecture in the region. In addition in Jordan, he documented vernacular stone
to his professional practice in Dresden, he architecture in his beloved home country.
teaches sustainable architecture and design The Stone Man of the Third Millennium
at Krems University, Austria and at the Tech- philosophizes on the interaction of natural
nical University in Dresden, Germany, and and built environments.
lectures at other universities world-wide.
His contribution reviews three Passive House
projects from his personal practice. January 2012
11
12
Juliane Jäger
DESCRIBING TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE IN RURAL AREAS

EXAMPLES FROM SYRIA AND JORDAN
Similar environments and naturally available

building materials, such as stone, earth and
limited amounts of timber, as well as the so-
cial and economic needs of sedentary farm-
ers, have shaped the appearance of tradi-
tional houses in the mountainous regions of
Syria and Jordan.
Influences from previously static dwellings,
like natural or modified caves, and temporari-
ly used or nomadic accommodations, like
earth houses, twig huts and tents, are ob-
vious. From these beginnings until the early
20th century, the typical farmstead was built
maintaining the standard typology of a com-
pact, single story volume made of heavy stone-
walls with a flat earth-covered roof (JJ02).
The simplest housing styles connected living
and working spaces, stables and storage in
one big hall. Commonly, walled courtyards and
roof-scapes were used as integrated functional
parts extending outdoor units for daily rou-
tines. In response to topography, the practice
of terracing was not just used for agricultural
cultivation. Building sites were divided into
flat plateaus of differing heights for courtyard, JJ01
garden and house as these structures were JJ01 Remains of a typical farmstead embedded in the
embedded in mountainous slopes (JJ01). mountainous slope.
13
JJ
1 2 3 4 4 5 5 6 6
02
JJ02
Nevertheless, during the late 18th, 19th and JJ02 Illustrated classification of primary dwelling types.
early 20th centuries transformation and evo- 1 tent, a nomadic accommodation, baīt š’ar
lution processes, accompanied by complex 2 twig hut, shībāt, respectively summer hut
changes in social, economic and technical de- 3 earth house, debābe
4 triple concha cave as used in Roman tombs and
velopments stimulated adaptations. Follow- subsequently used for temporary accommodation
ing the above mentioned basic organization 5 naturally found and extended cave
scheme five types of dwellings appeared; 6 basic house form of sedentary farmers
the Basic or Closed Rectangular House,
the Liwān House, the Courtyard House, the JJ03 A classification of traditional residential buildings
Riwāq or Gallery House, and the Central Hall of sedentary farmers.
or so called Lebanese House (JJ03).
1 Basic or Closed Rectangular House
2 Liwān House, liwān, central hall element, opened
Although all of the housing types coexisted to the exterior through an arched passage
isochronally, a steady enhancement of spatial 3 Courtyard House
and functional differentiation and an increas- 4 Riwāq or Gallery House, riwāq, roof covered
ing approach of visual representation can be space opened to the outside through a colonnade
or arcade
observed. Building typology often mirrors so- 5 Central Hall or so called Lebanese House
cial status and the changing living conditions
of its inhabitants. In addition to typological
distinctions, research on major construction In literature, the classification of houses and their
titles are used in a non-uniform manner. The chosen
elements and utilities has shed light on chang- structure is based on Ragette, F. (1974) one of the
ing building standards and technical progress. first to describe traditional stone houses in the Leba-
Exemplarily are simple cobblestone farm- nese mountains. Adaptations were made accordingly
houses with timber ceilings and supports, and by Liger-Belair, J. (2000) and Davie, M. (2007), both
referring to Lebanon, Pütt, K. (2003) reffering to nor-
the homes of wealthy families, which consist thern Syria and the study of CORPUS-Levant (2004)
of arches and vaults in accurately shaped referring generally to Syria and Lebanon. Khammash,
ashlars with extensive ornamentation. A. (1987) reported on a number of Jordanian villages.
14
JJ
1 2 3 4 5
JJ03
At present, in the rural areas of Syria and Outline of architectural features
Jordan traditional residential architecture has
not been widely noticed and explored. Due to
its programmatically inscribed continuity of TYPOLOGIES
change, its respectively young age and the
lack of monumental presence, a shortage of Basic or Closed Rectangular House
public and private interest and an increasing Liwān House
rate of deterioration persists. Courtyard House
In addition accelerated modern concrete Riwāq or Gallery House
building has displaced former stone house Central Hall or Lebanese House
architecture. Traditional craftsmanship has
almost disappeared. The majority of traditio- MAJOR CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS
nal houses are contemporarily out of use, in-
appropriately repaired or otherwise extend- Walls & Masonry
ed by means of concrete. Professional adap- Floors
tations are rare and costly. Requests are not Structures
often responded to by offers within the local Roofs
building industry, nor is continued education Openings
of experts and craftsmen available. Stairs
As newly built houses adopt single tradition- Corbel Stones
al elements or concepts, proving the timeli-
ness and sustainable content, and as locally UTILITIES
first heritage saving interests appear, the
following article provides research and do- Heating
cumentation of vernacular architecture as Ventilation
a first approach in passing on identity and Water & Sewage System
tradition to future generations.
15
JJ
Niches in the inner wall layer served as furn-
iture and storage.
Regularly several levels differentiated the
JJ04 interior space. The entrance and stable were
placed at the lowest level. The area for cook-
ing and daily works, the place for guests,
sleeping and the storage of goods were or-
Basic or Closed Rectangular House ganized a few steps above. In addition to
the sense of privacy, the practical aspect of
The simplest and most common type of keeping the house clean was implemented
traditional building is the Basic or Closed in this leveled layout. All succeeding types
Rectangular House. Typically, it hosts a of traditional houses preserved the lower
peasant family and their livestock under entrance zone.
one roof. This house type groups all living
and working functions into one space. More sophisticated designs separated func-
The name results from the prevailing tional units via interior walls, or increased
rectangular house plans and the relatively the number and size of windows and doors
closed façade. This façade is broken only (JJ05). Structural items co-determined the
by the door, small windows and ventilation interior organization. From a single space
openings to extract smoke from the open with various wooden columns, the house
interior fireplace (JJ04). floor plan developed in a repetition of iden-
tical units based on the grid of transverse
The close contact between man and animal, arches or vaults. Openings were often de-
as well as the continuing building envelope, corated with masonry work of framing stone
satisfied the need for security, suitable panels or highlighted by different types of
shelter in all weathers and allowed for the stone.
beneficial use of animal warmth in winter.
Massive exterior double-layered walls were
built as dry masonry from cobblestones
collected from the surroundings, or as
quarry stone masonry supplied from nearby
stone pits. Stone façades were kept visible
as a decorative element, while the inside
walls were plastered and whitewashed. JJ05
16
JJ typologies
Generally, outdoor spaces functioned as
washing, toilet, food preparation and cook-
ing areas. Adjoining buildings, like a baking
house, cisterns, cattle stands, and the walled
courtyard completed the traditional farm-
stead. External staircases emphasized the
close relation of interior and exterior spaces.
Flat earth covered house roofs, accessed
by these stairs, were used in summer as
sleeping places and platforms to dry fruits
and vegetables.
0 5M JJ07
N
4
JJ06 Plan of a simple Closed Rectangular House
showing masonry from basalt cobblestones and
an interior timber and beam structure,
Al Kaimeh, Syria.
3 1 entrance, madūra
2 stable,‘istabl
2 3 raised platform
1 with fireplace and spaces for living and working
4 sleeping and storage area
5 walled courtyard
6 6 cattle stand
7 external bakery house, tannūr
8 later added workshop building
8
JJ07 Main elevation of the Closed Rectangular House
5 in JJ06.
JJ06
17
JJ
The flanking rooms, with few or small win-
dows, commonly contain living, working,
sleeping and storage functions.
JJ08
As a result of later additions, or because of an
adopted organization scheme, asymmetri-
cally partitioned Liwān Houses appeared.
Liwān House They may have taken on a linear, L- or U-shape
or even the perimeter frame of a courtyard.
Liwān Houses are found to a much lesser ex-
tent than the other traditional building types. Similar to Closed Rectangular Houses num-
But their characteristic element, the central erous functions like the cooking area, bath
hall opened to the exterior through an arched and toilet, were originally organized outside
passage or liwān, generates very impressive the house or as an extension annexed to the
elevations and interesting dual functions. flanking rooms. Increasingly, man and ani-
Liwān or iwān of Persian origin, means open mal became spatially separate.
hall.
In its initial arrangement, the Liwān House is In the Syrian and Jordanian mountain vil-
a free standing building accessible from the lages Liwān Houses are typically oriented
central open space. From this middle posi- south. In winter, low sunrays can enter the
tion, flanking rooms right and left of the liwān wind protected open hall. Steep sunrays
can be reached (JJ08). Entryways or doors just reach the frontal part of the liwān in
face each other in symmetrical balance, and summer. Due to the arched lintel and the
are commonly located on the first third of comparably large depth of the hall a greater
the liwān plan. This outdoor strip generates part of the liwān stays shaded. This orient-
a circulation zone that works similarly to the ation speciality appears in contradiction to
entrance of Closed Rectangular Houses. most of the urban Liwān Houses. For ex-
In addition to its utilisation for access and ample in Damascus, the northern orientation
circulation, the liwān also serves as a roof- of the liwān opening is predominant avoid-
covered terrace, an outdoor living room for ing the access of sunrays all together. The
the family and a representative area for re- application of the Liwān House style makes
ception. Accordingly, the rear two thirds of its sense in warm climates, protecting its in-
space are often raised in height, and furnish- habitants from sun in summer and wind and
ed with revolving seating accommodations. rain in winter.
18
JJ typologies
It also implies a certain luxury; the loss of N
a good portion of space for utilization as an

3.2
interior room. Accordingly and responding to
11
the need of additional living space, various
liwāns were reduced to entrance and cir-
culation functions, and were partly or fully 3.1
closed.
3.2
5
5
44 4
1
0 5M
JJ09
JJ09 Liwān House illustrating an asymmetrical L-

shaped plan, Al Kaimeh, Syria.
1 entrances
2 courtyard
3 liwān unit
3.1 liwān. Notice the uncommon east-facing
opening orientation.
3.2 living and sleeping rooms. Other annexed
rooms were used as living or storage space.
4 stable from an earlier building period
5 property from an earlier building period
JJ10 A courtyard elevation facing the liwān opening

JJ10 of the Liwān House in JJ09.
19
JJ
differentiated to meet varying functional
and spatial needs.
JJ11 In any case, courtyards serve as circulation

zones. All building parts and major openings
are oriented towards this central element of
the house, which is also used as outdoor
Courtyard House living and working space.
Courtyard Houses, less widespread in moun- Commonly shade trees, tiny gardens, wells
tain villages, are typically found in the Jor- or water basins are integrated to the court-
danian and Syrian plateaus. For instance, yard space. The representative façades and
on the Hauran plains the Courtyard House the charm of the house can only be expe-
stands as the primary traditional building rienced from the inside. From the exterior
type, while in other areas it constitutes an Courtyard Houses appear very simple.
exception.
Most commonly, Courtyard Houses were not JJ12

planned from the beginning to a final shape.
Several steps of accumulative additions turn-
ed a formerly walled courtyard into a belt of
buildings. Due to this metamorphosing pro-
cess, Courtyard Houses often combine sever-
al building types in one.
Generally, their contour follows irregular out-
lines of property boundaries, in an attempt
to encircle and maximize the farmstead. In
contradiction, the inner courtyard is com-
monly found in a regular geometric form.
In the urban context or in terms of exten-

sively connected buildings, this traditional
building type may contain not just a sing-
le courtyard, but several. Each courtyard is
20
JJ typologies
JJ13
JJ12 The courtyard acts as a central circulation zone.
JJ13 Planted with shade trees, grapevines and flowers,

the courtyard is protected from sun in summer
and from harsh winter winds. Through out the N
year it stands as a vibrant core and social meet-

ing point.
1 3.1 0 5M
JJ14 A Courtyard House consisting of four buildings

from different building periods frames the current
courtyard, Shakra, Syria.
1 entrance zone
2 courtyard, partly paved and partly used as a 3.4 2 3.2
garden
3 framing buildings
3.1 Riwāq House with colonnade, actually used
as an atelier and storage
3.2 a collection of rooms, including an interior
colonnade, that are currently out of use. 3.3
3.3 two-story collection of rooms, partly used
as storage and a workshop with an annexed
addition, formerly used as a stable
3.4 modern concrete building extensions in- JJ14
cluding kitchen, bath and toilet. (These are
typically missing in the traditional parts of
an original Courtyard House.)
21
JJ
adjoining rooms, ventilation holes or niches,
for lamps and the like, decorate inner riwāq
walls.
JJ15
In its formal expression the Riwāq or Gallery
House marks the widest contrast in relation
to the Closed Rectangular House. The Gallery
Riwāq or Gallery House House physically represents a process of
social change spanning from a major need
The traditional building type of Riwāq or of security, to the wish for visual represent-
Gallery House is frequently used in Syria and ation and extraversion.
Jordan. It is either found as a single story Similar to the liwān element, the riwāq de-
building or as an upper floor addition on top fines an intermediary zone between inside
of the Closed Rectangular or Liwān Houses. and outside. It is used as a multifunctional
In this latter case, the upper level is reached entrance and as a terrace protected from
by a cantilevered external stairway. the weather creating a temporarily used
The riwāq, a roof covered space, open to recreation and family space. All attached
the outside through a series of supports, rooms that contain either living, sleeping
is the major circulation and decorative ele- or working functions are split into cells. The
ment. Usually shaped longer in length than bathroom, toilet and even the kitchen still
in depth, it forms an open corridor or gallery, remain organized outside in annexed rooms
contains the entrance and services a row of or separated buildings.
rooms (JJ15). The riwāq is not to be under- The increasing internal subdivision of rooms
stood as a porch roof or peristyle attached expresses a desire for greater privacy, but im-
to the building volume. Instead, it is an in- plies the disadvantage of losing a clearly de-
tegrated part of the original design as its fined central living area for the whole family.
massive flanking walls suggest. In terms of subsequent building modifications,
the former open gallery was often closed
The major riwāq façade, either configured by completely changing the circulation concept.
a colonnade or an arcade of mason worked
stones, represents the most structured, airy Riwāq Houses foster an increase in verti-
and sophisticated façade design of all tradi- cal building extensions with their compara-
tional building types. Mason worked framing tively low weight. Paralleled with flat earth-
stones around the doors and windows of the covered roofs, the flat concrete roof and
22
JJ typologies
the hipped red-tiled roof began to appear.
Representative of new building fashions,
they illustrate an idea exchange between
neighbouring countries. These changes can
mainly be seen in the coastal areas.
JJ16 Upper floor of Riwāq House, Al Kaimeh, Syria.

1 Closed Rectangular House on the ground floor,
arranged as two cross vaulted units
2 cantilevered exterior staircase
3 riwāq, Riwāq House in the upper flooor
4 adjoining rooms used as living and sleeping
space
JJ17 Main house elevation mentioned in JJ16.
JJ18 Upper floor of Riwāq House with an unusually

stretched linear gallery and numerous adjoin- JJ18
ing rooms in Ezra‘a, Syria.
4 4
0 5M
3
2
1 1
JJ16 JJ17
23
JJ
ings on its main elevation, a widely sym-
metrical plan and façade organization and
the common red-tile pitched or flat concrete
JJ19 roof.
Central Hall Houses are found in the rural
areas as single or two-story. The first story
is regularly accessible from the front, while
Central Hall House the upper story acts mainly as a vertical
extension of former buildings accessible
The Central Hall House appears in Syria and from the rear.
Jordan to a moderate extent, and at a later
date than the types so far described. It is The central hall can be seen as a succes-
the most prevalent traditional building type sor of the liwān and riwāq element. It either
in the coastal mountains of Lebanon and, spans the full depth of the house or is sub-
as it attained the highest degree of identity divided into sections. The central hall serves
there, often entitled the Lebanese House. as an entrance, and a family and reception
room. From this core space, facing doors
As the most popular building type in the civil lead to sleeping rooms and, in highly devel-
society of merchants and traders during the oped models, to the kitchen and bath.
late Ottoman period, examples of Central Modern living standards are fully reached
Hall Houses are often found in urban centers. in this building type. These include the full
For example, the city of Salt in Jordan has separation of work and living units, the in-
numerous buildings of this housing type, clusion of kitchen and sanitary units and the
which define the traditional character of the responding increased need of privacy on the
town. one hand, and extraversion on the other.
In rural areas, mainly during the late 19th
and early 20th century, wealthy peasant In addition to these sophisticated typolo-
families copied the fashionably new style gical aspects, the quality of masonry work
designing their villas or country houses and decoration is remarkable. The arcade
according to the urban prototype. of each central hall stands as the most im-
pressively decorated object. Balconies, ve-
Major elements included in this building randas or porch roofs in front of the central
type are the characteristic central hall with hall are often used to underline the axial
an arcade from an uneven number of open- symmetry.
24
JJ typologies
JJ20 JJ21
0 5M
3
JJ20 Central Hall House II interior central hall showing

triple horseshoe-shaped arcade,
Mishtayeh, Syria.
5 6
JJ21 Elevation of Central Hall House I with pitched roof 4
as mentioned in JJ22. 5 5
upper floor
JJ22 Central Hall House I with pitched roof,
Mishtayeh, Syria.
1 entrance with walled south-facing courtyard
2 Liwān House on the lower level. The liwān is
partly closed. 7
3 entrance with walled north-facing courtyard
4 Central Hall House on the upper level show-
ing the hall with triple arcade, balcony in 2
front and a pitched roof. ground floor
5 similar units for living and sleeping functions
6 kitchen, toilet, storage arranged in one cell
7 modern building extension 1
JJ22
25
JJ
Walls & Masonry
inside outside inside outside inside outside
2 2
3 3
4
5
JJ23-A 1.1 JJ23-B JJ23-C
1.2
JJ23 Wall constructions

dry masonry (JJ23-A,B), ashlar masonry (JJ23-C).
1.1 in-situ solid rock foundation

1.2 rough foundation masonry (byiftahu al-‘asas)
2 double-walled dry masonry made of natural
stone, mainly field stones of basalt or lime-
stone filled with rubble, earth and scatter-
ed interlocking stones
3 interior plastering of loamy earth (tīn),
chaff (qasrīne), chalk whitewash (ğis) JJ24 Stone masonry techniques.
4 double-walled ashlar masonry made of natu-
ral stone (dressed stones of basalt or lime- 1 irregular quarry-stone masonry
stone), mortar filled with rubble and scat- 2 herring bone masonry
tered with interlocking stones 3 layered quarry-stone masonry
5 interior plastering: loam rendering, chalk 4 masonry technique as punched window façade
whitewash (ğis) and optional paint coating 5 ashlar masonry
JJ24
1 2 3 4 5
26
JJ major construction elements
JJ25 JJ26
JJ25 Double-walled quarry

stone masonry
of limestone,
Dana, Jordan.
JJ26 Double-walled dry

masonry of basalt
field stones,
Al Kalatiah, Syria.
JJ27 Detail of interior

plastering; a mixture
of loamy earth, hay
and chalk whitewash,
Dana, Jordan.
JJ28-30 Masonry façades

Kalatiah, Syria (JJ28),
Salt, Jordan (JJ29) and
JJ27 Marmarita, Syria (JJ30). JJ28 JJ29 JJ30
27
JJ
Wall Niches
JJ31 JJ32
Niches of different sizes were designed in JJ31 Smaller types of niches served as depositories
for domestic appliances, as places to store
double-walled masonry as a type of furniture food and other goods, as book shelves (kutbieh)
inside traditional houses. or closets (kerestani).
Using half the thickness of the wall, they
appeared in various versions; as untreated JJ32 The largest niche inside the house was used to
store mattresses and bedding implements
openings or with wooden frames, with or (yūk). Regularly the opening was bridged with a
without wooden shutters and shelves or semi-circular or segmental arch.
screened with decorated textiles.
Either stone blocks or beams of wood were In addition to internal niches, small exter-
used as plane lintels, or the opening was cov- nal ones used for decorative purposes or as
ered by segmental or semi-circular arches. candle stands appeared occasionally.
28
JJ33-35 Different versions of small internal niches in
double-walled masonry,
Wadi Al Nadarah, Syria.
JJ36 Example of a simple yūk, a large internal

niche with a segmental arch,
Habnimra, Syria.
JJ33 JJ34
JJ35 JJ36
29
JJ
Floors
JJ37 Floor construction I.

3
1 foundation on earth or in-situ solid rock
2 packed earth layer 2
3 packed earth floor (trāb)
or floor covering from screed 1
JJ37
JJ38 Floor construction II.
1 foundation on earth or in-situ solid rock

2 packed earth layer
3 screed layer or mortar bed
4 floor covering in different versions
packed gravel (ghorzeh) 4
untreated natural stone plates (daff) 3
dressed stone plates with rough rear sides
plane surfaces (haschr maqsub) 2
or varying kinds of tile 1
JJ38
30
JJ39
JJ39 Example floor construction I, surface of packed earth, Mistayeh, Syria.

JJ40 Example floor construction II, floor tiling, Al Kaimeh, Syria.
JJ41 Example floor construction II, surface of dressed stone plates, ‘Amar Al Hosn, Syria.
JJ40 JJ41
31
JJ
Structures I 7 6 5 4 3
2
JJ42
JJ42 Subdivided spatial plan

via different pillars types. 1
JJ43 Rafted ceiling on pillars of wood.

JJ43
1 pillar using timber post and saddle piece
(mnārah)
2 pillar using branched log (samūk)
of mulberry trees
3 timber beam (arka)
4 timber cross beam (bid)
5 reeds or branches (qas‘a)
6 thorny shrubs (rukāza, balān) in moist earth
7 20-25 cm thick earth layer (trāb) and chaff,
with lime chaff screed used as a finishing JJ44
JJ44 Pillar variations.
1 branching log approximately 10-20 cm in dia-

meter
2 timber plank approximately 7 by 15 cm
3 timber post and saddle piece approximately
15 by 15 cm 1 2 3 4
4 dressed stone post and saddle piece approxi-
mately 20 by 20 cm
32
JJ45
JJ45 Rafted ceiling on wooden pillars, ‘Anaz, Syria.

JJ46 Timber plank pillar lifted from soil floor with a foot stone, ‘Anaz, Syria.
JJ47 Detail post and saddle piece of dressed stone, ‘Azer, Syria.
JJ48 Structural remains of a formerly earth-covered rafted ceiling on wooden pillars, Muqabara, Syria.
JJ46 JJ47 JJ48
33
JJ
Structures II 6 5 4 3 2
JJ49
JJ49 Spatial plan subdivided

according to parallel rows of a transverse arch JJ50
or an inner arcade.
JJ50 Rafted ceiling on transverse arches.
1 transverse arch (qantara)

4 reeds or branches (qas‘a)
6 20-25 cm thick earth layer (trāb) and chaff, JJ51
with lime chaff screed used as a finishing
JJ51 Transverse arch variations.
1 transverse arch, single or parallel in row,

mainly used as segmental or slightly pointed
arch 1 2
2 transverse arch in line as an inner arcade
34
JJ52
JJ52 Rafted ceiling on transverse arch, Kafra-Wadi Al Nadarah, Syria. The dressed stones of the arch are plastered.
JJ53 Interior arcade of basalt stones, ‘Azer, Syria. The formerly rafted ceiling was later replaced by a concrete slab.
JJ54 Limestone transverse arch in an abandoned house, Wadi Al Nadarah, Syria.
JJ53 JJ54
35
JJ
Structures III
2
JJ55
JJ56
JJ55 Subdivision of space utilizing

barrel vaults (top)
or cross vaults (bottom).
JJ56 Cross vault construction.
1 pillars (da‘meh), made from quarry-stone

masonry, filled with rubble and earth
2 side wall / buckler
3 sub-structure illustrating the intrados curve,
JJ57
covered with layers of earth (trāb) and chaff,
with a lime chaff screed used as a finishing
JJ57 Commonly used vault constructions.
1 barrel vault, less common

2 cross vault, most commonly used 1 2 3
3 cupola, rarely found
36
JJ58
JJ58 Limestone cross vault construction, Tannurīn, Syria.

The masonry of formerly plastered ceiling and walls was left visible after refurbishment.
JJ59 Plastered cross vault construction in a currently abandoned house, Kafra, Syria.
JJ60 Remains of cross vault construction offering a view inside the pillar, Al Kaimeh, Syria.
JJ59 JJ60
37
JJ
Structures IV 6 5 3 4
2
JJ61
1
JJ61 Subdivision of space using

supports such as walls, transverse arch or pillars.
JJ62
JJ62 Linear corbel stone ceiling.
1 transverse arch (qantara/qaus) or other

supporting structures (hamel = load-bearing),
such as walls or pillars
2 corbel stone (mizan = balance)
3 stone block (mahmul/rabad = beam)
4 super-imposed load of framing stones
6 20-25 cm thick earth layer (trāb) and chaff JJ63
with lime chaff screed finishing
JJ63 Commonly used support variations.
1 pillars or columns
2 transverse arches; single standing, as inner
1 2 3
arcade or paralleled in rows
3 walls
38
JJ64
JJ64 Linear corbel stone ceiling of basalt stones on transverse arch and wall supports, Ezraa, Syria.
JJ65 Similar construction on transverse arch and columns, Shakra, Syria.
JJ66 Similar construction with rendered and whitewashed surface, Khabah, Syria.
JJ65 JJ66
39
JJ
ROOFS Commonly used roof constructions, vertical sections.
JJ67 Rafted timber ceiling.
1 double-leafed exterior wall

6 6 4 reeds or branches (qas‘a) and thorny shrubs
3 5 5 3
2 4 4 2 (rukāza, balān) laid in moist earth
1 5 20-25cm thick earth layer (trāb) and chaff
JJ67 6 lime chaff screed finishing
JJ68 Linear corbel stone ceiling.
1 double-leafed exterior wall

2 corbel stone (mizan = balance)
6 6 3 stone block (mahmul/rabad = beam)
5 5 3
4 4 2 4 reeds or branches (qas‘a) and thorny shrubs
3 1 (rukāza, balān) laid in moist earth
JJ68 5 20-25cm thick earth layer (trāb) and chaff
6 lime chaff screed finishing
JJ69 Cross vault construction.
1 pillars (da‘me) made from quarry stone

masonry, filled with rubble and earth
4 4
2 reeds or branches (qas‘a) and thorny shrubs
3 3
(rukāza, balān) laid in moist earth
JJ69 2 2 1
1 3 20-25cm thick earth layer (trāb) and chaff
4 lime chaff screed finishing
8 JJ70 Hipped roof.

7
6 1 double-leafed exterior wall
5
9 2 top girt
3 wooden lagging decorated on its primary view
5 4 ceiling beam
5 rafter
6 sprocket
7 red roof tiles on battens
4 4 8 roof ledge and rain gutter, originally both as
3 3 2 timber constructions, often slightly decorated
JJ70 1 9 pole beam
40
JJ71 JJ72
JJ71 Characteristic roofscape of red-tiled hipped roofs,

Al Kaimeh-Wadi Al Nadarah, Syria.
JJ72 Characteristic roofscape of earth-covered flat

roofs, Al Msekeh-Hauran, Syria.
Ceilings viewed from below in traditional houses.
JJ73 Linear corbel stone ceiling, Hauran, Syria.

JJ74 Rafted timber ceiling, Wadi Al Nadarah, Syria.
JJ75 Wooden lagging, Wadi Al Nadarah, Syria.
JJ73 JJ74 JJ75
41
JJ
OPENINGS
interior inside outside exterior

view view
3
2
1
8 6
inside 6
JJ76 Details of door opening, interior and exterior
views and sections.
1 flat lintel (‘atbeh) in the external leaf of

double-walled masonry
2 semi-circular lintel in internal leaf of the wall 7 4
3 air outlet (tāqah) outside JJ76
4 wooden door leaf and door hinge
5 timber clamps or metal ring used as upper
guide track of a door The door opening, with a flat lintel outside
6 perforated stone as lower guide track and a semi-circular arch inside, is common-
7 stone threshold (bertāsh) ly used in traditional houses.
8 paved inner service space (madura)
Occasionally found are flat lintels, inside and
JJ77 Common door opening showing a flat lintel out- outside (either of stone, timber or with em-
side and semi-circular inside arch, Anaz, Syria. bedded timber beams between the stones),
JJ78 Door leaf and door hinge of wood. or an arch in both leafs of the wall.
JJ79 Detail lower guide track of the door facing the
paved inner service space (madura).
Furthermore, a rich variety of lintel types ap-
JJ80 Detail lower guide track of the door made of per- peared. These combined original forms and
forated stone. followed constructive and aesthetic aspects.
42
JJ77 JJ78
JJ79 JJ80
43
JJ
OPENINGS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
JJ81 Lintel types. JJ81

1 flat lintel
2 semi-circular lintel
3 combination of flat and semi-circular lintel
The latter seen as an arch in relief with inte- JJ82-86 Varying examples of lintel types from Syria
grated air outlet. and Jordan.
4 combination of flat and semi-circular lintel
with masonry filling JJ87 Impressive door made completely from
5 flat lintel with plane stone pyramid in relief single stone slabs including the door leaf,
6 combination of flat lintel and segmented hinge, upper and lower guide track and the
solid block arch flat lintel, Al Msekeh-Hauran, Syria.
7 overlapping flat lintels with incised air outlet
8 combination of flat lintel and shouldered JJ88-93 Lintel pairs; inner and outer leaf in walls
arch composed of three pieces of door openings, Wadi Al Nadarah, Syria.
JJ82 JJ83
JJ84 JJ85 JJ86 JJ87
44
JJ88 JJ89
JJ90 JJ91
JJ92 JJ93
45
JJ
OPENINGS
exterior
view
1 3
2
5
outside inside interior

view
outside 2 1
JJ94 Detail of window opening,
combination of windows and niche,
interior and exterior views and sections.
inside 5 6 3
1 combination of flat lintel and segmental arch
The arch is composed of three pieces including JJ94
window framing stones slightly emerging from
the external leaf of double-walled masonry.
2 steel bars
3 internal leaf of double-walled masonry with
slightly emerging stone frieze combining two
windows with segmental lintels and a niche
within a horseshoe shaped arch
4 air outlet with decorated wall rosette inside,
and in a simple rectangular shape outside
5 double-winged wooden windows
6 interior decorative niche
46
JJ95 JJ96
JJ95 Window openings and internal niche, Al Kaimeh, Syria (see JJ94).
JJ96 Remains of an opening consisting of windows and door as often used in Central Hall Houses. The openings
are spanned with horseshoe shaped arches, Tell Kalakh, Syria.
JJ97 Commonly used arch types.
1 pointed, lancet or Gothic arch (ra‘siya literally meaning pointed or murabab meaning pointed nose)
2 pointed version of a horseshoe arch (mughrabi, from the Maghreb, i.e. North Africa and Spain)
3 semi-circular arch (rūmani/rūmi, Roman arch)
4 segmental arch (hilāliya, literally translated as a crescent with different relations from arch to chord, e.g.
nusf rūmi = 1/4 arch rise or half a Roman arch; mahmūs = 1/5 arch rise)
5 ogee arch literally translated as shouldered segmental arch (madaniya, referring to Medina)
6 trefoil arch
JJ97
1 2 3 4 5 6
47
JJ
STAIRS
1 2 3
JJ98 Commonly used staircase types. JJ98
1 staircase resting on massive masonry block

2 staircase resting on a vaulted construction
3 cantilevered staircase built with stone blocks
integrated into double-walled masonry
either as steps or as corbel stones
suppor ting a stair platform or a balcony of
stone plates
Traditionally, staircases were built externally

and commonly added to the main elevation.
They either were built as a single run or with
a 1/4 winding. In addition to providing roof
access, staircases, mainly cantilevered, were
also useful for weather protection spanning
windows and doors.
JJ99 JJ100
48
JJ101 A sophisticated version of the
Closed Rectangular House in Marmarita, Syria.
The first missing steps of the cantilevered
staircase represent a simple safety measure
protecting the summer rooftop sleeping space
from unwelcome guests.
A portable wooden ladder, sellom, helps to climb
the first heights and is taken along to the roof.
JJ101
JJ99 Simple staircase constructed of basalt field
stones resting on a vaulted construction,
Al Kaimeh, Syria.
JJ100 Cantilevered stone block staircase,

Maramarita, Syria.
JJ102 Staircase resting on a vaulted construction,

former silk mill in Mashta Helou, Syria.
JJ102
49
JJ
CORBEL STONES
3 4 3 4 5
2
2
2
JJ103
JJ103 Corbel stones supporting stair platforms or

balconies.
2
1 double-walled, vaulted construction
2 corbel stones embedded in masonry, 1
JJ104
as a single stone (zifr, literally nail),
or stacked with other stones (tunūf)
JJ105
3 stone plates as landing or platform
4 roof framing stones as super-imposed load
5 flat earth-covered roof construction
JJ104 Corbel stones forming cantilevered

staircases.
1 double-walled masonry
2 corbel stones embedded in the masonry,
as modular, mason-worked elements with
a rear rectangular cross section and tapered
front, 1/3 its length as anchoring depth
50
JJ106
JJ105 Triple corbel stones embedded in ablaq decorated masonry, Marmarita , Syria.
JJ106 Similar construction embedded in masonry, Zuwetīna, Syria.
JJ107 Corbel stones forming external single run cantilevered staircase, and double-layered support for stair
platform and balcony, Marmarita, Syria.
JJ107
51
JJ
HEATING
In traditional houses the massively con- Varying types of open fireplaces and heating tools.
structed walls and roofs provide good ther-
- small clay stove (maw‘ad), consisting of a lower
mal insulation and thus, a comfortable in- clay part with a ventilation opening and some
ternal climate in summer heat and winter pots for cooking
cold. - small clay fire pot (manqal), consisting of a
For heating purposes open fireplaces, burn- lower metal frame and an upper clay pot
- chimneys on outer walls, less frequently used
ing charcoal, dried manure or brushwood - oil stoves (sūbiya), consisting of a stove with
are utilized. small oil tank and fire tubes. Located inside the
The smoke dissipates through small open- living space, the oil stove subsequently replaced
ings situated slightly under the roof, hence the above-mentioned fireplace types.
these houses can also be referred to as Varying types of baking tools.
smoke houses.
If a stable opens into the living space, the - curved metal plates (saj) used as stove covers
animals warmth also affords an additional or over an open fire
- baking oven (tannūr)
heating source. built of stone (tannūr haschr)
or more commonly from clay (tannūr shūsheh)
JJ108 Clay baking oven.
1 mixture of clay, goat hair and tamped

5 bits of broken glass (or silica) for inclining
tannūr walls
1.1 less inclined wall providing a heated side
6 for baking flat bread
2 1.2 more inclined wall affording a less heated
side for baking thick bread
1.2 2 upper tannūr opening
1.1
3 lower tannūr opening showing ventilation
1 and a slag outlet
4 fireplace
4
5 warmed surface for dough preparation
6 leather glove used to place the bread
3 dough on the oven walls and to fetch the
JJ108 baked breads
52
JJ utilities
JJ109 Detail of a baking oven, tannūr, local history museum, Deir Atiyeh, Syria.
JJ110 Interior view of a baking house with ovens in two corners, Dana, Jordan.
JJ109 JJ110
53
JJ
VENTILATION
JJ111 JJ112
In traditional houses, continuous ventilation Smoke outlets are less commonly situated
is maintained through various small open- within the roof structure. More commonly,
ings, and various windows and doors that these openings are used as filler holes (roza-
are not completely sealed. nah) pouring grains or other goods into clay
storage bins (sandug).
In the walls, smoke outlets are constructed as
tiny openings (tāqah) or larger ones (nafizah). In summer, the massiveness of the house
They are either simply rectangular in shape construction and continuous ventilation pro-
or decorated with masonry worked stone vides a cool breeze. Additional elements,
pieces. Regularly they are situated slightly such as the Liwān, or the Riwāq and shady
below the ceiling to avoid drafts, and often courtyards planted with trees intensify this
centered above the door to emphasize the constant air exchange. Conversely in winter,
main entrance. ventilation holes are plugged with rags.
54
JJ utilities
JJ113 JJ114 JJ115
JJ111-112 Smoke outlets inside flat earth-covered roofs.

JJ111 Anaz, Syria
JJ112 Dana, Jordan
JJ113-115 Smoke outlets inside walls, examples from Syria and Jordan.
JJ116-117 Inner and outer leaf of a wall with smoke outlets integrated into decoration,
Wadi Al Nadarah, Syria.
JJ116 JJ117
55
JJ
WATER & SEWAGE SYSTEM
Traditionally, fresh drinking water was fetch-

ed from the village fountain (‘aīn), trans-
ported in big jars and stored near the house
entrance. Occasionally, channel systems
organized water distribution and field irri-
gation. In contradiction, individual wells (bīr)
or running water supplies were very rarely
found.
Slope and sewage water was transported
from a service zone (madura) at the house
entrance out through an opening under the
threshold. From there it was guided via stone
channels from courtyards to the garden or
further away.
Inside traditional houses, sanitary installa-
tions were unusual. There might have been
a floor toilet in a corner of the yard, but since
the houses were situated next to open land
there was not necessarily a need to imple-
ment any kind of extensive sanitation sys-
tem.
JJ118
Rainwater was collected on the roofs in drip
mouldings (mozrab) made from clay, mud
or stones or constructed of timber or metal.
Most commonly, cisterns were used to catch
rainwater as a secondary reservoir.
After heavy rains, and as a regular main-
tenance activity, flat earth-covered roofs
and their lime chaff screed finishing had to
be compressed. For this purpose a stone
roller (madafeh) was regularly used.
56
JJ utilities
JJ118 Channel system, Danaa, Jordan.
JJ119 Water jars used to collect and organize fresh water supplies, ‘Amar Al Hosn, Syria.
JJ120 Roof maintenance via stone roller, Al Kaimeh, Syria.
JJ119 JJ120
57
JJ
Aljundi, Ghiyas. L’architecture traditionelle en Syrie. UNESCO Établissements humains et environnement socio-
culturel, No. 33, 1984
Amiry, Suad. Tamari, Vera. The Palestinian Village Home. Trustees of the British Museum, BM Ass., London, 1989
Davie, Michael F. La Maison Beyrouthine Aux Trois Arcs: une architecture bourgeoise du Levant. Editions Alba,
Beirut, 2003
Kfoury, Semaan. Maisons Libanaises. Editions Alba, Academie Libanaise des Beaux Arts, Beirut, 1999
Khammash, Ammar. Notes on Village Architecture in Jordan. Arabesque, Amman, 1995
Liger-Belair, Jacques. L'habitation au Liban. Société Nouvelle, Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, Paris, 2000
Pütt, Karin. Zelte, Kuppeln und Hallenhäuser. Wohnen und Bauen im ländlichen Syrien. Imhof Verlag, Petersberg, 2005
Ragette, Friedrich. Architecture in Lebanon: The Lebanese House during the 18th and 19th Centuries. American
University of Beirut, Beirut, 1974
Ragette, Friedrich. Traditional Domestic Architecture of the Arab Region. Edition Axel Menges, Stuttgart, 2003
Sinjab, Kamil. Das Arabische Wohnhaus des 17. bis 19. Jahrhunderts in Syrien. RWTH Aachen, Aachen, 1995
Thoumin, Richard. La Maison Syrienne dans la Plaine Hauranaise, le Bassin du Baradah et sur les Plateaux du
Qalamun, in Melanges Géograhiques offerts par ses élèves à Raoul Blanchard. Paris, 1932
CORPUS-Levant. Handbook for the Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Traditional Syrian Architecture.
http://www.meda-corpus.net, 2004
CORPUS-Network. Nourissier, Gilles. Reguant, Joan. Casanovas, Xavier. Graz, Christophe. Traditional
Mediterranean Architecture. Barcelona, 2002
58
JJ references
59
JJ
60
Ingo Helmedag
CONTEMPLATIONS ON CONTEMPORARY CONSTRUCTION

ROUTINES, EXAMPLES FROM AMMAN
West-Amman exemplifies a unique and pros- This is not due solely to a shortage of mon-
perous modern city development, which ey, but is founded as well on a lack of un-
has grown over the past six decades and derstanding among planners and buyers,
continues to expand in the twenty-first insufficient regulations and control systems,
century. An examination of West-Amman’s and an untrained labour force. Neverthe-
growth provides opportunities to explore an less, as problems become increasingly evi-
unbridled city development that has taken dent, there is hope for buildings which are
place in a region where stone is the pre- better adapted to the environmentally pre-
dominant natural building material. dominant living conditions in Jordan for the
sake of all Jordanians.
Within a mostly tribal society of Bedouin
origin, and with only a few historic architec-
tural examples as cultural reference, West-
Amman reflects the images and ideas of a This article lives on its images, which are, if not other-
young emerging nation seeking what it be- wise mentioned, taken from the developing districts of
lieves is identification with the modern world. Dahit El-Rashid and Jubeiha in West-Amman.
This article contemplates the building ac-

tivities in West-Amman in terms of unity of
design and building techniques. Focusing
on standard housing and office buildings,
underlying premises of sustainability and
local traditions will be addressed. While one
can find good architects and amazing local
building examples, the majority of buil-
ding activity is purely investment orient-
ed and shows a lack of detail refinement.
61
IH
IH01 Amman panaromaic view
62
IH
Table of Content
THE URBAN FABRIC

History
Approaching Amman Today
Street Space
Residential Buildings
Apartment Blocks
Houses and Villas
Office and Commercial Buildings
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Setting
Structure and Materials
Stone as Building Material
Stone Surfaces
Walls
Wall Mounting
Glass Fronts
Openings - Windows and Doors
Floors and Roofs
Balconies
Stairs
Building Construction Cycle
UTILITIES
Water Supply
Supply and Disposal Lines
Electrical Circuitry
Energies
63
IH
IH02
History
Amman has a long history evidenced by leaving a small village and a pile of ruins.
the early Neolithic site Ain Ghazal situated At the end of the 19th century a Circassian
in the outskirts of Amman, which ranks as settlement revived Amman. King Abdullah
one of the largest known prehistoric settle- I chose Amman as seat of government for
ments in the Middle East. From ancient to his newly created state in 1921, which later
Islamic times the city has attracted differ- became the capital of the Hashemite King-
ent cultures. Its heyday began after it dom of Jordan. Still being a small city, its
was annexed into the Roman frontier pro- population expanded considerably due to
vince of Arabia by the emperor Trajan. In several waves of refugees from Palestine,
635 AD the Arabs conquered and occupi- Kuwait and Iraq (1948 from the Arab-Israeli
ed the city. Only after 750 AD, when the War, 1967 from the Six-Day War, 1990 from
Omayades made Damascus their capital, the Gulf War and 2003 from the Iraq War).
did the city gradually decline. Contribut- As a result Amman has grown rapidly to be-
ing to its downfall later centuries wit- come the modern capital of the Kingdom of
nessed earthquakes and natural disasters Jordan, a hub for the Middle East in general,
64
IH the urban fabric
IH03
and is often referred to as the most western

oriented city in the Middle East. It is said that
in biblical times the city stretched over seven
hills. Presently much more land has been in-
cluded within the cities boundaries.
IH02 Historical map, presenting Amman in the 1930‘s,

showing mainly Circasssian properties
(source: Ali Maher, Amman).
IH03 Historic Amman and the monuments of Jabal al

Qal‘a, which is the Citadel Hill, with the Temple
of Hercules and ruins of the Umayyad palace.
IH04 The vision of a new downtown in the Abdali

district of Am man (source:
en.wikipedia, CC-BY-SA-3.0.2008-12-11, Joeyzaza). IH04
65
IH
Approaching Amman Today IH05 The Street map demonstrates the importance of
the circles for orientation in the city, which is
difficult due to the uniformity of street spaces
and buildings. The main east-west running
artery is called the Circle Road
(source: en.wikipedia Amman).
IH06 Airport Road to West Amman.
IH07 Sprawling West Amman.
IH05
66
IH the urban fabric
Amman continues to grow. Whole new dis- Coming from the Queen Alia International
tricts crop up on its southern and western Airport, which is about 30 km south of the
edges. This nondescript urban sprawl rolls city, the currently extended airport highway
far into the hilly, and once agriculturally pro- passes by this new urbanisation and connects
lific countryside. Consumption of fertile land with the inner city’s main traffic artery, the so-
is immense with no vested interest in con- called Circle Road. The Circle Road stretch-
trolling it. This issue deserves consideration es east to west, from the 1st circle at Jabal
especially when food production is essential Amman to the 8th circle in West-Amman.
to a country with a growing population. In The eight circles, making up the Circle Road,
these new city areas one mainly finds tall are important for orientation, and counter
apartment blocks for the upper middle class the uniformity of street spaces and build-
as well as private castles of the rich. ings found in the present-day urban sprawl.
IH06
IH07
67
IH
Approaching Amman Today
The city extends almost uncontrollably into

the landscape. Thus fertile land is dimin-
ished. Instead of establishing drought tol-
erant low water use plants arid land is often
made green by unsustainable planting (IH08
refers to Margaret Louderback‘s article
Wating for the rain).
IH08 Villa along the Desert Highway south of

Amman.
IH09 and 11 Southwest edges of Amman.
IH08 IH10 Villa along the Amman-Madaba Road.
IH09
68
IH the urban fabric
IH10
IH11
69
IH
Street Space
Mainly adapted for cars, street space often

appears too wide and open for pedestrians.
There are insufficient wind barriers for the
cold, and lack of shading devices for the
hot season. Sidewalks are preferably used
for planting trees, mainly olives and palms,
which hinder pedestrian movement. Private
tree planting in sidewalk areas has been ex-
plained as a resident’s claim to street pro-
perty, thereby taken away from the public.
The possibility of comfortable walking does
not exist, creating a conceptual city layout
more closely aligned to the classic American
car-city. What is to be strived for is a mixed-
use concept where pedestrian and public
traffic work in harmony with each other. IH12
IH13
70
IH the urban fabric
IH14
IH15 IH12 and 13 Al Radwan Street.
IH14 and 15 Olive trees

planted in pedestrian walkways.
71
IH
Residential Buildings
The licensed area for construction in Jordan houses or private villas one can find more
has more than doubled from the year 2000 authentic architectural design (IH17-18),
to 2007. Residential buildings, mainly in the often façades and exterior designs are lack-
cities of Amman and Aqaba, have attribut- ing sophistication.
ed significantly to this statistical fact.1 The Design ideas coming as a matter of course
trend seems to continue in 2011, even dur- from the site and the climate are rare. It
ing the slow down due to the world financial seems less common to design houses ac-
crisis. cording to the sun’s trajectory. This consi-
The most common house type is a relatively deration is not evident in floor plans or in
high standard apartment block, followed by window sizes and positions, a primary first
popular family houses called dar, and villas.2 step towards energy efficiency and sustain-
Apartment buildings more often differ by ability. More emphasis is given to the cloth
applications of stucco work than from the or building envelope resulting in an image
architectural design itself. While in family projection of street façades only.
IH16 Apartment block. It seems that a lack of self-

evident architectural development needs to be
varnished by cosmetic applications.
IH17 Villa by architect Rasan Badran.
IH16 IH18 Family House.
72
IH the urban fabric
IH17
IH18
73
IH
Apartment Blocks
Same, same, yet cosmetically different.

These buildings rarely contribute to a sense
of place. They do not understand the chang-
ing climate conditions due to the yearly
solar cycle, and they do not talk to the
neighbours, as there is no understood and
defined neighbourhood context. The stand-
ard middle class apartment blocks are not
individualised in floor plans and orientations
for the needs of the owners. Distinction oc-
curs in exterior decorations mainly devised
for expression toward the street.
IH19-21 Apartment block on Hashem Ahmad IH20

Adabas Street.
IH21 A back-alley showing a lower level used
for parking and utilities such as water IH21
and oil-tanks and burners for individual
apartments.
IH21-25 Standard middle class apartment
blocks. The stairway splits the houses
into mirrored halves.
IH19
74
IH the urban fabric
IH22 IH24
IH23 IH25
75
IH
Houses and Villas
IH26
Many houses seemingly want to impress the

beholder, often with an imported image of
great iconic architecture. Unfortunately this
preconceived greatness often has nothing
to do with the site or tradition, instead de-
monstrating a lack of confidence and under-
standing of architectural form generation.
IH27
IH28
76
IH the urban fabric
IH29 IH32
IH26-29
and IH32 The villas pictured do not contribute to
spatial neighbourhood context. Unity
is sacrificed to individual surface im-
pressions with no core of authentic
architectural origin.
IH30 and 31 The modest and local character of

the house pictured in IH30, with an
inner loggia and courtyard, is best
adapted to the site. The classic modern
villa in IH31 stands with authenticity.
IH30
IH31
77
IH
Office and Commercial Buildings It does not allow passive solar energy use,
and it diminishes the possible thermal stor-
Most office and commercial buildings in age mass of the building. Resulting problems
Amman try to copy an image that is thought are an uncomfortable indoor climate, and a
to be modern and international translat- high-energy demand for air conditioning. For
ed for many into glass fronts or façades. good sun protection, consideration for win-
Solar glasses are used to reduce light dows and glass front orientations, which cor-
transmission. This is achieved either with respond to daily and yearly sun trajectories,
a special noble metal coating or through is needed. It is crucial to understand that on
tinting. The resulting reduced light trans- east and west sides the sun’s position is low
mission not only diminishes the heat input and the sun-hours, especially in summer, are
in summer (and winter, when it might be long. Therefore, while it is best to avoid ex-
needed), but it also decreases the daylight cessive openings towards east and western
factor through out the year. The first solar exposures, an outer sun protection system
glasses, used in the seventies, were dark- that is more vertical than horizontal can be
ish coloured creating a mirror-glass effect utilized. Accomodating the sun’s high position
on the outside and a resultant colour shift in the south it is easy to add additional hori-
inside. This contradicts the modern idea of zontal sun protection or planned overhangs.
transparency through glass, nevertheless In winter, when the sun’s energy is advan-
it is widely used in Amman (IH36). tageous, the lower sun position would not
Solar glass does not provide a glare shield. be blocked by these horizontal protections.
IH34-37 Typical glass front buildings

situated through out the
city.
IH34 Medina Street
IH35 Airport Road
IH36 Abdoun
IH37 4th circle
IH38 A design exception where

possible massive thermal
active walls are combined
IH34 IH35 with a glass front.
78
IH the urban fabric
IH36
IH37 IH38
79
IH
Setting
Not many buildings in West-Amman follow

the existing topography. It is more common
to cut a hole in the prevailing rocky ground
inserting a building unit. Due to this prac-
tice buildings often become generic blocks,
which are not referenced to a specific site.
High retaining walls and sunken gardens
or terrace spaces are a result of this prac-
tice. Excessive rainfall in winter can create
flooding in these areas if there is not good
drainage.
Very often the basement of these buildings
is used like cellar rooms for utilities, oil burn-
ers, oil and water tanks. IH39
IH40
80
IH building construction
IH41
IH39-40 Houses with sunken terraces and gardens.

IH41-42 Earthwork and foundations for housing.
IH43 Retaining wall.
IH44 Skeleton of a house inserted in a cut hole on
University Street. IH42
IH43 IH44
81
IH
Structure and Materials
The Jordan Valley, like the Dead Sea and

the Gulf of Aqaba, is situated between two
continental plates creating an earthquake
fault line. Reinforced concrete skeleton
structures, pervasive in Jordan, provide
an earthquake deterrent solution, and
are economically feasible. Walls are usu-
ally non-structural and consist of concrete
hollow blocks, in-situ poured concrete and
treated natural stones, referenced inside
to outside. Concrete hollow-block stone
is one of the most important wall building
materials used in Amman.
IH45 IH46
82
IH45 Concrete hollow blocks are used to accommodate
temporary workers on a building site.
IH46 Concrete skeleton structure, University Street.
IH47 The Wild Jordan Center in Jabal Amman designed

by architect A. Khammash, uses a concrete
skeleton as a scaffold, which becomes rooms
and terraces overlooking the downtown area.
IH48 An ordinary house structure built of reinforced

concrete and filled with hollow cement blocks
around the window holes in the upscale district
of Abdoun. IH47
IH48
83
IH
Stone as Building Material
Natural stone comes in machine-sliced (see Nizar Abu-Jaber‘s article), but increas-
blocks to small local factories where the ingly stone is being imported from other
stone slices are cut into stone panels of countries like Turkey. Very often the surface
different sizes. Many natural stones used treatment of the stone is still done tradition-
for building purposes are found in Jordan ally by hand at the building site.
IH49
84
IH49 Machine-sliced natural stone being cut into
panels for building purposes. Jordan Valley
workshop.
IH50 IH50-51 Stone surface treatment done on site.
IH51
85
IH
Stone Surfaces A large variety of stone formations can be
found in Jordan, but limestone is the one
most quarried and used for building pur-
poses. While older houses were built from
whole stone blocks, presently natural stone
is almost entirely used as cladding materi-
al. It is still common to manually work the
surface of stone with a variety of tools, even
as machine-dressed stone surfaces are gain-
ing popularity. It is not only the colors and
different surface treatments, which vary in
stone façades. The arrangement and the size
of the stone courses also create variation.
IH52 Modern house in Jabal Webdeh with Tubzeh

(local Arabic term) stone dressing. Usually
houses in the 1920’s and 30’s were dressed in
the rougher Tubzeh manner.
IH53 Mufajjar stone surfaces were widespread in

the 1980’s with a medium roughness between
Musamsam and Tubzeh.
IH54 House in Jabal Amman dressed in the Musam-

sam manner of more even surfaces.
This method gained popularity in the 1940’s.
IH53
IH52
86
IH54
87
IH
Walls
In Amman a general building code requires

light stone façades for the outside of build-
ings. But what appears as a massive wall
of stone to the untrained eye proves to be
only a thin stone cladding. During construc-
tion wooden wedges keep the stone panels
in place until the cast concrete behind them
hardens and connects with the stone.
IH55 IH57
IH55-58 Stone panels kept in place with wooden wed-

ges until the concrete behind hardens and
connects with the stone.
IH58 House façade in Tla’ Al Ali.
IH56
88
IH58
89
IH
Wall Mounting Therefore they transmit the heat easily out-
side in winter and inside in summer. In addi-
The prevailing wall section for housing is tion there is not enough thermal mass, nor-
made of hollow block stones, cast concrete mally a heavy material, added to the inside
and natural stone (from inside to outside). of the building. Thermal mass is required to
A thin layer of thermal insulation, usually balance timely temperature differences for
polystyrene, is becoming more widely used good indoor climate. The fixing of the stone
(IH62). cladding with cast concrete brings a possible
Generally speaking the thickness of the insu- thermal active material to the outside of the
lation layer is not enough to reach sufficient building. A technical solution for this prob-
low heat transmissions (U-value) through lem would be an anchoring system to fix the
the wall, and the position of the insulation stone cladding. This would also allow air cir-
layer is also problematic. Common thermal culation behind the cladding to keep the wall
bridges, such as concrete columns and slabs, dry and humidity free. Humidity in the wall
are not protected by the insulation layer, diminishes the U-value, and is a frequent
which is usually positioned between them. problem of buildings in Amman.
Vertical Slab Slab Slab

Wall Section
Horizontal
Wall Section Column Column Column
IH59 IH60 IH61
90
Reportedly this problem has increased due to
a lower quality of the stone currently used for
the cladding panels. This newly used stone
has a higher porosity allowing humidity to
IH62
penetrate more easily.
IH59 Wall section, from inside to outside; 10 cm
concrete hollow block, 3-5 cm heat insulation,
8 cm cast concrete, 5-7 cm stone cladding.
IH60 Same section as IH59 but without thermal
bridges. The insulation is covering the skele-
ton structure including the concrete floor.
IH61 Hollow block stone is replaced by a heavy
brick or concrete block for better thermal
storage capacity towards the inside.
IH62-64 The building process of a wall. The outer thin
stone panels are erected together with the
inner hollow block wall in a step-by-step
process (IH64). The insulation layer is then
placed and concrete poured in between. IH63
IH64
91
IH
Glass Fronts IH66 shows a well-designed glass front
where the levels of the building are still
Structural glazing allows for the complete readable. Nevertheless the question of sun
glass covering of a building without a visible protection has to be resolved, even more so
supporting structure. The effect is a homo- in buildings with clear-glass fronts. A dou-
geneous glass surface. One can find exam- ble glass façade system with two layers of
ples on many buildings, but the inherent glazing and wide air space in between can
promise of transparency and large open be used for sun, sound and wind protection,
spaces is rarely kept. Hidden behind the tint- and for naturally tempered indoor ventila-
ed glass and due to the mirror glass effect tion (by using the pre-warmed air in between
one might not see the usual skeleton struc- the two glass layers for inner air exchange).
ture from the outside, but it will be expe- Of course there has to be a well-planned
rienced once a person enters the building. closed system of sophisticated ventilation
Additional to the usual heat gain through the and sun protection in between the two glass
glass façade (see also office and commercial layers. If not, the result becomes just an
buildings) the unprotected skeleton struc- expensive design decision without offering
ture, mainly the slab, will absorb sun energy any advantage to the normal glass façade
leading to extra cooling needs in summer. with double glazing (IH67).
To solve these problems it is recommended
IH65 and 68 Medina Street.
to use an insulating panel façade separat- IH66 and 67 7th circle.
ing the structure from the opening (IH65). IH69 and 70 Jordan Gate Towers at the 6th circle.
IH65 IH66
92
IH67 IH69
IH68 IH70
93
IH
The window shutter in the Pella restaurant

wall (IH71) might have been inspired by
traditional stone doors as they are found
in the region of the Hauran, but the tradi-
tional reminiscence is casted in a modern
building material, concrete. The steel-glass
door in the same restaurant (IH72) sup-
ports an inside outside connection while not
interferring with the expression of the vault.
IH71 Window, Pella restaurant.

IH72 Terrace door, Pella restaurant,
architect: A. Khammash.
IH71
94
IH72
95
IH
Openings, such as windows and entrance doors,

are important design elements. Very often used
as pure decorative elements and exaggerated
with symbolism, they lose their deeper meaning
as a transitional element connecting outside and
inside. The functional rectangular window glass
opening is frequently overridden by symbolic de-
coration done in stone. In IH73 the Greek-antic
entrance symbol is set like a triumphal arch in
front of the entrance door. Here is an example of
symbolism overriding a transitional experience.
IH73 IH74
96
IH75
IH76 IH77
IH73-76 Opening decoration of new middle-class IH78

housing projects.
IH77 Opening in the Mövenpick Resort & Spa Dead

Hotel, designed by architect A. Khammash,
might have been inspired by cut stone
façades.
IH78 Cut stone façade in Wadi As Seer, assumed

to be a pigeonry.
97
IH
The majority of windows in Amman still come

with single glazing and a simple rectangu-
lar hollow aluminium profile. Both are highly
conductive. Heat transmission through the
frame and the glass is already high, and in
addition the normally used sliding windows
IH80
are in no way airtight. European style win-
dows with staggered frame profiles against
the airflow are rare and expensive. As if this
is not bad enough, the wooden boxes for
roller shutters, thought to be helpful against
the winter cold and summer heat as well
as for privacy, are not insulated. Like long
holes in the wall they create energy waste.
In older houses one can still find iron shut-
ters that demonstrate expert ironworking
skills, a craft worthy of revival. IH85 shows
an example of iron-sliding shutters. IH81
IH79 IH82
98
IH83
IH79 and 82 Sliding windows, bottom and top.

IH80 Hole for the shutter box.
IH81 Assembled shutter boxes.
IH83 and 84 Multi-functional iron shutters on old
houses in Jabal Weibdeh and Jabal
Amman.
IH85 Inspired new sliding iron shutter at a
house in Jabal Amman. IH84
IH85
99
IH
Floors and Roofs
Floors are commonly built as a linked system Another issue related to roofs is rainfall wa-
of concrete steel bars and hollow cement ter. Flat roofs often show water problems in
stone blocks. The slab, casted on site, is car- the rainy season. To direct the water outflow
ried by simple timber formwork. Screed, on it is necessary to have a minimal decline
top of the floor slab, levels the surface area. of 2% or more along with a waterproofing
Tiles as a widely used flooring material cover layer. Most often neither exists. Hence the
this surface. Resting the screed on a layer of rooms under the roof of a building are of-
insulation material (floating screed), which ten too cold in winter and too hot in sum-
works against footfall sound and thermal mer, and frequently leak in some areas af-
transmissions, is not common. ter heavy and long rains. Utilities on top of
For the roof construction, which tradition- the flat roof (water tanks, satellite dishes
ally is a flat slab, an insulation layer inserted or thermal collectors) are often dominant in
against heat transmissions is even more im- the appearance of the whole house. It is the
portant than the vertical wall construction, design task of skilled architects to find sol-
as hot air rises. Typically in Amman an insul- utions to integrate them within the overall
ation layer on the roof is even less common building image.
than for the walls.
IH86 IH87 IH88
100
IH89 IH92
IH86 Plastic foil over a shelter blocks wind and rain.

IH87 Puddle after rainfall on a flat roof.
IH88 Ceiling water damage under the flat roof of an
apartment building.
IH89-93 Concrete slabs in various stages of
construction.
IH90
IH91 IH93
101
IH
Balconies Construction-wise, balconies are essentially
cantilevered floor slabs. They are not ther-
There is no tradition for balconies in the Arab mally separated from the indoor slab and
world where one would rather find comfort in are not insulated. This makes them thermal
courtyards, terraces or loggias as private out- bridges par excellence. Techniques for a ther-
door areas. Balconies, mainly found in mod- mal separation of the slab (indoor-outdoor),
ern apartment buildings, are more for repre- extra insulation or extra stilts to rest the bal-
sentation as they seem to be rarely used. conies on, are not common. Balconies, like
Often they are transformed into glazed indoor windows or doors, are often protected with
rooms, which offer more privacy and are bet- iron latticework. This can lead to a cage-like
ter protected from sun, wind, noise or dirt. expression that also affects interior spaces.
IH94 IH95
102
IH94 and IH95 Rarely used balconies on a modern
apartment block are very often pro-
tected with iron lattice-work.
IH96 Glazed balconies used as an indoor

room extension on a modern apart-
ment block. An iron fence is hiding
water tanks and satellite dishes.
IH97 Balcony on a historic house in Jabal

Amman.
IH96 IH97
103
IH
Stairs
Stairways in average apartment buildings

are typically built of concrete poured in- IH99
situ. Lacking precision and poor workman-
ship results in first step and stair heads at IH98 Formwork for a stairway in an apartment block.
landings, which often do not match, creat- The upright timber boards form the rising con-
crete steps while the lower inclined boards
ing the uneven endings of handrails. The form the stairs plate.
thickness of the stairs can frequently be IH99 In-situ casted concrete stairway.
seen as oversized inconsistent or unpro- IH100 Staiway in an apartment block. The handrails
portional to the step height. do not form a continious railing system.
IH98 IH100
104
IH102
IH101 Stairway in Salt.

IH102 Stairway in Jabal Weibdeh.
IH103 Stairway at the Wild Jordan Foundation,
Jabal Amman, architect A. Khammash.
IH103
IH101
105
IH
IH104
Building Construction Cycle
IH104-115 Construction cycle of an apartment

block on Al Radwan Street, Amman,
May 2010 - June 2011. IH107
IH105 IH108
IH106 IH109
106
IH110 IH113
IH111 IH114
IH112 IH115
107
IH
Water Supply
Water is a rare commodity in Jordan. The

country is considered one of the four most
water scarce countries in the world. Currently
there is a combination of viable water resour-
ces and projects in process to remedy the situ-
IH116 ation. Rainfall in Amman and the surrounding
mountainous areas amounts to an average of
IH116 Wadi Mujib reservoir. 277 mm per year. Short periods of snowfall in
IH117 and IH118 Wadi Walla water spring. Amman are included in this average. Water
IH119 Pipeline from the Disi aquifer along from the Jordan and Yarmouk rivers contrib-
the Desert Highway near Wadi utes to the national average. But because this
Rum.
IH120 Nabatean aqueduct at the entry water is shared between Jordan, Israel and
Siq in Petra. Syria, only a small proportion finds its way
IH117 IH118
108
IH utilities
to Jordan, and this water is vastly needed for
agricultural purposes. Rainwater collected in
huge reservoirs in the wadis contributes to
the naturally available water resources.
Against the background of future popula-
tion growth and a strongly growing popula-
tion concentration in the capital of Amman, it
is planned to use desalinated water through
the implementation of Red Sea - Dead Sea
Canal Project. This project is not without
environmental concerns. And finally under
current construction is a 300 km long pipe-
line from the Disi aquifer close to Aqaba and
the Saudi border, which is scheduled to bring IH119
non-renewable water to Amman.
IH120
109
IH
Water Supply
Nevertheless there is a good water supply in

Amman although intermittent. The continui-
ty of water supply is, depending on the area,
only once or twice a week, and it is common
to store this weekly supplied water in indi-
vidual tanks for each household. Typically
every household has one tank on the ground
for the main water supply and another on
IH122
the roof of the building. (It is prudently con-
scientious to have the roof tank full when the IH121 and 123 New plastic water storage tanks.
main supply water is running, never knowing
if there will be an adequate supply between IH122 Meters for counting the water con-
weekly delivery times.) The roof tank storage sumption are usually in steel boxes
outside the buildings along the
guarantees the water pressure in bathrooms streets (see also IH128).
and kitchens unless there is an intermediary
water pump. Concerning the design, water IH124 and 126 Water tanks, satellite dishes and
tanks on roofs are rarely seen as an integral thermal water heating appliances
placed on rooftops.
part of the building design adding to the ar-
chitectural image problem of exposed satel- IH125 Water storage tanks in the basement
lite dishes and thermal collectors. of an apartment block.
IH121 IH123
110
IH utilities
IH124
IH125 IH126
111
IH
Supply and Disposal Lines
Pipes for the water supply, or even bigger

pipes for the toilet or rainwater sewage sys-
tems, are not always an integral part of the
house design. All too often one finds various
pipes running inside the exterior walls or even
through the concrete structure. This config-
uration weakens the building’s construction,
creates noise problems and is hard to con- IH127
trol or to repair in cases of damage. Disposal
lines may buckle creating a fault location IH127 and 128 Supply and disposal pipes running
along the façades of newly built
where waste can easily jam pipes. A suggest- apartment blocks. The lines could
ed solution would be to place these systems be better organized running in-
in shafts or behind pre-wall constructions. ducts.
IH128
112
IH utilities
IH129
IH129 Plastic pipes for water running

under a basement ceiling.
IH130 and 132 Pipes running in construction walls
are problematic for various reasons.
IH131 A buckle creates a fault location. IH131
IH130 IH132
113
IH
Electrical Circuitry
Electrical circuitry, including sockets and

plugs, comes in assorted sizes. This creates
not only frustrating appliance connection
problems, but also introduces unwanted
safety issues. Often the connecting parts
are not precise in their fittings resulting in
faulty currents. The same happens when
different equipments, hanging on the same IH133
line and socket, use more power than is
suitable for the appliance, resulting in an
override in the net electricity available.
Plastic parts may melt from overheating
resulting in fire hazards. Standardization
of electrical circuitry, appliances and coding
rules could alleviate potential and hazard-
ous problems.
IH134
IH133 Different electrical appliances.
IH134 Melted plastic socket resulting from an override

in the net electrical capacity.
IH135 Repairing electric cables and power distribu-

tion lines.
114
IH utilities
IH135
115
IH
Energies
Sun energy is plentiful in Jordan amounting

to approximately 2.100 kWh/m2 a year. This
free and environmentally harmless energy
potential is not used to a noteworthy ex-
tent. One may find solar collectors used for
water heating, which have better pay-offs
than solar cells used to produce electricity.
Instead, gas, stored in metal cylinders, is
used for cooking and heating purposes as
it is cheap. As a governmentally subsidized
energy it currently costs 6.5 JD per cylinder
and usually is imported from Egypt. Dis- IH136 IH137
putes over a fair gas prize arose after the
revolution in Egypt.
Water in general is heated electricly in boil-
ers, which are predominantly not insulated.
The heated water cools quickly and often
the boilers are turned on for a specific time-
close usage only. Public buildings or richer
households use oil for heating purposes,
which is much more expensive because it is
no longer subsidized.
To encourage the use of sun energies much
more can be done. Architects, engineers, IH138
builders and construction workers could be
trained to implement better planning and
construction methods. Highest priority must Active devices like thermal collectors and
be given to save energy and not necessarily photovoltaic cells could also become inte-
to concentrate on generating more energy. grated architectural solutions, meaning that
Proper window orientations and sizes, sun panels and techniques become part of the
shadings and the right use of insulating ma- architecture and not just an application.
terials, are needed.
116
IH utilities
IH139
IH136 For office and commercial buildings

necessary cooling loads in summer time
might exceed the heating loads in winter
time. Through a proper planning and
construction process, providing good
shade devices for glazed openings and
sufficient thermal masses on the inside
of buildings, air conditioning could be
dispensable.
IH137 Gas, coming in cylinders, is used for cook-

ing and heating purposes. Only with rich-
er families and in public buildings is oil
used for room heating.
IH138-140 Thermal and photovoltaic collectors

catching sun energy in the Feynan Eco-
lodge (architect: A. Khammash).
Gained electic power from photovoltaic
panels is stored in batteries, still a weak
point in the usage of PV cells. The immense
potential of free sun energy available
in Jordan is widely neglected. It could
guarantee future sustainable energy. IH140
117
IH
1 Johansson and Ouahrani (2009), p. 21 and 26
2 Ibid
Center for the Study of the Built Environment.

www.csbe.org/e-publications
Hönger, Ch., Brunner, R., Menti, U.-P. and Wieser, Ch. Das Klima als Entwurfsfaktor. Climate as a Design
Factor, Quart Verlag, Luzern, 2009
Hegger, M., Fuchs, M., Stark, Th. and Zeumer, M. Energy Manual Sustainable Architecture. Birkhäuser, Edition
Detail, 2008
Hindrichs, D. (eds.). Plusminus 20°/40° latitude. Sustainable building design in tropical and subtropical regions.
Edition Axel Menges, Stuttgart-London, 2007
Johansson, E. and Ouahrani, Dj. (eds.). Climate Conscious Architecture and Urban Design in Jordan. Housing
Development & Management, Lund University, Sweden and Building Resaerch Center, Royal Scientific Society,
Jordan, Lund, 2009
Hausladen, G., Saldanha, de M., Liedl, P. and Sager, C. ClimateDesign. Solutions for buildings that can do
more with less technology. Callwey, München, 2005
Ragette, F. Traditional Domestic Architecture of the Arab Region. Edition Axel Menges, Stuttgart, 2003
Shaer, M. Stone as Wall paper: the Evolution of Stone as a Sheathing Material in Twentieth-Century Amman.
www.csbe.org/e-publications
118
IH references
119
IH
120
Thomas Maria Weber
ROCK AND ORDER
STONE MASONRY IN A HISTORICAL CONTEXT
Introduction Aims and Methods
This contribution deals with stone as a build- This influential direction was inverted in the
ing material through out human history fo- second half of the 1st millennium BC due to
cusing on the land east of the river Jordan. It the historical event of the Macedonian con-
is the endeavor of the present article to pro- quest. From that time onward, the Oriental
vide an introductory outline on stone con- provinces – always remaining aware of the
struction techniques starting from prehistor- splendor of their own cultural heritage –
ic periods to main developments leading up could be characterized as the receiving part
to the rise of Islam. The methodological ap- in the network of intercultural tensions.
proach relies on historical monuments prior The period of this investigation spans from
to AD 1750, defined by the legislation of the the Neolithic, i.e. 10th century BC, to the rise
Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan as immovable of Islam in AD 636. The wide breath of the
antiquities. The present comparative survey present contribution, in terms of geography
focuses on selected monuments well dated as well as chronology, does not allow for a
either by archaeological data such as stratig- detailed discussion of problems under actual
raphy or typology, or by historical sources research. A handbook on the ancient building
such as descriptions in ancient literature or techniques of Palestine and Jordan has not
inscriptions. It is the aim of this author to yet been written. The scope of the present
present a reciprocal process of intercultur- article thus cannot go beyond a rough
al exchange between the Levantine Orient sketch of the main lines of development.
and the central Mediterranean, two regions
today called Middle East and (southeastern) The majority of sources concerning the brief
Europe. It is to be demonstrated that the survey of rock as a building material in his-
Orient during the 10th millennia, before the torical context is principally based on two
Christian era, contributed to cultural achieve- standard publications.
ments.
121
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These are the handbook of the renown the Neolithic age (ca. 9500–5000 BC)3 within
Greek architect Anastasios K. Orlandos, still the Fertile Crescent, a sickle shaped territory
irreplacable for any study on the building spanning from Mesopotamia to northwestern
materials of the ancient Greeks1, and se- Syria down to Palestine. The composite term
condly, the methodic dictionary on Greek architecture, originating in Greek language,
and Roman architecture by René Ginouvès precisely describes this process. The noun
and Roland Martin.2 The first volume of this archê or archî (= origin, begin) plus the verb
reference deals with all varieties of raw and ktízein (= to found, to construct) refers to
dressed stone in the architectural construc- the initial stage of construction – metaphori-
tion process, and is of great help in respec- cally applied to the individual architect as the
tive terminology. It provides the vocabulary planner, inventor and creator of a city, village
of petrographic and architectural terms in or a single building.
French, English, Italian and Greek. For the Thus the profession of the architect goes
native German reader the architectural dic- back to the 10th millennium. The two ba-
tionary by Hans Koepf and Günther Binding sic elements of his activity are the uncurbed
(2005) might be of help in this respect as power of nature and the human rational act,
it provides translations of technical terms. rock and order, or even more correct when
The Arab student may be advised to use the referring to the architect’s product – rock in
handbook by A. Bahnassi (1995) for a cir- order. The sorts of rock available and suitable
cumstantial English/French – Arabic vocab- for this activity in the Levant are the subject
ulary of architecture and the arts. of another contribution to the present vol-
ume. Those workmen realizing the planning
The Dawn of Architecture process of the architects are subsequently
Nomadic tents versus sedentary mud bricks called the stone workers or the masons.
of prehistory
Nomads continued to employ traditional
The general development of stone use for the materials such as animal skins and wooden
construction of dwellings can best be describ- beams for their itinerant housing. Early set-
ed as giant to miniature in respect to size. The tlers, however, inherited from their nomad
earliest representatives of mankind adapted ancestors the stone foundation, as necessary
natural caves or fissures as shelters. The protection from strong winds. Mud brick, a
invention of architecture may be consider- mixture of mud with cane as a building ma-
ed as an Oriental achievement closely linked terial, is first attested in Neolithic Mesopo-
to sedentary activity which took place during tamia from mid 10th millennium BC onward.
122
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Mud walls commonly rose on a massive As it will be shown, the folks of the Orient
layer of stone, which prevented humidity shared this intellectual process with their
from penetrating the wall. The first hand- neighbors in the Pre-Hellenic Mediterran-
modeled mud bricks appeared in this area ean. Only assumed giants of supernat-
about 8000 BC, and an industrial produc- ural power like those of Gilead, Bashan,
tion of mould made bricks started in the Amman and Moab, most renown in the Old
second half of the subsequent millennium.4 Testament tradition as the mysterious King
In regions further west, where large rock Og with his huge iron bed, were capable
slabs were naturally available and broken of heaping stone blocks of immeasurable
into manageable formats by natural ero- weights on each other. But what did Pro-
sion, early man made use of them in order phet Hosea mean by their altars?
to defend themselves from enemies or wild
animals. This early stage of the employ- In an effort to take care of the material
ment of rock has two aspects closely inter- remnants of their deceased antecessors,
related to each other; a transcendent and pre-historic people constructed protective
a more practical one. In both instances the shelters out of huge rock slabs which ar-
owners of these dwellings possessed a high chaeologists customarily call dolmens. Dol-
social status since the technical aspect of mens can be found in a wide spread line
this prehistoric architecture required a along the slopes of the Jordan rift valley
considerable engagement of human man- (TMW01) with concentrations in the areas
power. of Ghassul and Damiyah. These are sim-
ple structures, normally composed of two
Mythic Rock Architects in the Levant vertical stone slabs set approximately one
The Biblical Giants and Megalithic masonry meter apart from each other and cover-
ed by a larger third slab. Sometimes, the
The oldest references to megalithic pheno- short sides of these buildings are closed by
mena in the Levant are found in the Bible.5 a fourth and fifth slab with a door-shaped
Their altars shall be heaps in the furrows of opening on one of the short sides. Nor-
the fields, as prophet Hosea (12: 11) wrote. mally, the stone slabs were used as they
Searching for an explanation of the early were found in nature in an undressed form.
appearance of megalithic masonry, difficult Work by chisel was nevertheless attested
to be comprehended by rationalism of later in this early stage by elaborately dressed
populations, the assumption of giants as door openings. Some examples provide
constructors provided a plausible possibility. stone boxes underneath their floors.
123
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The absolute chronological terms are under
dispute, but one might approximate the period
between 3600 and 3000 BC as an orientation.
Human skeletal remains, collected inside the
dolmens, point to a funerary purpose. Both
the rising parts as well as the underground
boxes did not serve for the burial of distin-
guished individuals, but as collective graves
of a community, most probably in a contin-
uous sequence of several hundred years.
TMW01 There is still not much information about the

TMW01 Reconstruction of a dolmen from the Jordan cultural background of the would-be archi-
Valley, University of Jordan campus, Amman. tects and masons of these early monumen-
tal buildings. It is unclear if they followed
TMW02 The citadel of Jawa.
a pastoral, hunting or an early food storing
way of life. The most probable aim of these
These were considered as their direct an- huge constructions was to gain a maximum
tecessors serving the same purpose as the of protection for the vulnerable situation of
over ground parts of the buildings. In many the dead.
cases, a circular setting of raw stones com-
parable to the foundations of the burial tu- About the same time during the early Bronze
muli in other parts of the Mediterranean Age, megalithic masonry was also employed
world augment the monumentality and the for the protection of the living.7 As site par
noble appearance of these structures. excellence in northeastern Jordan, one may
quote Jawa8 in the Mafraq district, located
Evidence regarding the purpose and chrono- on a rocky spur in the southern outskirts
logy of these megalithic constructions was of the Syrian lava fields. This site, located
retrieved by the excavation of one specimen in the semi-arid steppe of volcanic origin of
in the Damiyah dolmen field, executed in the the southern Levant, witnessed astonishing
1980s by the University of Jordan.6 The un- skills of water-management by early man-
usual large amount of pottery found inside kind, starting from the Upper Paleolithic (ca.
and in the vicinity of these buildings dates to 1.7 million to 21.000 BC), with interruptions,
the first phase of the early Bronze Age (EB I). to the present day. The main phases of per-
124
TMW
manent occupation focuses on two periods. There is an essential difference between the
For only a short but very intensive time masonry of the dolmens and that of the Jawa
Jawa was settled during the 4th millennium ramparts and citadel even though there
BC. The second period was from the Early is not a big chronological distance between
Bronze Age phase IV to the Middle Bronze them. The walls and the roofs of the Early
Age phase IIa (ca. 2300-1800 BC). These Bronze Age giant-buildings consist of large
earlier ramparts protected domestic instal- monolithic slaps. The architects of the Jawa
lations and water systems on and around the ramparts in contrast invented polylithic
site. A monumental entrance gate of a ram- masonry. This achievement would write
part has been reconstructed in a showroom construction history down to the present
of the Jordan National Museum in Amman. day. The raw blocks are the immediate
The huge blocks kept their raw surface as antecessors of the later cubic ashlars, which
they were broken by the stone workers and have the canonical features of Oriental and
set by the masons. In the later phase of Greek masonries of the Archaic or Iron Age
this second occupational period (EB IV), a periods (1st millennium BC). This is a first
fortified citadel (TMW 02) on the summit of step in the development, which is described
the site, resembling the younger Hellenic as the splintering or atomization of natural
acropolis, supplemented older fortifications grown virgin rock as building material.
going back to the Early Bronze Age phase IA
(ca. 3600 BC).
The attached younger structure shows a
stark militarized blend to the large nucle-
ar settlement, which is in sharp contrast
to what went on there before. The large
blocks of the acropolis had been set in cur-
ved registers, following the relief of the
rocky ground, producing by their smooth-
ed outer surfaces an irregular polygonal
mosaic. Regarding this stone masonry of
the 4th millennium BC at Jawa, it should be
emphasized that comparable constructions
at other sites in the Levant and Anatolia
such as Jericho, Jerf el-Ahmar and Göbekli
Tepe date to considerably older periods. TMW02
125
TMW
It is somehow peculiar to state that it took As constructors they were believed to have
some 2000 years until comparable pheno- been assisted by the gasterocheires or bel-
mena of stone construction occurred in the ly-handers.12 Byzantine commentators and
central Mediterranean. Egypt, where stone lexicographers claim these daemonic ma-
masonry achieved a high level of quality sons came from Lycia in southwestern Asia
within a few generations around the 27th Minor, while the Cyclopes were assumed to
century BC, must have been an important have originated in northern-Greek Thrace.13
mediator.9 The reasons for this retarded de- The fortified structures of the Mycenean
velopment, as well as the mechanism of adap- palaces display cyclopic masonries. They
tion, remains obscure. That both historically consist of huge stones in their raw, broken
existed is indisputable. There are no gaps shape set in registers on top of each other.
in history, but only gaps in our knowledge. Not only at the renown Late Helladic sites
in the Peloponnesian Argolid, but also on
From Cyclopic to Polygonal Masonry the Athenian Acropolis at the Pelargikon the
Pelasgan-Helladic same construction technique occurs.14
to Greek Archaic Architecture At the same time the skill of stone dressing
is attested by the relief of heraldic Sphinxes
Stimulated by their Oriental neighbors, on both sides of a column, which from the
Greeks explained earliest appearances time of Pausanias15 onward were mistakenly
of human works of art and architecture assigned as lions, on a triangular stone slap
through myths. Admiring the giant size of crowning the main gate. Other fine stone-
blocks heaped into walls, they attributed work is preserved in the circular tomb of
the earliest examples of monumental stone Atreus where the re-cutting of overlapping
masonry to the daemons of art. The Roman stone courses produced a semi-globular
geographer Strabon10 assigned the walls of dome of perfect appearance.16 This con-
the pre-Greek or Late Helladic palaces of struction technique was applied to other
Mycene and Tiryns (TMW 03) as well as the types of vaulting such as the Syringes and
labyrinths in the caves of Nauplion as works the casemates of the Tiryns palace (TMW
of the Cyclopes, the three titanic single- 04). It should be pointed out that this type
round-eyed sons11 of Uranos and Gaia. of rock construction was limited to the pres-
These daemons were related to the Titans, tigious residences of monarchic rulers,
and were reputed as blacksmiths who pro- while the hoi polloi of citizens and farmers
duced the thunderbolt of the supreme dwelled in more humble buildings made of
Olympian god Zeus. mud brick framework constructions.
126
TMW
The exquisite appearance of Greek stone-
work dawned at the end of the orientalizing
and early Archaic periods (late 7th to early
6th centuries BC), after a rupture of the Late
Helladic traditions in the Dark Age (10th to
early 9th centuries BC). At this time rock
gradually replaces the hitherto predominant
building materials, mud brick and wood.
Wood architecture of the preceding times
has rather close relations to Egypt where
stone had been employed centuries earlier
in monumental buildings.17
TMW03 Sample of Cyclopic masonry at the palace in

Tiryns, Argolis, Greece.
TMW04 Pseudo-vaults in the casemates at Tiryns.
TMW03 TMW04
127
TMW
The innovative trend was to replace columns (The Ioanian was most probably a derivate
and entablatures that were formerly fashion- of the so-called Aeolic style which originat-
ed out of wood by dressed stones. At the be- ed in the Egypto-Levantine realm20.)
ginning póros, a yellowish-brown tuff quar- Architects soon understood the advantages
ried at various locations in southern Italy, of dressed large orthogonal blocks set up-
Sicily, the Aegean and continental Greece side down in rows (Greek orthostades) or
was given preference in addition to the var- laid horizontally in bands (parastades) of-
ious types of conglomerates, sandstone and ten joined to each other by swallow-tail-
limestone. The noble rock of Greek con- shaped iron clamps. In order to lift and po-
struction material was the bright white mar- sition the heavy blocks, protruding bosses
ble employed from the early 6th century BC or holes were needed in order to fix the
in monumental architecture as well as in loops of ropes or iron scissors.
sculpture. Through out the ages it epitomized
the Hellenic blend to an extent that Oriental Apart from static and constructional ne-
religions, Judaism in particular, classified it cessities, the external appearance of stone
as a medium suspect of pagan impurity.18 masonry achieved a high esthetic value in
Extracting, transport, chiseling and building Greece. The 7th and 6th centuries BC form
with these stone materials required a num- the époque when masonry, consisting of
ber of iron tools such as hammers, drills and dressed cubic stone ashlars, arranged in a
chisels (TMW05), plumps, scales, calipers system of orthogonal registers (isodome)
and meters, ropes and wooden supports as became common in the central Mediter-
well as a platoon of ingenious transport and ranean. Anteceding stages of this mature
lifting machinery, such as charts, cranes and Classical mode of ashlar construction were
pulleys.19 the so-called Lesbian and polygone systems.
These systems joined irregularly cut stones
Greek stone cutters of this period achieved with smoothly dressed faces with admirable
in taming the elemental nature of rock into precision, commonly leaving not even space
canonized orders dictated by human intel- to insert the blade of a knife between joints.
lect and ratio. They translated the arche- These antecessors of Classical isodome con-
types of timberwork into stone, leading to structions have been dated to the earlier 6th
distinct building orders with a specific com- century BC, and found widely spread over
bination of ornate decors. Two of the three mainland Greece from Attica to Thessaly,
Classical orders, the Dorian and the Ioanian, over the Aegean islands and toward the cit-
are an immediate result of this process. ies along the western littoral of Asia Minor.
128
TMW
As fine examples of both systems one
may quote the Peistratian wall at Euleusis,
the early temple in the Nemesis shrine at
Rhamnous and sections of the retaining
walls of the temple of Apollon and the lower
terrace at Delphi (TMW06).21
The transition to the trend-setting isodomic

systems of the later periods is seen in the
tendency to line the blocks into horizontal
rows by dressing them in trapezoid forms
with horizontally leveled upper and lower,
and oblique lateral joints. This is impres-
sively seen at the walls of the hypostyle or
the Aphrodision at Delos or the ramparts
of the Attic-Boeotian frontier fortress of
Panakton-Eleutherai. Trapezoid and pseudo-
isodome masonry systems continued
through out the late Archaic to the Hellenistic TMW06
periods.
TMW05 Set of contemporary stoneworker‘s tools; TMW05

hammers, chisels and drill
(after Orlandos 1955: p. 118, fig. 36).
TMW06 Archaic masonry of the polygonal system in the

retaining wall of the sanctuary of Apollon at
Delphi.
129
TMW
A Levantine Iron Age Prelude
The Aeolian Capitals
As already mentioned, Egypt and the Levan-

tine Orient were sources of inspiration for
Greek architects. This cultural dependence
of the central Mediterranean realm began in
prehistory and continued at least to the time
of the Greco-Persian wars (499-449 BC). The
unexpected successful result of this conflict
with the Oriental super-power represented
a new self–awareness.
It increased consciousness of Hellenic val-
ues in political as well as cultural terms re-
sulting in the Macedonian campaign and the
disastrous end of the Great Persian Empire
TMW07 two centuries later. An element of consid-
erable importance, which sheds light on the
penetration of Egypto-Levantine decora-
tive elements into the architectural style of
early Archaic Greece, is the Aeolic capital
(TMW07-08).
Aeolic capitals are named after the region
Aeolis in the northwestern littoral of Asia
TMW08
Minor where the first specimen was found in
the 19th century.22 As an element interme-
diating between the perpendicular column
shaft and the horizontal entablature, the
Aeolic capital consists of a set of paired vo-
TMW07 Fragment of a limestone Aeolic capital found lutes. These mirror-like structures rise from
in front of the Amman citadell. The left part was the bottom and scroll upward to the lateral
restored in modern times.
portions of the block. A multi-petalled up-
TMW08 Aeolic capital, limestone, from Hazor (after EAA right standing palmetto commonly fills the
atlante pl. 307,1). triangular spandrel between them.
130
TMW
The earliest stone specimen of this type of out of local Transjordan limestone, is pre-
capital comes from Palestinian Shechem, served in the lapidary of the Amman citadel
Hazor (TMW08) and Megiddo dating from the museum, unfortunately without provenance.
10th and 9th centuries BC.23 They go back to a
far older development of architectural decor The interrelation between the Aeolic style
which took place in Pharaonic Egypt since the and the Ionic order has been controversially
25th century BC. The oldest known architec- discussed in scholarship.26 There are striking
tural columns with Aeolic-like designs can be differences between both with an important
seen on Theban tombs dating to the second difference in its degree of informality.
half of the 18th dynasty.24 Their volutes some- “While still conforming to the broad tenets of
times rise from simple upwardly directed tri- the style, each Aeolic structure was a highly
angles as paralleled in the later Palestine or individualistic monument. Freedom from the
Cypriote series. Apart from Palestine, capitals restraints of a tight canon was even extend-
of this sort are also known in various locations ed to the design of specific elements, and
east of the river Jordan.25 Fragments can be Aeolic details (such as capitals or bases) ad-
seen today at the entrances of the Amman mitted far more variation within a single build-
citadel and of the Karak castle (TMW07). ing than was usual in Ionic architecture.”27
Their exact position within the architectural
masonry context is not always clear. Some With its Oriental influence, the Aeolic capi-
capitals were partly set into the walls conclud- tal chronologically antecedes the Ionic one.
ed by differences in workmanship along both This fact alone seems to the present writer
sides. Sometimes they seem to have capped fairly indicative, even though structural dif-
decorative doorjambs. Others fronted court- ferences must be admitted. By the time of
yards forming ornamental façades, probably the Persian Wars, the Ionic capital emerged
crowning protruding wall-pillars. Indepen- as the dominant East Greek fashion that
dently, and probably influenced by Phoenician was to survive into the Late Roman period.
wood carpentry or minor Syrian arts out of In contrast to this, the Aeolic style declined
metal and ivory, the column-capital as a sup- at the end of the Archaic period, at least in
port was developed as an innovative tectonic monumental architecture. Pieces of evi-
element in the Levantine Iron Age culture. As dence, including representations in Athenian
another structural part, the bulky base adorn- vase-painting and Archaistic reliefs dating
ed with floral motives was added. A fragment to the Roman period, evidence that it did
of an elaborate specimen of the latter, be- not end completely in the Greek areas.28
longing to the Achaemenid type and chiseled However its Golden Age was gone forever.
131
TMW
The Climax of Order zontal and vertical joints was still unknown.
Isodome Masonry and the three standard Iron clamps at both ends of the horizontal
Orders of Greek Architectures joints held the blocks together, often in the
shape of double swallow-tails. In order to
As previously mentioned, the arrangement prevent corrosion, the iron parts were com-
of cubic blocks into horizontal layers ap- monly coated with lead.
pears in the Greek Archaic period and pro-
ved to be trend-setting for the subsequent The standardization bore three canonical
centuries of the Classic, Hellenistic and Classical building orders which are the Doric
Roman periods. The calibrated Attic foot, ell (TMW10, TMW11-A), the Ionic (TMW11-B)
and dactyl from the 5th century BC onward, and the Corinthian (TMW11-C).
exactly defined the sizes of the ashlars and The first two originated in the early Archaic
achieved a never more-regained elegance of period. However, the third, derived from the
proportions. Careful stone dressing reach- Ionian order, is an invention of the late 5th
ed a precision admired by craftsmen in the century and commonly named Corinthian.
subsequent eras, and continues until today. Distinctive elements of all three orders can
be seen in the performances of the entab-
Classical architects and their masons re- latures and the capitals. The Corinthian
fined the isodomic system by the solid con- order introduced the acanthus leaf as the
struction mode of posing the cubic blocks main decorative element of the capital. It
in variations (TMW09), among which the is arranged in two superimposed registers
headers-and-stretchers technique (TMW09- like a basket (Greek kalathos) upon the up-
3,5) became the most prominent and per- per end of the fluted column shaft in order
sistent.29 to stem the architrave.
The header is a cubic block bound with its Corinthian capitals are first attested in
long sides perpendicularly into the wall, while monumental architecture as crowning ele-
the stretcher runs parallel to the alignment ments of the semi-columns along the cella-
of the wall. This arrangement was cleverly walls of the temple of Apollon at Bassai-
repeated in the registered layers of the ma- Phigaleia, dated to 410 BC.
sonry. The insertion of horizontal rows con- Pausanias praised this temple due to the
sisting of ashlars with lower heights created harmonia of its masonry and attributed its
the variant of pseudo-isodome masonry.30 design to the famous Athenian architect,
Mortar and concrete for stabilizing the hori- called Iktinos.31
132
TMW
All these three orders survived, with altera- 1
tions, the whole of antiquity. One of the fin-
est examples of Greek Classical architec-
ture in the Levant is the temple of Eschmun
north of Sidon in modern Saida, Lebanon.
This example adopted many features from
2
the shrine of Erechtheus on the Athenian
Acropolis.
Many lavish buildings in public and private
places all over the Roman Empire retrieved
the Ionian and Corinthian order, sometimes
in a hybrid combination with elements of 3
the Dorian entablature. The Classical orders
suffered a certain decline during the me-
dieval ages east and west, but they were
revived and codified in Europe by Italian
architects and scholars such as Giacomo
4
da Vignola (1507-1573) or Andrea Palladio
(1508-1580) during the Renaissance.
In central Europe they were en vogue dur-
ing the era of historism in the 19th century.
They also found an unexpected come back
in the Orient. Elements inspired by classical 5
architecture, and sometimes combined in a
rather hybrid manner with elongated pro-
portions, can be found in several modern
villas in the western quarters of Amman.
TMW09
TMW09 Variants of rectangular (isodomic) masonry

(after Orlandos 1955: p. 227, fig. 182).
133
TMW
1
TMW10
TMW10 Significant parts of the Doric order (after EAA TMW11-B Significant parts of the Ionic order (after EAA
atlante pl. 302C). atlante pl. 311, 312).
The entablature consisting of Capital consisting of

1 the sima 1 the plinth
2 the metopes 2 the canalis
3 the triglypha 3 the volute or helix, plural helices
4 the architrave 4 with central knob or oculus
5 the echinus with cymation
6 the astragalus
TMW11-A Significant parts of the Doric order (after EAA 7 the pulvinus, plural pulvini
atlante pl. 290). 8 the balteus, plural baltei
Capital consisting of Base consisting of

(from above) 9 the plinth
1 the abacus 10 the torus, plural tori
2 the echinus 11 the trochylus or scotia,
3 the hypotrachelium plural trochyli or scotiae
Basement consisting of
4 the stylobate
5 the krepis or krepidoma
6 the euthyteria
134
TMW
1 1 1
2
2
2 3 3
4 9
3 6
5 4
6 8
7 7
8
4 5
10
11
5
10
6 9
TMW11-A TMW11-B TMW11-C TMW11-D
TMW11-C Significant parts of the Corinthian order (after

EAA atlante pl. 357).
Corinthian standard capital consisting of

1 the abacus with the abacus flower
2 the ovolus
3 the cavetto
4 the volute or helix, plural helices
5 the base of the basket or calathus
6 the stem of the abacus flower
The main part of the Corinthian order is the

acanthus basket or calathus consisting of two
rows of leaves
7 lower row of leaves: ima folia
8 upper row of leaves: secunda folia
9 and caulices, singular: caulix, or cauliculus,
supporting the volutes
TMW11-D Corinthian composite capital with only one row

of acanthus leaves and large volutes derived
from Ionic order (after EAA atlante pl. 380).
TMW12 Temple on the Citadel in Amman showing the

Corinthian order (source: OR). TMW12
135
TMW
The Challenge of Weights and Static as space covers), statics and the laws of gra-
The Trilithon, the true vault and the venue of vity were thoroughly studied by scientists.
mortar & plaster in Hellenistic architecture The employment of heavy catapults and ar-
tillery in military conflicts demanded strength
The Hellenistic period starts with an event and at the same time provided elasticity for
of outrageous range that radically changed the masonry of platforms and defensive walls.
the hitherto constellation of political and East of the Jordan River impressive examples
cultural power in the eastern Mediterranean of Hellenistic fortification architecture can be
basin. It opened new tracks to cultures in the found in the ramparts of the Gadarene acro-
heart of Asia formerly known only by hear- polis at Umm Qais (TMW13), or in parts of
say. The Macedonian troops under the com- the retaining wall of the Amman citadel. The
mand of their king Alexander III, called the limestone blocks at the Umm Qais monument
Great, defeated the army of the great Per- are carefully set in isodome registers accord-
sian King Dareios, and conquered the ter- ing to the headers-and-stretchers arrange-
ritory of his Achaemenid Empire extending ment. Each one is chiseled with great precision
from the coast of Asia Minor to the foothills and adjusted in their joints by a flimsy layer
of the Himalayas. Koine Greek became the of mortar. Each cubic ashlar appears carefully
lingua franca, and Hellenic culture merged smoothened on all six sides, and its dimen-
into a peculiar biotope with Oriental tradi- sions seem to have been standardized by the
tions. The overwhelming military success of stonecutters. To emphasize the orthogonal
the Greeks furnished them with supernat- appearance of the blocks and as a decorative
ural ideas and skills in art. element, recessed margins were introduced.33
Hellenistic and Roman architecture dared to

undertake audacious enterprises to tame na-
ture. The task to model the complete mount
Athos (in the middle peninsula of northern
Greek Chalkidiki) into a giant statue portray-
ing Alexander32 is probably not a mere anec-
dote. It does nonetheless impressively betray
the huge dimensions of imagination, thought
and ideas. In order to construct sophisticated
instruments and architectural elements (such
as siege machinery and half cylindrical vaults TMW13
136
TMW
The Tobiad palace at Iraq al-Amir (TMW14-
16)34, dated to the 2nd century BC, dis-
plays in its elevations huge cubical blocks
with such recesses. These can be seen
especially on the southern and northern ele-
vations. The dignity and aristocratic power
of the building’s owner is indicated by mon- TMW16
umental animal sculptures. Lionesses with
their youngsters are found on the corners
of the second floor elevations and leopards
as fountain spouts found at the base. Note-
worthy is the use of a conglomerate stained
rock in order to indicate the fur of the fe-
lines. Not only the masonry and the deco-
ration of this building, but its topographical
placement shed light on the fancy boldness
of the planners. The palace rises in the cen-
ter of an artificial lake, which was formed
by accumulating water retained by a dam,
in alluding to the luxury Nile ships (Greek
bareis)35 of the Ptolemaean servants of the TMW15
Tobiad tribe.
TMW13 Limestone blocks in the Umm Qais Hellenistic

rampart.
TMW14-16
The palace (Qasr al-‘Abd) of Hyrcanus the
Tobiade was situated in an artificial lake, imi-
tating a luxurious Ptolemean Nile ship (Greek
baris), Iraq al-Amir, Jordan, 2nd century BC.
TMW14 Panoramic view.
TMW15 Megalithic ashlars with recessed margins at the
southern elevations.
TMW16 Fountain in the shape of a leopard made of
TMW14 colored conglomerate rock.
137
TMW
Another exemplary monument in the Orient, Macedonian architects of the late 4th cen-
illuminating the challenging tasks of pre- tury BC were the first in the Mediterranean
Roman architects to wrestle with the power realm to adopt the true vault, which was
of rock, is the foundation podium of the constructed of wedge-shaped stones on a
temple of Jupiter Heliopolitanus in Baalbek, wooden form, semi-circular or segmental in
Lebanon. It measures 12m in height and section and supported on scaffold between
consists of only three lines of giant blocks, the long sides of the walls. The weight of
thus called the Trilithon by the Greeks.36 The the ceiling, loaded on the lateral retaining
lower and upper layers, 4m each in height, walls of the rectangular space and the semi-
are constructed as headers. Due to aesthe- circular array of the stone wedges, were
tic rules of Greek masonry, the middle stone kept in a stable position by the insertion of
layer, again 4m in height, had to be laid out a keystone in the climax of the arch.
orthogonally as stretchers. Each of these The fellahin constructors of southern Syria
blocks thus had to be a multiple proportion and Jordan practiced this technique with
of length in comparison to height. In the to- simplified scaffolding until recent times
tal length of the podium, spanning over 60m, (TMW18).
each of the three blocks needed a length of
20m. One of these giant stones, obvious- The invention goes back to 2nd millennium
ly abandoned for unknown reason, can still Mesopotamia where similar mud brick con-
be admired today in the ancient quarries of struction occurred at Assur. The Achaemenid
Baalbek (TMW17). Taken into consideration underground tombs in the Sakara cemetery
the height and a depth of 4m, each of these of Egypt, add to the conclusion that the
blocks weights 700 to 800 tons. These are Macedons learned this ingenious construc-
the heaviest weights ever moved by humans tion technique from Persian engineers.37
during antiquity. From the early Roman to the Ottoman pe-
riod the static principle was re-introduced
in Oriental architecture for the roofing of
broad rectangular spaces. Especially in the
volcanic zones of southern Syria transver-
sal arches supported by wall pillars resume
this early Hellenistic constructional inven-
tion. A fine specimen is the Roman cistern
of rectangular plan in front of the temple of
TMW17 Zeus Megistos in Qanawat, Syria (TMW19).
138
TMW
TMW18 TMW19
Even in very humble dwellings like stables or TMW17 The Temple of Jupiter Heliopolitanus in Baal-
barns, these arches carried the roofs made bek, Lebanon. Stone in the quarry.
from cane mats on oak beams covered by TMW18 Semi-barrel roofs constructed by the true-
earth packages. In arid woodless zones or- vault-technique. Construction technique of a
transversal arch as applied by Jordanian
ganic materials were replaced by long stone fellahin in the Ottoman and early Hashemite
slabs. periods (after A. Khammash 1986: p. 77).
TMW19 Transversal arches using the Hellenistic prin-
ciple of the true vault serving as supports for
the flat roof of a Roman water tank in the
sanctuary of Zeus Megistos in Qanawat, Syria.
139
TMW
Hellenistic architecture can be character- Mortar is basically a mixture of chalk, lime
ized by the introduction of mortar and and sand. It serves the practical purpose
plaster in order to join the ashlars and of joining the ashlars, as it has already
to achieve illusionistic effects. Imitating been observed above at the ramparts of
the appearance of marble, the limestone Gadara.
walls of barrel-vaulted underground tombs In Italy the earliest evidence of mortar as
in Macedonia38 were covered by a whitish a medium to consolidate stone-masonry
plaster. Parts of the exterior and interior dates to the 3rd century BC. It can be found
walls of these aristocratic funeral buildings in the colonial cities of Cosa and Alba Fucens
were lavishly decorated with polychrome in the Abruzzi mountains. It is generally
frescoes. accepted that in Rome it was widely used
Sometimes architectural elements such as in the same century.41
pillars, columns, metopes or mouldings,
like dentils and astragals, were executed in Alexandria, the eastern Mediterranean
applied fine white stucco or in wall paint- Egyptian capital of the Ptolemean king-
ings. dom, seems to have been a protagonist
for these trends. Here again, the illusive
The interior of the mausoleum of Lyson and ashlar masonry made of plaster is attest-
Kallikles at Lefkadia, Macedonia39 displays ed in funeral architecture of the Anfushy
the armors of the deceased in the semi- cemetery tomb 1 dating to the mid or
circular tondi of the vault in colored frescoes. second half of the 2nd century BC.42
The pilasters carrying the architrave of the Illusive wall decorations consisting of dou-
chamber, adorned by a continuous gar- ble story porticoes with segmental and
land, are painted with indication of shades broken pediments and curved entabla-
in order to achieve three-dimensional illu- ture round temples of the monopteros (or
sion. The entrance corridor (Greek dromos) tholos)-type, all executed in stucco or fres-
to the Macedonian tomb at Pydna40, as an- co, adorn the walls of houses and under-
other example for illusionism in Hellenistic ground tombs.
architecture, displays an ashlar masonry
with recessed margins illusively executed Such Alexandrian illusive wall decoration
in stucco, similar to what was found in Italy systems have been considered as proto-
during the Second Pompeian Style. Simi- types for some of the elaborated tomb fa-
lar features can be seen in the Nabatean çades in Arabia Petraea, there, translated
banquet hall at Siq al-Barid near Petra. into monumental rock-carvings.43
140
TMW
Concrete, Pseudo-Ashlars, and Marble
Roman Imperial Architecture in the Oriental
Provinces
The audacious attempt to demonstrate

their political power by dominating nature
is a specific trait of late-Hellenistic Oriental
kings, who were clients of the Romans.
With this attitude, they proved to be true
heirs of their Macedonian royal ancestors.
The task to change virgin rock into man-
made architecture can be best understood
in the Nabataean tomb façades in Petra,
Jordan, and Hegra / Madain Salih, Saudi
Arabia. The Khazneh al-Fira’un is still the fin-
est and most elaborate example (TMW20).
Palaces with luxurious bathing installations

were set on the top of steep mountains,
best exemplified by the royal Nabataean
court on top of the Umm al-Biyara-massive
in Petra or the Herodian villa found in the
steep rock face of Masada.
Both the Nabataean King Areathas IV as
well as Herod, the founder of the Jewish-
Idumaean dynasty, maintained close rela-
tions to the imperial capital of Rome, which
they personally knew by various visits. This
fact may explain the transfer of central
Italian plans and construction techniques to
their Oriental homelands.
TMW20 Khazneh al-Fira’un in Petra, Jordan (photo-

graph I. Helmedag). TMW20
141
TMW
Opus reticulatum, for instance, a net-shaped One of the greatest achievements of Roman
masonry of obliquely set baked bricks in con- architecture was the invention of concrete47,
crete44 typical of the Late Republican and opus caementitium.
Augustean architecture in Rome (TMW21), Opus incertum, a reinforced mix of broken
occurs in the eastern dining room (triclinum) brick or stone, was an additional type of
of the Herodian winter palace at Jericho.45 concrete. The use of this material open-
With a certain emphasis on architectural ed new dimensions of constructing dura-
monuments, inaugurated by the Herodian ble walls and vaults, which disregarded
dynasty, isodome ashlars with recessed the laws of statics. With this invention, na-
margins achieved an esthetic effect by em- ture was dominated to such an extent that
phasizing the supposed strength of walls in some Roman intellectuals issued doubts as
illusive plaster variants. This can be found to whether such a behavior of mortals tres-
in the western palace in Masada.46 passed divine law. Apart from sun dried
or burned brick, the construction materi-
als on the Apennine peninsula in the pre-
Augustean period were local rocks such as
TMW21 Funeral building executed in opus reticulatum, Grotta-Oscura-Tuffo, Travertine and Peperine.
found in Roman cemetery of Isola Sacra near These indigenous rocks basically served as
Ostia, Italy. a coating material on exterior walls con-
sisting of cores made from casted opus
caemenitium.
Such a technique provided an economic ad-
vantage in that the walls did not need to be
constructed of massive cubic stone blocks.
They were stabilized by casted-concrete
cores. The exterior appearance of mason
stonewalls gradually became more mislead-
ing, since only the visible front part of the
ashlar needed to be shaped orthogonally,
while the invisible rear remained as a raw
broken wedge.
Literally these walls now consisted of two
opposite linings of pseudo-ashlars hiding
TMW21 the massive concrete core.
142
TMW
Another important innovation of the Roman its green and white texture), from northern
Imperial period was the revival of marble Africa (Pavonazetto, giallo and rosso antico,
as a decorative and precious building ma- and Africano) and extraordinary noble rocks
terial, originally employed in large scale like Porphyry and Assuan rose granites from
building programs in Classical Athens. In Egypt.
a famous passage from the biography by All these quarries were added to the
Suetonius48, Augustus, the first emperor, emperor’s monopoly by the early 2nd cen-
was claimed to have found the capital Rome tury AD.50
clothed in brick, but left it by his death clad
in marble. The climax of variegation achieved by the
The emperor’s preference for this exqui- use of colored rocks can be found in the in-
site building material certainly came from terior refurbishment of Hadrian’s Pantheon
his personal admiration of the leading in Rome (TMW22). Revetments of niches,
Hellenic city, widely considered as the seat entablatures and buttresses form a multi-
of wisdom and arts. Augustus converted this colored kaleidoscope to impress the visitor
city into a kind of open-air museum by re- of this shrine made for the common wealth of
building destroyed temples of Attica on new the Roman Empire. The following quote by J.
foundations at the Athenian agora such as B. Ward-Perkins, found in his famous article
those found in Athena at Sounion, Ares at on Roman marble trade in the Libyan Tripo-
Acharnai or in Demeter at Thorikos.49 litania, gives a more detailed account of the
extravagant use of different colored rocks.
White marbles were quarried in the vicinity
of Athens at Mounts Pentelis and Hymettos, The Pantheon is typical of the new age. The
as well as on the islands of the Aegean ar- columns of the porch are of red and of grey
chipelago, such as Thasos, Naxos and Paros. Egyptian granite; the bases, the great fluted
White marbles for the supply of the Roman pilasters, and a part of the entablature of Pen-
capital were extracted in Asia Minor and telic; the capitals, the rest of the entablature
from mainland Italy, the latter abundantly and the door-frame of Luna; the door-sill of
available nearby Luni in Toscana known as Africano; the columns in the four exedrae of
Carrara. Numidian; and the whole of the interior ve-
In order to achieve polychromic effects, neered and paved in colored marble, some
colored marbles were imported from the of it in slabs cut from very large blocks.51
Greek island Euboaea (or Cippolino, an The choice of varied and costly stone be-
Italian word meaning small onion due to came part of the vocabulary of power.52
143
TMW
It was certainly the visit of Hadrian to the
Oriental provinces in 129/130 AD that lever-
aged the trade of marble and the standardi-
zation of town planning and architecture in
the Levant. The chessboard-patterned lay-
out of the city settlement grounds (based
on the orthogonal so-called Hippodamian
system developed in 5th century BC Greece
and Asia Minor and employed in the roy-
al Hellenistic metropoleis of Antioch and
Alexandria) became a planning rule in the
TMW22
Greek-speaking east.
Due to the long urban tradition, which was
lacking in the western provinces, the col-
onnaded street axis became the distinctive
element of Roman Levantine visual urban-
ism during the Roman imperial period.53 It
must be noted that there is no indigenous
source of the crystalline marble available
either in Syria, Palestine or Arabia. Import of
this material from the Mediterranean over-
seas required skilled logistics for the ship-
ment, profound financial funds to cover the
TMW23 expenses, as well as thorough training for
its treatment. All this was made possible by
TMW22 -23 Colored stone used for geometric wall and the long period of political stability and eco-
floor ornaments (opus sectile) in the nomic prosperity under the augurs of Rome,
Roman, Byzan tine and Islamic periods.
the Pax Romana. According to the statistics
TMW22 Interior elevation of niches and pilaster
architecture made from multi-colored of marble finds, it is obvious that incoming
marbles, Pantheon, 118-125 AD, Rome. raw blocks and finished or semi-finished
TMW23 Revetment of the eastern interior wall of the objects, were stockpiled in the Levantine
large courtyard (riwaq) made from black-
ports. By on-sale commerce they were then
bluish white marble with partial natural
veining and sprinkling, Ummayyad Mosque, distributed to the coastal cities and the
Damascus. hinterlands.
144
TMW
The marble trade had a profound effect The emperor in person initiated the comme-
upon the material culture of Syria and the morative buildings in Palestine, which relat-
Near East. Cities could acquire prefabricated to the life and death of Jesus of Nazareth
ed elements for buildings, or, if they could and were furbished in greatest splendor in
not afford these, they might be able to have plan and chosen materials. With the spread
competent copies made in local materials. of early Christian communities beyond the
Temples and other public buildings could be borders of the river Jordan, intensive build-
decorated with sculpture, either mass-pro- ing activity started in towns and countryside
duced or specially commissioned. Individuals alike. This building frenzy resulted in lavishly
could have statues and portraits produced by embellished churches and chapels, monas-
craftsmen skilled in classical styles, and they teries and residences of Arab and Aramaean
could be buried in imported sarcophagi. The communities all adhering to the new con-
uniformity of this cultural material speaks of fession. This tendency climaxed during the
a desire for regularity, but it should be noted reign of emperor Justinian early in the 6th
that this desire was mainly that of the elites century AD when mosaic schools such as
who could afford to pay for such expensive that of Madaba created their most celebrat-
objects, and who had the most to gain by a- ed works of art. The most impressive works
ligning themselves with the international preserved today are the mosaic floors jigsaw
overlay culture of the Roman Mediterranean.54 puzzled out small square stone and glass
tesserae. The tradition of mosaic art can
be followed back in the Orient to the late
Spolia, Stones and Bricks Hellenistic period and was later bequeathed
Early Christian to the craftsmen working on command by
to Byzantine Stone Architecture the Ummayyad caliphs (TMW24, TMW25).
With the rise of Christianity, politically seal-

ed by the Constantinian edicts of the early
4th century AD, a new chapter of Oriental
architecture opened. Written sources from
the extensive literary heritage by Eusebius
Caesarensis (ca. 260-339 AD), author of
A History of the Early Church at Palestine
and of A Panegyric Biography of Emperor
Constantine I prove most valuable. TMW24
145
TMW
Besides the continuation of Roman concrete
and pseudo-ashlar masonry, the attentive
visitor of archaeological sites in the Levant
may observe a new construction custom
typical of the Late Antiquity; the recycl-
ing of older building material as spoils.55
Recycling is predominantly of stone in all its
varieties and qualities, dressed in Roman
times for the construction of private or pub-
lic constructions, delicately adorned with
abstract or floral decorations, and/or partly
inscribed with Greek, Nabataean or Jewish
characters. An impressive and early ex-
ample is the portal of the Byzantine church
in the Serayl of Qanawat, Syria showing the
frame and lintel, which consists of a badly
battered Roman frieze of acanthus scrolls.
The intentions for the use of spoils seem
TMW25 to be threefold; economic to save mo-
ney by re-using existing older elements,
decorative to enjoy them as pieces of sculp-
tural art, and ideological in displaying
TMW24 -25 Colored stone and glass cubes (tesserae) them as grand trophies of the victory of
used for figural and floral painting (mosaics)
Christianity over the power and wealth of
in the Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine and
Islamic periods. Roman paganism.
The masons of the Ghassanid monastic
TMW24 Detail of a geometric mosaic made of dark praetorium at Hallabat made use of basalt
brown and white tesserae from the Herodian
blocks transported from elsewhere contain-
palace in Machairos at Muqawir, Jordan, late
1st century BC. It is the oldest mosaic found ing long portions of a Greek inscription iden-
in Jordan, represented at the Madaba visitors tified as an edict by Emperor Theodosius for
center. organizing the defense of desert borders
(TMW26). In some remote areas of Syria
TMW25 Polychrome floor mosaic representing a
wind god, from a villa in Philippopolis, Syria, complete ancient structures are still lived in
early 4th century AD, Shahba, Museum. today.
146
TMW
TMW26 -27 Re-use of older ornamented or inscribed
stones (spolia) in late-antique, Islamic and
modern masonry.
TMW26 Small ancient sanctuary of the 3rd century

AD inhabited by a Druze family,
Umm Zaytoun, Syria.
TMW27 Façade of a late-Ottoman fellahin-house

with bi-chrome masonry out of white
limestone and dark-blue basalt ashlars
arranged in horizontal bands. On both
sides of the entrance basalt fragments of
TMW26 a Roman tomb door have been ornamen-
tally re-used. Bait Husban, al-Melab,
Umm Qais, Jordan.
TMW27
147
TMW
In addition to the art of mosaics, the Muslim
world inherited the spoils of masonry, as
well as another type of construction tech-
nique, which may be called composite.
This technique employed two inorganic ma-
terials in a practical and decorative manner,
that of stone and brick (TMW28). Both stone
and bricks are embedded into horizontal and
vertical joints made from wet mortar. Burned
or sun-dried bricks, having a long tradition
in the Orient, could easily have been mass-
produced by using moulds. They also fulfilled
two further practical purposes as insula-
tion which prevents thermal bridges and as
elastical cushioning which stops the seismic
strokes of earthquakes. Laid in alternating
bands with rows of dressed ashlars, such
a composite masonry, achieves a high aes-
thetic value as best represented by the build-
ings at Qasr Ibn Wardane in central Syria.
Some of them are dated by inscriptions back
to 564 AD. Byzantine churches in Greece
dating to the 10th century AD preserve a de-
veloped variant of such composite masonry
by coating each single ashlar along all joints
with a flat slab of burned brick. Some include
brick bands with pseudo-Coufic inscriptions
betraying the provenance of the idea of com-
TMW28 posite masonry from the East.
TMW28 Composite masonry combining stone ashlars

with bricks in Byzantine architecture.
Alternating brick and basalt masonry lines at
Qasr Ibn Wardane, Syria, 564 AD.
148
TMW
Revival of the brick and glazed tile Compared with the medieval west, the Orient
An Islamic epilogue achieved predominance in the arts and sci-
ences until open-minded western intellectual
A full account of the present narrative on rulers such as Frederic II of Hohenstauffen
the following era of Islam would go be- began a profitable dialogue. In Mesopotamia,
yond the scope of the present survey and Iran and Egypt, along the northern African
the competence of its author. A conclu- coast and up into southern Spain a renaissance
sion and perspective of the history of stone of the uncoated brick, sometimes composed
used in architectural contexts should be me- to Arabesque ornaments, can be traced. The
rely considered as a sketch. As the above glazed tile, colored by minerals, was once in-
considerations and observations already vented in Mesopotamian Sumer and Babylon
addressed, the Muslim religion was the na- during the 2nd millennium BC. It not only
tural heir of all its antecessors in the Levant. was revived during the Muslim period, but
The mosaics and opus sectile revetments celebrated a campaign of victory through out
of the Umayyad mosque in Damascus are Arabian and Persian countries and societies.
not understandable without the works of art
from the eastern regions of the Byzantine Rock, however, lost its privilege as the guard-
Empire, themselves based on Greco-Roman ian of order and power. But, it entered into a
foundations. At any rate, the Muslim period new dimension; the dimension of holiness.
is often falsely and tendentiously assigned As one can read in the tractate on the idols
as a time of decline by western scholars by the Abbasid scholar Ibn al-Qalbi, pre-
and media. Certainly, the eternity of Roman Islamic Arabs already venerated stones as
and Byzantine marble is a futile supposition the seat of gods. Nabataean caravan mer-
since this rock could be recycled by burning chants prayed to their divine patrons on fis-
it in furnaces or kilns to produce lime. sured rocky high-places. The lithic aspect of
In addition, many features invented and religion was still maintained by Islam, a fact
maintained by Greco-Roman and Byzantine witnessed by its two most important sanc-
architecture have been adopted and trans- tuaries, the meteorite in the Kaba of Meqqa
formed by Muslim artists and scholars. and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.
149
TMW
1 First published in Greek (1955) and subsequently translated into French (Vol. I-II, 1966-1968)
2 II. 1985, pp. 29-63
3 All prehistoric chronological dates subsequently given refer to Scheltema 2009, p. 6
4 Sievertsen 1997, col. 512
5 Scheltema 2009, pp. 27-31
6 Yassine 1985
7 Sievertsen 1997, col. 512 points out that stone masonry in the ancient Near East was first applied in
Neo-Assyrian monumental architecture from the 8th century BC onward under Syro-Phoenician and
Hethite influence. But his point of view focuses mainly on Mesopotamia, which takes a different develop-
ment compared to the Levant due to the wide lack of stone.
8 S. W. Helms, in Homès-Frederic – Hennessy I., 1989, pp. 310-316
9 For Egyptian Pharaonic architecture of fundamental importance are Arnold 1991; Goyon et alii 2004.
10 Geography VIII, Overbeck 1868, 3 No. 1-2, pp. 369, 373
11 Called Arges (the one who beams), Brontes (the one who thunders) and Stereopes (the one who
flashes), cf. H. von Geisau, in KP III, col. 393
12 Also alternatively named engasterocheires or cheirogastores
13 Eustathios, Commentary in Odyssey p. 1622, 54; Scholion on Eurypides, Orestide 965; Scholion in Aris-
tides, Rhethorical Art I, p 52, etc. Overbeck 1868, nos. 3-5, pp. 3-4
14 Travlos 1971, no. 101, pp. 52, 54, figs. 66, 67
15 Periegisis II.16.5, Overbeck 1868, no. 25, p. 5
16 Orlandos 1955, p. 294, fig. 271; Orlandos 1968, p. 200, fig. 244
17 Orlandos 1955, p. 67; Orlandos 1968, p. 1
18 Löw 1936, pp. 374-379
19 Orlandos 1955, pp. 107-140; Orlandos 1968, pp. 21-69
20 For the development of the Greek Aeolic capital and its relation to Oriental architectural prototypes see
Wesenberg 1971, pp. 74-87 (Wesenberg is more hesitant about the Oriental origin of the Aeolian capital.
He assumes an independent development under comparable external conditions); Betancourt 1977, pp.
115-133, esp. p. 117, It is most likely that the Greeks borrowed the volute capital from some nearby
region in Anatolia or North Syria, although an Assyrian origin cannot be completely ruled out. Yigal 1979;
Negueruela 1982, pp. 395-401
21 Orlandos 1955, pp. 207-216; Orlandos II. 1968, pp. 127-134
22 Betancourt 1977, pp. 50-55; cf. Baran 2011
23 Betancourt 1977, p. 27-35, pl. 4-6, 9
24 Betancourt 1977, p. 19 with note 12
25 Negueruela, I., 1982, pp. 395-401
26 Betancourt 1977, p. 122 with notes 1-2
27 Betancourt 1977, p. 129
28 Betancourt 1977, p. 132
29 An excellent overview on the Greek architects of the Archaic and Classical periods is provided by Svenson-
Evers 1996
30 Orlandos 1955, p. 232, fig. 187; Orlandos 1968, p. 148, fig. 165
31 Pausanias, Periegisis VIII 30,2; For justified criticism on Pausanias cf. Svenson-Evers 1996, p. 160 with note 3
150
TMW references
32 Relevant literary sources quoted in RE II. 1896, col. 2068 s.v. Athos 1 (Oberhummer)
33 Orlandos 1955, 251-256; Orlandos 1968, pp. 175-178
34 Will – Larché 1991
35 Will 1987
36 Will 1966; Adam 1977; F. Ragette, in Van Ess – Weber 1999, p. 59-61, fig.55
37 Wesenberg 1991. For the adoptions of Achaemenid elements by Philipp II of Macedonia cf. Kienast 1973
38 For this important group of Hellenistic funeral monuments see now Huguenot 2008
39 Miller 1993
40 Huguenot 2008, p. 34, no. 27D
41 von Hesberg 2005, pp. 20-21
42 Venit 2002, p. 74-77, color pl. I
43 McKenzie 1990, pp. 85-104
44 von Hesberg 2005, p. 24, fig. 4 g
45 Förtsch 1988, p. 80, fig. 63
46 Förtsch 1996, p. 114, fig. 59
47 For Roman cement in general see Ringbom – Hohlfelder 2011,
For its employment in the East see Deichman 1979
48 De Vita Caesarum, Augustus 28
49 Travlos 1971, p. 104-111
50 Ward-Perkins 1951, p. 79
51 Ward-Perkins 1951, p. 99; Burns 2011 (unpublished), p. 170
52 Taylor 2003, p. 19; Burns 2011 (unpublished), p. 170
53 Burns 2011 (unpublished)
54 Butcher 2003, p. 211
55 Deichmann 1975
151
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Adam, J.P. A propos du trilithon de Baalbek. Le transport et la mise en oeuvre des mégalithes. Syria 54, 1977, pp. 31-63
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Aurenche, O. La Maison Orientale. 1981
Bahnassi, A. A Dictionary of Architecture and Arts. Arabic-English and English-Arabic, with an English-French
glossary. Beirut, Librairie du Liban, 1995
Baran, A. New Thoughts on the Aeolic Style in Architecture. In SOMA 15th Symposium on Mediterranean Ar-
chaeology. Catania University, 2011, unpublished, http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:LhaNCO5l02YJ:ww
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University Department of Ancient History, 2011
Butcher, K. Roman Syria and the Near East. London, The British Museum, 2003
Coarelli, F. Rom. Ein archäologischer Führer. Freiburg-Basel-Wien, Herder, 1975
Deichmann, F. W. Die Spolien in der spätantiken Architektur. Sitzungsberichte der Bayerischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, Phil.-Hist. Klasse Heft 6, Munich, Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1975
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Archäologischen Instituts. Römische Abteilung, 86, 1979, pp. 437-527
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155
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156
Nizar Abu-Jaber
GEOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF SYRIA AND JORDAN
The evolution of architecture, and any given most appropriate to the function. In fact,
built environment, is clearly a function of modern building has departed significantly
the needs of the people and the resources from traditional architecture in terms of the
available for construction. In the Mediterra- materials used, and the form, function and
nean region, needs include shelter from the technology of the usage. However, in some
elements (heat, cold, humidity and wild ani- aspects modern architecture in Jordan and
mals), which differs little from most climat- to a lesser extent in Syria does retain the
ic settings. On the other hand, the bulk of use of stone, while changing the function of
useable natural materials consists of stone, this material as well as its sources. Specifi-
except in limited settings where mud brick cally, stone is now being used as decorative
has been used as a prime building materi- cladding rather than a material for structur-
al when suitable stone resources were not al support. This has had the effect of lower-
available1. Wood was sparingly used due ing the volume of the stone needed per buil-
to its limited availability in arid climates. ding, and lowering transportation costs.
Stone is a bulky material, which is expen- The use of imported stone for decoration is
sive and difficult to move. Therefore, it is not new. During the Classical periods of the
not surprising that in any given area, most Greek, Roman and Nabatean empires, mar-
of the stone used consisted of material ble transported from Greece and Anatolia
which was locally available, irrespective of was used for flooring and wall cladding in
the quality of that material. public buildings and private residences.
These have been found in Jarash, Umm Qais
In modern architecture, and with the use and Petra. While these are notable exam-
of heavy equipment for extraction and ples, they are none the less a departure
transport, it has become more common from the more mundane trend of using
to move stone from more distant sources. local stone, which was a more economically
This provides opportunities for stone use feasible choice.
157
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Geologically, rock is classified as being ei- unique case that deserves at least a short
ther igneous (formed from cooling melted mention in this context.
rock known as magma or lava), sedimenta-
ry (derived from the weathering, erosion, Brief Geology
transport, sedimentation and lithification
of previously existing rock) or metamor- The region of Jordan and Syria, geologi-
phic (formed from a previously existing cally speaking, has long represented what
rock subjected to high pressures, tempera- is known as a stable shelf margin, where
tures and/or interaction with thermal wa- a continent with a core at the Arabian-
ter). Thus, the types of rocks present re- Nubian Shield (in what is now the western
flect the geological history of an area. Most part of Saudi Arabia and the eastern parts
common examples of igneous rocks include of Egypt and Sudan) interacted with the
granite and basalt. Sedimentary rocks in- Tethys Sea in the area around this core.
clude sandstone and limestone, and meta- As the sea rose and receded, the bound-
morphic rock is marble and slate2. ary between continental sediments sur-
rounding the shield and the marine sedi-
In this chapter, I will describe how geology ments deposited by the Tethys fluctuated.
has dictated the nature of building mate- From 350 million ago until 30 million years
rials in Jordan and Syria. Also to be con- ago, it can be seen that sedimentary rocks
sidered is how modern architecture has tend to grade from continental sandstone
adopted the use of stone increasingly as in the south (where the Arabian Nubian
a decorative element, changing the econo- shield is found) to clay rich limestone
mic drivers related to how it is used, the (known as marl and marly limestone)
volume needed, and the qualities that are and cleaner white limestone in the north
deemed desirable when choosing this ma- where marine environments dominated.
terial. These imperatives have thus led to While this oversimplified view of the area’s
the use of selected sources that provide the paleogeography would make a geologist
desired properties in balance with the cost wince, it does provide a starting point in
of extracting and transporting stone. In ad- understanding the distribution of the sedi-
dition, I will add a few notes on the use mentary rocks that characterize the region.
of imported stone that has been found in
ancient structures, specifically in buildings Drastic changes in the paleogeography be-
of the Classical Period (Greek, Roman and gan to occur about 30 million years ago,
Nabataean civilizations). These represent a when the Tethys ocean began to disappear
158
NAJ
as the Arabian Continental Plate began to Limestone
collide with the Eurasian Plate. This led to
the formation of the Touros and Zagros Limestone is by far the most common build-
mountains in Turkey, Iraq and Iran, the ing stone used in Jordan and Syria. Specifi-
beginning of the Mediterranean Sea, the cally, the Middle and Upper Cretaceous and
Red Sea and the Dead Sea rift valley, and a Eocene limestone found in northern Jordan
number of other features that now domin- and southern Syria has long been the fa-
ate the geomorphology of the region. In vored building stone. Aside from its abun-
addition, massive volcanism at this time led dance, this limestone provides a suitable
to significant basalt flows seen in central building material that is both mechanical-
Jordan as well as in the boundary area cov- ly and chemically stable as well as aestheti-
ering northern Jordan and southern Syria. cally desirable.
From south to north the dominant rock The Middle and Upper Cretaceous and Eocene
outcrops start from Paleozoic continental sequence in northern Jordan is divided into
sandstones in southern Jordan to Mesozoic two distinct groups. The Middle Cretaceous
and Early Cenozoic limestone in central to is known as the Ajloun Group and the Upper
northern Jordan and southern Syria (This Cretaceous-Eocene Group is known as the
limestone sometimes contains marly lime- Balqa Group. The Ajloun Group is divided
stone, phosphatic and cherty limestone.) into five formations, from older (lower) to
Basalt outcroppings span from southern younger known as the Naur, Wadi Shueib,
Syria reaching into northern Jordan3. The Hummar, Fuheis and Wadi Sir formations.
basalt is Cenozoic in age, and is mostly from These vary in physical qualities and thus in
the Eocene period. While other types of li- their desirability as building materials. For
thologies are present (such as Precambrian example, the Naur and Wadi Shueib for-
granite in the Aqaba area and Cenozoic tra- mations are thinly bedded and rich in clay
vertine in the Jordan Valley), these have rare- material known as marl. These formations
ly been used in the past, and their modern tend to be ignored because their thin bed-
uses are for decorative purposes. They are ding does not lend to the extraction of large
rarely used as building stone. enough stones for building purposes. Their
clay content makes them generally weak
Following is a brief synopsis of the major stones that do not endure weathering, and
stones used for building in the past and the their yellow color is not considered to be
present. aesthetically pleasing.
159
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This is not to say that these stones have The Wadi Sir formation has been exploit-
not been used in traditional architecture. ed extensively in Ajloun, Ishtafaina, Anjara
The traditional buildings in Salt have almost and Dair Yousef in the Ajloun and Irbid gov-
exclusively been extracted from the Wadi ernorates. A highly sought after stone for
Shueib formation, giving the old city a dis- building in modern times, it is hard and
tinctive and beautiful yellowish hue. dense and comes in subtle pink, yellow and
grey hues. But because these quarries exist
But most stone from the Ajloun group has in forested areas in a country sorely devoid
been extracted from the thicker, cleaner of trees, permits to quarry there have been
and whiter Fuheis and Wadi Sir formations4. revoked for environmental reasons.
These formations have provided the bulk
of architectural building stones found both The Wadi Sir formation, is also extracted
in classical archaeological sites as well as extensively in the northwestern Mafraq gov-
more recent traditional architecture. The ernorate, most notably in Hayyan. While the
quarries of ancient Gerasa (Jarash), for ex- Wadi Sir formation is the same, the quality of
ample, were opened by the Romans provid- stone is notably lower in this area, as it has
ing the bulk of the building stone used in not undergone the extensive recrystallization
the construction of their monumental city. which characterizes the limestone found in
These quarries were generally opened in the more humid Irbid and Ajloun governor-
the outcrops of the Fuheis and to a lesser ates. The softer Hayyan limestone is easier
extent the Wadi Sir formations. They pro- to extract, and the area where it is found
vided stone that was large enough to carve does not have the same environmental con-
large drums for the colonnaded streets as cerns that limit the extractability of stone
well as blocks that were needed for the from Irbid and Ajloun.
construction of palaces, temples, baths
and houses that graced the Decapolis city The Hellenistic Temple of Qasr al Abd at Iraq
of Gerasa. al Amir west of Amman is an interesting ex-
Quarries deriving from the Fuheis and Wadi ample where massive blocks of the Wadi Sir
Sir formations are ubiquitous in northern limestone were used in construction. The
Jordan, both as a result of the desirability sizes of the blocks used are impressive, and
of this stone as well as its prevalence in clearly show the possibilities of utilizing local
the region5. The stone is hard yet easily stone resources in astounding ways. The
shaped. Large blocks can be extracted, and Upper Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary Balqa
have a desirable white color. Group is not as prevalent in northern Jordan.
160
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It consists of four formations known as
the Amman Silicified Limestone, the Hassa
Phosphorite, the Muwaqqar Chalk Marl and
the Umm Rijam Chalk Marl formations.
The Amman Silicified Limestone (ASL) is a
formation consisting of alternating layers of
chert and limestone that are difficult to sep-
arate, brittle and are relatively thin. This
stone was seldom used as a building stone,
with notable exceptions seen at Rujm al
Malfuf, where an Iron Age fortification in
the form of a round tower has been built
exclusively out of flat stones from this for-
mation. A series of these fortifications were
built from the Amman formation silicified NAJ01
limestone during that time. NAJ01 Massive limestone blocks used in the con-
Other structures known as dolmens are struction of Qasr al ‘Abd at Iraq al Amir. Stone
found throughout the north of Jordan, which is from the Wadi Sir formation.
are Bronze Age structures consisting of two
NAJ02 Amman formation building stone at Rujm al
flat supporting walls and a ceiling made up Malfouf (photograph T.M. Weber).
of large slabs of stone extracted from the
ASL. Generally speaking builders have long
ignored this stone as a building material de-
spite its abundance. It is difficult to shape
because it is hard and brittle, and thus
stonemasons tended to avoid it.
The Hassa phosphorite unit is soft and thin

bedded, and thus does not lend itself to use
as a building stone. Some phosphatic lime-
stone can be recognized in older buildings in
northern Jordan (from their distinctive pel-
loidal textures and grayish coloration), but
these are rare. NAJ02
161
NAJ
Localized metamorphism of the phosphatic
formation at Daba south of Amman has led
to the formation of colorful reddish, pur-
ple and green marbles that are frequently
used as fragments imbedded in concrete
tile flooring material. This marble is not ex-
tracted in large blocks, nor is it used as a
building stone for structure or cladding.
The Um Rijam formation is a sequence of
hard limestone and chert beds of the Late
Eocene age. Thick beds and large carbon-
ate concretions within this formation pro-
vide some of the most desirable building
stone in Jordan. Specifically, the Um Rijam
formation in Ma’an is highly desired for mod-
ern buildings (Sateh Ma’an and Jazeera
stone). It is the most expensive due to its
high quality and the distance that is need-
ed to transport it to the urban areas in the
north and center of the country. The Um
Rijam is also quarried in the northeast of
the country in Ruwaishid in the Mafraq gov-
ernorate. The Ruwaishid stone is of lower
quality than its counterpart in the south,
and is mostly used as a low cost alternative. NAJ03
Basalt On the face of it, basalt is an ideal building

material as it is durable and hard. How-
Cenozoic volcanism in the west and north of ever, because it is difficult to work and to
Jordan and southern Syria has led to exten- move, it has not been used much in the
sive basalt flows in the these areas. Over the past except in areas where it is near the
last 30 million years, thick deposits of basalt source. Thus, the builders of the Nabatean
as well as pyroclastic cones have marked city of Umm Jimal in the Mafraq area and
large areas in both countries. the Greek-Roman city of Gadara (Umm
162
NAJ
Qais) in the Irbid governorate as well as Travertine
the city Bosra (Nabatean, later Roman)
in southern Syria used this stone exten- In the late 1990’s the use of travertine ex-
sively, as it is local and thus costs little to tracted from the Jordan valley became some-
transport. More recent Ottoman and 20th what fashionable, mostly to add a rough
century buildings in Damascus and Irbid yellowish touch to parts of the exteriors of
have also used basalt, mostly intermin- buildings.
gled with limestone. Current building codes
discourage the use of basalt. The material The use of travertine in the past has been
is difficult to extract and dress because of limited, although there are occurrences. For
its hardness. There is also an aversion to example, there is at least one travertine col-
using it as owning a black house might be umn in the ancient city of Gerasa (Jerash),
considered bad luck by many. Basalt is less despite the fact that most of the columns
commonly used in modern times. used in building the Greco-Roman city were
extracted from local limestone. In addition,
NAJ03 Basalt cladding on a contemporary church there is a granite column in the city. This
designed by the architect Josef Abu-Hadid in occurrence is interesting to note, because
the Hauran region, Syria (photograph J. Jäger).
the nearest source of granite was about 400
NAJ04 Travertine block handrail at Kempinsky Ishtar km away. Most probably stone used for this
Dead Sea, Jordan (photograph I. Helmedag). column was brought from Aswan in Egypt.
Travertine is a carbonate deposit formed due
to precipitation near springs of both cold but
mostly hot water. It tends to contain large
voids from areas where bubbling water pen-
etrated when the stone was deposited. Low
porosity stones, particularly limestone, tend
to be considered of higher quality and desir-
ability than high porosity ones, as shall be
discussed later.
Under most contexts travertine would be

considered a low quality building stone.
However, its aesthetic value overcomes
NAJ04 its technical characteristics in some cases.
163
NAJ
This is somewhat ironic because the Wadi Marble
Shueib formation stone used extensively in
traditional Salt has been deemed undesira- Besides the Daba’ marble mentioned previ-
ble, even as the travertine has come into ously, there are no native marble sources in
use to achieve a similar effect. Jordan. Some hard fossiliferous white, grey
and reddish limestone is extracted from the
Granite Hallabat area near Azraq (from the Wadi Sir
Formation), and is polished and marketed
Extensive outcrops of granite are found in as marble for local use. From a scientific
the south of Jordan near the city of Aqaba. view point these are sedimentary rocks and
The granite is very old, and has been sub- not metamorphic, which is a requirement
jected to extensive tectonic deformation for any stone to be termed a marble.
and to a lesser extent mechanical weath-
ering. Imported marble is extensively used in mod-
ern architecture, mostly as flooring but
Quarrying for large blocks has not occur- sometimes on exterior walls. Distinctive mar-
red in this region, because the size of the bles from the northern Mediterranean (Italy,
blocks that can be extracted would gener- Turkey and Greece) are quite popular, with
ally be small. Nonetheless, some small their white, bluish and greyish colors. In-
operators look for large granite boulders in terestingly, this is not a new phenomenon.
the stream beds in the area.
Similar marble (mostly from modern Greece
Using jackhammers and small equipment, and Turkey) was generously used in classical
these operators carve cubes out of such architecture (Greek, Roman and Nabatean)
boulders and transport them to saw mills from Gadara in the north of Jordan all the
where they are cut into sheets, polished way down to Petra in the south. Statues,
and used for kitchen tops and occasionally columns, floors and light cladding of walls
flooring material. have been found using this material. Its
provenance has been authenticated using
Granite is not used as a building material standard petrographical and isotopic tech-
although it has been used in a few old build- niques. The volume was constrained by the
ings in Aqaba, notably the Mamlouk fort, ability to move the material, as the logis-
where modern renovations utilized this tics were certainly a consideration at that
material. time.
164
NAJ
Large monumental buildings (such as Qasr
al Bint and the Great Temple) were built
from sandstone quarried from the cliffs of
the city and the surrounding area7. Smaller
structures such as homes and shops were
also built structures in which locally quarried
sandstone was the primary material used.
There are two geological units of sandstone
in Petra; a lower, older unit known as the
Umm Ishrin formation, which is of Cambrian
age, and an upper white unit known as the
Disiformation, which is of Ordovician age.
Most of the well-known façades of Petra,

such as the treasury and the monastery,
were in fact carved into the Umm Ishrin
NAJ05 formation sandstone, which is easily recog-
NAJ05 Petra Teasury made of sandstone (photograph nized by its red and variegated colors.
I. Helmedag).
The sandstone’s multiple colors give it
beauty, but in many cases is also a source
Sandstone of weakness. Hematite and limonite in-
clusions in the stone tend to be source
The most outstanding example of the use points of deterioration. One outcrop, the
of sandstone in Jordanian architecture is in Umm Ishrin sandstone, is identifiable not
the Nabatean city of Petra. While the city only by its reddish and variable color, but
is renowned for its façades carved into the by its weathering and erosional patterns,
sandstone cliffs of the city, built architec- as it is characterized by steep cliffs and
ture is a significant component of the city, angular edges. The overlying Disi forma-
although now less prominent as a result of tion, on the other hand, is whitish in color
selective preservation. It should be noted and tends to form more gentle slopes and
that the spectacular façades seen today more rounded edges. Generally, it is more
were mostly tombs with little functional val- brittle and less consolidated than Umm
ue for the inhabitants of the ancient city. Ishrin sandstone.
165
NAJ
Younger sandstone of the Early Cretaceous,
known geologically as Kurnub sandstone
and more popularly as Ramil Sweileh, is
present in a few locations in northern Jordan.
However, it tends to be more friable than

the Paleozoic sandstone in the south, and
has not been employed in traditional or
modern architecture as a building stone. It
is used as an aggregate material in modern
concrete.
The weak nature of the sandstone and the

more humid climate found in the north
have led to the prevalent use of the abun-
dant limestone resources in these areas.
Limestone is the dominant building stone
NAJ06 found in both Jordan and Syria.
NAJ06 Free-standing sandstone structure, Qasr El Bint
in Petra.
Both the Umm Ishrin and the Disi sandstones What makes a good building stone?
have been quarried and used as building
stones in Petra. In the last 25 years the function of stone has
changed from a supporting structural ma-
The Nabateans also built the settlement of terial to a decorative cladding material. As
Khirbat Al Dharih to the north of Petra from such, the requirements for a good building
local sandstone. Other notable sandstone stone have changed from that of strength
architecture is seen at Herodus’ palace on and durability to that of what is perceived
the eastern shore of the Dead Sea. as aesthetically pleasing. The general re-
This Roman complex, with an associated quirement is that the stone be void of any
port, was also built from the local Paleozoic clay inclusions, stylolites, fossils or crystal-
sandstone, probably Cambrian as well, which line veins. Moreover, the color of the stone
was present in the area. should be white and more or less uniform.
166
NAJ
In short, the unfortunate trend is that the and causes the erosion of the façade with
stone should look more like a factory pro- time. This is a particular problem because
duced industrial material than a natural ma- the stones currently used are not thick. The
terial with all that is entailed regarding het- decorative mortar between the stones, which
erogeneity. Ironically, the chalky limestone consists of white cement with a black line
that meets these requirements often has (kuhleh), also erodes due to sand blasting
poor strength and porosity characteristics. and may require additional maintainance.
Other functional traits require that the Buildings exteriors look similar to the un-
stone has low porosity. As it turns out, the trained eye when the building is new.
strength of the material is well correlated It is common for commercial builders to use
with low porosity6, and so good stone has low quality stone, as the problems relating
both the characteristics of strength and low to stone permeability do not appear for a
porosity. number of years after the building has been
Low porosity helps to insulate buildings finished and apartments sold.
from humidity, and thus lowers dampness
on the inner walls, the formation of mildew
and blistering of paint. In the long run, good
stone lowers the heating and maintenance
costs of buildings, because it minimizes the
damage that dampness causes.
The exteriors of buildings also tend to de-

grade with time when high porosity stone
is used. Areas of moisture in the stone may
encourage the growth of moss. While this
may be viewed as quaint in older buildings,
it is undesirable in modern structures. In
areas where pollution is high, soot particles
from automobiles tend to become embed-
ded in the pores, causing ugly discoloration
that can only be remedied with sand blast-
ing. While this solution can be resorted to
occasionally, it is a nuisance to neighbors
167
NAJ
1 Nourisier et al., 2002
2 Lutgens and Tarbuck, 2005
3 Abu-Jaber et al., 1989
4 Abu-Jaber et al., 2009
5 Nawasreh et al., 2007
6 Naghoj et al., 2010
7 Al Saad et al., 2007
Abu-Jaber, N., Kimberley, M. and Cavaroc, V. Mesozoic-Paleogene basin development within the eastern
Mediterranean borderland. J. Petrol. Geol., 12, pp. 419-436, 1989
Abu-Jaber, N., Al-Saad, Z. and Smadi, N. The Quarryscapes of Gerasa (Jarash), Jordan, in Abu-Jaber, N., Blo-
xam, E.G., Degryse, P. and Heldal, T. (eds.). Quarryscapes: ancient stone-quarry landscapes in the Eastern Medi-
terranean. Geological Survey of Norway Special Publication 12, pp. 67-75, 2009
Al-Saad, Z., Abu-Jaber, N. and Zoubi, A. Petra, p. 99-170, in Quarryscapes Report: Landscape, provenance and
conservation of stone sources from selected archaeological sites in Jordan (ed. Nizar Abu-Jaber, Ziad Al-Saad), 2007
http://www.quarryscapes.no/text/publications/del1_report.pdf
Lutgens, F. and Tarbuck, E. Foundations of Earth Science, 4th edition. Pearson Educational International, NJ,
USA, 2005
Naghoj, N., Youssef, N. and Maiaatah, O. Mechanical Properties of Natural Building Stone: Jordanian Building
Limestone as an Example. Jordan Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences 3, pp. 37-48, 2010
Nawasreh, M., Abu Qubu, J. and Mdanat, M. Building Stones. Report on the Natural Resources Authority of
Jordan, 2007
http://www.nra.gov.jo.
Nourissier, G., Reguant, J., Casanovas, X., and Graz, C. (eds.). Traditional Mediterranean Architecture. The
Corpus Network, Ecole d’Avignon, 2007
www.meda-corpus.net.
168
NAJ references
169
NAJ
170
Abdulhamid Suleiman
ACCUMULATIVE ARCHITECTURE AS A SUSTAINABLE PROCESS
AT THE DEIR MAR MUSA MONASTERY
Retrospection Geography and History longing to the Syrian Antiochian Rite since
the middle of the 6th century. According to
The Syrian monastery of Saint Moses the Arabic inscriptions on the walls, the present
Abyssinian (Deir Mar Musa el-Habashi) is si- church in the monastery complex was built
tuated near the town of An-Nabk, about in the Islamic year 450 (1058 AD).
80 km north of Damascus.
Built into the extended cliffs of the Anti- In the 15th century the monastery was part-
Lebanon mountain range approximately ly rebuilt and enlarged, but by the first half
1,320 m above sea level, the monastery over- of the 19th century it was completely aban-
looks a barren valley in the Badiat Asham doned, and slowly fell into ruin. Neverthe-
desert. less, remaining under the ownership of the
Syrian Catholic diocese of Homs, Hama and
Attracted by natural cisterns and grazing, Nabk, the inhabitants of Nabk devotedly vi-
prehistoric hunters and shepherds once in- sited the monastery, even as the local pa-
habited the region surrounding the monast- rish struggled to maintain it.
ery. The Romans or Palmyrans are thought
to have begun settlement evidenced by a In 1984 with the help of the Syrian govern-
watchtower built on a rock spur in the moun- ment, together with the local church and a
tainous cliff side. Christian hermits (among group of Arabic and European volunteers
them Moses the Abyssinian, son of the King (led by the Italian Jesuit Father Paolo
of Ethiopia, who was martyred by Byzantine Dell‘Oglio) archaeological conservation be-
soldiers) used cliff caves in this mountain- gan on church frescoes dating back to the
side for meditation. Thus were the begin- 11th and 12th century. At the present time,
nings of a monastic center. the monastery hosts a Syrian-Italian school,
which is actively restoring these frescos
Archaeological and historical evidence according to a Syrian-European cooperative
confirms the existence of the monastery be- agreement.
171
AS
Building Process
Deir Mar Musa, Deir Al Huqab, Deir Al Hayek
The church is the main building at the Deir

Mar Musa monastery. Built in 1058 AD, it
has been continuously extended. Presently
this small church of about 10 x 10 m is di-
vided into two sections. The larger section
consists of a nave and two aisles, which are
illuminated by a high eastern window. The
second section, the sanctuary, contains the
altar and apse. This section is separated
from the rest of the church by a stone and
wooden chancel screen.
In addition to the church, the monastic com-

plex hosts different spatial functions, includ-
ing a library, a kitchen, a large platform
AS01 supporting a traditional goat‘s hair tent, and
a tourist reception area. It has become in-
AS01 The monastery Deir Mar Musa, Syria, built on creasingly apparent that the existing struc-
cliffs (photograph I. Helmedag). tures are insufficient for a growing commu-
nity and their guests. Of particular concern
In addition to conservation activities, in 1991 is the respected need for separation of male
a new monastic community was founded. and female accommodations, which are re-
Currently five monks and two nuns, as well quired for monastic life.
as temporarily volunteers and guests, live
at Deir Mar Musa under the direction of In order to accommodate these needs, natur-
Father Paolo. Representing different religions al caves a short distance north of the church
they live together in a life of prayer. Their were transformed into rooms for monks and
mission includes producing handicraft work male guests. Built in a step-by-step prag-
and extending hospitality, which for the matic process modern and traditional con-
Semitic, Arabic, and nomadic worlds re- struction methods were utilized with the
presents the highest form of virtue. aim to keep the traditional appearance of a
172
AS
unified complex. This part of the complex is the stairs are form and order generators.
called Deir Al Huqab, and continues to have Other form generators include the utiliza-
new rooms added whenever the community tion of traditional construction methods and
is in need of additional space. masonry techniques, such as arches, vaults,
and double-layered stonewalls. There is an
A second need led to the building of a com- inner layer of concrete, which is not tradition-
plimentary compound at the monastery. This al, but allows for structural support and an
compound became an important extension outer exposed layer of stone as a masonry
offering space for cultural activities, spiritual façade.
retreats and accommodations for nuns and In 1998 building of Deir Al Hayek began with
female guests. Design decisions, such as the the establishment of a basement that con-
choice of the building site, were made by the sists of three independent levels accommo-
monastic community and handled as a spon- dating the slope. Extending upward from the
taneous rather than master-planned building basement, walls and columns were erected,
process. starting with a colonnade framing a cave or
grotto entrance. This colonnaded entrance
Several sites had been suggested for this new is metaphorically seen as a buffer zone be-
building project. Eventually the foot of the tween the sacred and secular world. In a
mountain facing southeast of the old mon- later building stage, an exact copy of the
astery was selected. Here, a famous ancient eastern building mass was erected west of
cave used by monks for spiritual matters was the colonnade on the next higher level. A bell
located. According to local rumour, pieces tower or campanile works as a landmark and
of an old loom were found inside, leading to an elevator. The elevator is used for circula-
naming the cave Al-Hayek (weaver/weaving). tion inside the building unit.
Al-Hayek is a common family name in the In principle, all building parts follow the
region as well, and accordingly, the new mountain slope along the stairs. Thus the
building was named Deir Al Hayek. integration of the site and the surrounding
Structure and design of Deir Al Hayek follows environment, as well as the use of traditional
the mountain topography. The stairs, af- building techniques have led to the final ap-
fording the vertical movement through the pearance of Deir Al Hayek. It has taken nine
building, are aligned with the steep slope years to reach its current state, divided into
of the mountain. These stairways became several building phases and motivated by
a decisive element influencing the overall spatial requirements. To quote Father Paolo:
building design. Providing needed circulation “…we build what we need”.
173
AS
In addition to the mentioned projects sev-
Deir Al Hayek
eral smaller multifunctional buildings and
necessary infrastructure have been complet-
ed over the years. These include the visitor
center, a nature reserve park, the staircase
winding up to the monastery, an iron bridge
that connects the old monastery and Deir
Al Hayek, an irrigation and sewage system,
and facilities for water harvesting. Combined
these form the present day complex of Deir
Mar Musa.
AS02 This stairway affords the only passage to reach

the monastery (photograph J. Jäger).
AS03 The monastic complex of Deir Mar Musa, Syria

(photograph I. Helmedag).
AS02 AS03
174
AS
Deir Mar Musa
Deir Al Huqab
AS
175
Sustainability of garbage, water and sewage at the monas-
tery - one of many activities Deir Mar Musa
The arid Mar Musa valley is home to several uses to educate guests of environmental is-
thousand farmers and shepherds. With de- sues.With an architectural design statement
creased rainfall in recent years they have faced that follows local conditions sustainability has
severe difficulties, as other job opportunities been addressed through site interaction. Build-
are limited. Low rainfall is also a major threat ing at Deir Mar Musa reflects the unique topo-
to the environment. Few people had heard of graphy of the area. Major materials for added
Deir Mar Musa until just a few years ago. But structures are rocks and rough-cut local
with the foresight of Father Paolo, supported stone extracted, prepared and used in-situ.
by the monastic community and several other Numerous construction methods, like the de-
partners, new optimism centered on ideas of tailing of openings, lintels and cantilevering
eco-tourism and biodiversity have budded. stairs recite local building traditions, utilizing
Utilizing these sustainable concepts has help- and combining them with modern construc-
ed in preserving the environment, reviving tion techniques. Convenient parts of ruined
the local economy and promoting a dialogue neighbouring houses have been revitalized
between religions. as decorative elements, and are vivid wit-
Many positive impacts have occured as villag- nesses of the past. As a result architecture
ers from the surrounding community have and landscape at Deir Mar Musa have merged
vigorously participated in various projects. and accent the preservation of the valley’s
For example, the aforementioned building ac- natural beauty.
tivities created work for the locals. Although
it was difficult in the beginning to find skill-
ed workers capable of building in tradition-
al ways demanded by the regional architec-
ture, training courses were offered to help
in re-establishing qualified knowledge for
masonry and other building techniques. The
growing number of visitors to the monas-
tery has generated business for restaurants
and shops in the nearby town Nabk, and fur-
thered job opportunities in the transporta-
tion and guidance sector. Tourists, both Syrian
and international, participate in the recycling AS04
176
AS
AS06
AS04-AS06 Utilization of locally available building

materials and traditions combined with
modern building techniques. For exam-
ple, note a hidden load bearing struc-
ture of concrete at the Deir Al Huqab
complimentary compound
AS05 (photographs I. Helmedag).
177
AS
Folkeson, Annika. Making the Desert Bloom at Deir Mar Musa. United Nations Report, 2008-10-29
www.un.org.sy/forms/stories/viewStories.php?id=17&pageLang=en (downloaded: 2011-06-05)
Fuchs, Christian. Dair Mar Musa al-Habaschi. Spiegel Online,

www.spiegel.de/reise/fernweh/0,1518,druck-653305,00.html (downloaded: 2011-06-02)
Saglietti, Ivo. Sotto la tenda di Abramo - Deir Mar Musa el-Habasci. Rome, 2004
Saglietti, Ivo. Deir Mar Musa el-Habashi - Dialog between Islam and Christianity. Rome, 2003
www.prospekt.it/reportage.php?id=184&select=8 (downloaded: 2011-06-05)
Deir Mar Musa’s green activities started as far back as 20 years ago, but with the funding of the GEF Small Grants
Program (SGP), the eco-tourism project has expanded significantly. SGP, which started its Syrian program in
2005, is funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) as a corporate program, and implemented by the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) on behalf of the GEF partnership and is executed by the United Nations
Office for Project Services (UNOPS). SGP supports activities of non-governmental and community-based organiza-
tions with the objective of solving environmental problems. In 2006, SGP awarded the monastery with a financial
grant. Although SGP today is one of several financiers, this grant was the first. And as such, it opened the doors to
additional funding for the monastery as other contributors became interested and decided to support the project.
Mention should be given for the architectural competition Sham Spiritual Oasis launched in March 2008 by the mon-
astery community, COSV (Comitato di Coordinamento delle Organizzazioni per il Servizio Volontario, Milan-Italy)
and Tanween Arabian Cultural Centre (Prague-Czech Republic) funded by the European Union as a contribution to
the celebration of Damascus as the Cultural Capital of the Arab World.
178
AS references
179
AS
180
Berthold Burkhardt
THE SIGHT BEHIND THE FAÇADE
CONTEMPORARY STONE FAÇADES AND SURFACES
Natural stone façades
Building with natural stone is among the old-

est construction techniques of settled man.
Almost everywhere on earth one can find
natural stones formed into walls and vaults
in more or less sophisticated constructions.
In the earliest natural stone buildings the
outer layer of stones making up façades of-
fered protection against weathering for the
building. Individual detailing of surfaces and
special stone formats created distinctive ap-
pearances.
As time past new complementary surfaces of
masonry appeared, for example plastering
from mud and chalk, which simplified the
laborious processing of masonry surfaces.
Unfortunately this added surface applica-
tion was not equal to the durability of natural
stones. The principle of facing masonry or
brick was only brought into use for natural
flagstones, bricks, earthenware slabs or tiles BB01
- a rediscovered yet new building technique
for façades of all building types from hous-
ing to administration buildings. Meanwhile
rear ventilated flagstone façades replaced BB01 Detail at the Getty Museum, Los Angeles, USA
masonry lining for natural stone façades. (photograph I. Helmedag).
181
BB
Genesis of natural stone material Extrusive Rock
All over the world there are natural stones of Porphyry, basalt, lava flows or volcanic tuff
local geological origin. In many places man arise when liquid flowing magma reaches
has quarried natural stone economically the earth’s surface and cools down. The
providing worthwhile material for building fast cooling process produces a generally
houses, streets, walls, bridges and other subtle crystalline structure. As the lava
structures. There is a huge amount of natu- flows escaping gases produce porosity in
ral stones available, differing considerably the rocks’ structures.
in mineralogical compositions, structure, Almost all extrusive rocks are suited for
density and coloring. These differences are façades. The strongest rock of this group,
explained by their geological genesis (refer- basalt, is well suited for construction of
ence Nizar Abu Jaber’s article Geological heavy walls, flooring, and road pavement.
outline of Syria and Jordan). The color range of these extrusive rocks is
varied due to the build-up of the magma,
Pyrogenic Rock producing colors from light white to black.
Granite and diorite (or syenite) are pyrogenic

rock types, formed by the solidification of
magma under pressure in the depths under
the earth’s crust. Resulting from this process
is a highly density and resistance rock. Pyro-
genic rocks are found on all continents. Char-
acteristically they have a relatively subtle
structure and a red to grey chromaticity. granite basalt
density 2.6-3.0 g/cm3 density 1.8-3.0 g/cm3

compression strength 130-300 N/mm2 compression strength up to 400 N/mm2
bending tensile strength 5-22 N/mm2 bending tensile strength up to 25 N/mm2
water absorption 0.2-0.9 mass % water absorption 0.5 mass %
(in porous rocks 6-15 mass %)
of the extrusive rock types basalt is frost re-
predominantly frost resistant sistant, others predominantly frost resistant
182
BB
Sedimentary Rock Metamorphic Rock
Sandstone is the most frequently occurring Existing rocks, altered under very high pres-
and processed natural stone. It results from sure and partly in combination with high
the bonding of fine sand grains (up to 3 mm temperatures, form a completely new meta-
in size) under pressure. The sand normally morphic rock. The most commonly identi-
originates from erosion. Limestone, which is fied of these natural stones are gneissic
also included in the sedimentary rock cate- rock, schist, quartzite or marble. Metamor-
gory, develops in oceans (dolomite) and in phic rocks are found in mountain ranges
continental waters (travertine). The rock originating from these processes. The struc-
develops through small-fossil accumulation tures are very different. Colors vary from
under pressure in combination with physico- very light white (quartzite) to grey, striped
chemical processes in the water. Most sand- or blurred patterns (marble).
stones can be used for natural stone fa-
çades, but there are big differences in desi-
ties, resistances and structures. Travertine
and shell limestone have a high porosity.
Colors of sedimentary rocks are rather uni-
form, ranging from light yellow to grey.
sandstone travertine gneissic rock marble
density up to 2.9 g/cm3 density 2.5-3.0 g/cm3

compression strength up to 60 N/mm2 compression strength up to 300 N/mm2
(travertine) bending tensile strength up to 25 N/mm2
compression strength up to 240 N/mm2 water absorption up to 0.5 mass %
(dolomite)
most of these rocks are frost resistant predominantly frost resistant
183
BB
BB02 Multipurpose center and shopping mall
(so-called Aachener Fenster)
in the city of Aachen, Germany,
built in 1994,
designed by E. Kasper & K. Klever architects.
The façade is structured with granite panels in
bichromatic color exchange.
BB03 Cladding detail.
BB02 BB03
184
BB
BB05
BB05 Central library in Dortmund, Germany,

built in 1999,
designed by the architect Mario Botta.
The regularly perforated façade is character-
ized by vividly colored sandstone panels.
BB04 BB04 Cladding detail.
185
BB
BB07 Shell House in Berlin, Germany,
built 1930-32, reconstructed 1998-2000,
designed by Emil Fahrenkamp, and reconstruct-
ed under the aegis of the architect Meinhard
von Gerkan.
The Shell House is listed as historical heritage.
Its elegant wavy façade is covered with
Roman travertine panels, in parts moulded
elaboratedly in convex and concave shapes
(photographs J. Jäger).
BB06 Cladding detail.
BB06 BB07
186
BB
The natural stone façade Due to the advance of new façade con-
struction systems (the feasibilities of ma-
In addition to the use of natural stone for chine processed workmanship and various
exposed masonry, natural stone façades anchoring methods) the façade is being
can be achieved in three basic variations; developed as a separate part. But, if con-
first by fixing flagstones with mortar (mor- nected adequately it will remain part of the
tar fixing is extended over the complete load-bearing wall in surface masonry or
area), second with a masonry lining or fi- mixed stonework.
nally as a rain-screen façade with rear ven-
tilation. The mortar fixed façade
Structurally engineered and structural-
physical aspects effect the selection of na- Mortar fixed façades, where flagstones are
tural stone, as well as aesthetic aspects like symmetrically fixed with mortar to a sup-
color and structure. Specific values of con- porting background layer (similar to tiles
struction materials, like strength, structure, in the so-called thick-set application), are
water absorption and frost resistance, are no longer common in natural stone appli-
as important to consider as the different cations.
form and configuration possibilities of na- Building techniques with corresponding
tural flagstone. codes and rules have continuously develop-
ed. In repairing or supplementing histori-
Exposed masonry from natural stone cal façades, for example in the use of tra-
vertine, the technique of a symmetrically
The oldest way to build a natural stone fa- mortared stone is still used. Additionally
çade is to construct a masonry wall from na- this system of mortar application and/or
tural stones, which are individually treated glued fixation is used with small sized tiles
on the surface. Wall construction methods of ceramic or terracotta, and from natural
must follow prescribed building codes for stone.
masonry construction. The façade is part of The mortaring depends on the ground. If
the engineered and physical load bearing the surface of the body shell is even, as on a
structure. plastering or an insulation layer, the mortar
Walls can be achieved in a single or double- layer can be added directly but without
leafed construction method where the out- cavities. If the material is uneven, an ar-
side façade may have a different surface mouring in the mortar may become nec-
treatment from the inner wall. essary. Joints will be closed completely.
187
BB
Exemplary wall construction details Building up a rain-screen cladding
(drawings J. Jäger, based on Detail review of architecture) (photographs I. Helmedag)
BB08 Façade as a masonry lining. BB12 Thermal insulation between

BB09 Exposed masonry from natural stone. concrete wall and flagstones.
BB10 Rain-screen cladding. BB13 Panel anchors fix flagstones
BB11 Mortar fixed façade. on the concrete wall.
BB08 BB10
masonry rain-screen
lining cladding
15 mm plaster 2x12.5 mm plasteboard on support-
140 mm block- ing structure
work 30 mm mineral-wool
75 mm thermal 150 mm reinforced concrete wall
insulation
25 mm ven-
tilated cavity 100 mm mineral-wool thermal BB12
260 mm sand- insulation
stone masonry 40 mm ventilated cavity
30 mm basalt strips on panel anchors
and substructure from aluminium
BB09 BB11
exposed mortar fixed
masonry façade
500 mm 2x12.5 mm plasterboard on support-
compact sand- ing structure
stone masonry 30 mm mineral-wool
250 mm reinforced concrete wall
40 mm impervious reinforced mortar
with concrete admix and sealing coat
30 mm basalt strips
BB13
188
BB
A maximum flagstone size of 0.12 m², from Rain-screen cladding
0.10 m² on fixations of stainless steel is
compulsory. Mortar fixed façades are still The most commonly constructed natural stone
the commonly prevalent way to construct façades are rain-screen claddings; a façade
natural stone façades in Jordan and Syria type with an outer skin of rear-ventilated
(see Ingo Helmedag’s article Contemplations cladding. The outer layer is the actual façade
on contemporary construction routines, cladding and mainly protects against driving
examples from Amman, Jordan). rain. Behind this layer of natural stone are
the ventilation and insulation layers within
The façade as a masonry lining the substructure. Ventilated façades (such
as rain-screen cladding) are more costly
A façade of masonry lining is exclusively and time-consuming to implement, but they
used for covering the shell of a building. It offer high adaptability forwarding individual
is not part of the load-bearing structure. needs respective of design and structural-
But the masonry lining is self-supporting, physical demands. They also provide good
and therefore is subject to the codes for thermal insulation capacity as the cavity
masonry or stonework. Openings for doors space, acting as an insulation layer, adds to
or windows are either build as arches or the insulation layer itself. Problems with
require the addition of lintels. thermal bridging and humidity development
The loads of the lining shell must be safely are being resolved with rain-screen cladding.
supported on foundations or slabs. A mini- The elements of the façade are fixed in a
mum of 5 fixations per square meter of stain- self-supporting method with steel anchors or
less steel is needed. Wind loads and dead anchoring rails in the structural wall behind.
loads must be counted. With large wall Also applied are prefabricated industrial
heights the increasing load at the bottom systems made from light metal profiles. The
can lead to edge pressure and therefore to cavity (generally 20 mm) has to be venti-
spalling. Thickness of the shell ranges be- lated and drained at its base point.
tween 55 and 90 mm. Joints are closed with The joints of natural flagstones remain
mortar. The façade can be built as two-si- open; therefore expansion joints in this sys-
ded masonry, where in between the main tem are not needed. As natural flagstones
load- bearing shell and the lining shell an air are fixed separate from each other, flags, in-
layer for ventilation can be located. Small clined walls and inclined joints can be
air gaps in the butt joints of the lining shell realised. Vertical standing flagstones need a
in the plinth area allow for the ventilation. minimum thickness of 30 mm.
189
BB
Flagstone forms stainless steel or can be galvanized. The
durability of the substructure, which is usually
Natural stone façades in an exposed outer hidden, has to be ensured with an appropri-
leaf configuration show rather small flag- ate quality of material or material protection.
stone dimensions. Elements for rain-screen
cladding can be larger. In this construction Static calculation of the façade
application the image of the elevation has to
be developed in a joint and stone-cut plan. With self-supporting natural stone façades a
As in the rain-screen façade with its elements static proof is needed. The proof relates to
fixed to a substructure, a joint pattern, using the strength of the flagstone itself, and to
different sizes and different natural stone ma- the fixation with anchor bolts or anchoring
terials, can be creatively designed. Not only rails. Through this method wind and dead
rectangular but also inclined or even circular loads are channeled into the load-bearing
formats are possible. Flagstones for closed structure of the building.
façades can also be perforated therefore be-
coming light transmissive. All constructions Surface treatment
have to be proved suitable for statics and in
terms of material engineering. The surface treatment depends on the
structure of the natural stone. Very dense
Anchoring of flagstones and small stones, like gneissic rock or basalt,
allow for flexibility of surface treatments
Natural stone façades can be fixed visibly or more than porous shell limestone or traver-
concealed. Each flagstone piece must be fixed tine. Surfaces of flagstone can be created
with at least 4 anchor bolts, which are drilled mechanically or manually manipulated. In
in the flagstone. Each piece of flagstone tradition surfacing methods natural stone
is adhered to surfaces with a fixed bearing is treated manually (by various types of
and with an expansion bearing necessary for dressing, bossing, charring). Through the
thermal reasons. Temperatures of more than sawing process, which is commonly used
80°C are possible for façades. The anchor today, flagstones are perceived as even but
bolt is glued or mortared in. The joints of the rough surfaces. These rough surfaces can
rain-screen façade remain open. If the joint receive further embellishment as furrowed,
is about 10 mm wide adjusted dimensional grounded or evenly polished textures. With
allowances can be made. Anchors and sub- three-dimensional milling machines signs or
structural rails are constructed of anti-rusting lettering can be cut into natural flagstone.
190
BB
Cleaning of natural stone façades
All natural stones undergo an ageing pro-

cess, which shows on natural stone surface
layers. Natural patinas may be welcomed,
but stone façades can become contami-
nated or visually blemished. Reasons for
unwanted surface disfiguring include en-
vironmental influences, such as corrosion
from ferrous elements and salt, or organic
contamination. Unwelcomed color applica-
tions such as graffiti, may also occur on
stone surfaces. In addition, chemical reac-
tions can alter the surface layer in terms
of color, a process that is unavoidable with
certain natural stones.
In cleaning stone surfaces gentle proce-
dures are recommended. The structure
of the stone must not be disturbed, es-
pecially in its vapour diffusion and water
absorption abilities. High pressure sand-
blasting damages stone façades. Gentle
procedures include brush cleaning with
water combined with chemical or mechani-
cal applications. Newer methods use laser
techniques or dry ice for cleaning pur-
poses. Careful consultation with experts is
necessary when considering the possible BB14
kinds of damage that may occur as a result BB14 Natural stone is not just found on exterior fa-
of unsanctioned cleaning methods. Non- çades, but used as sophisticated interior ma-
visible washable coats of paint (treacle) terial for cladding sheets, paving tiles and even
furniture.
can protect against unwanted color change,
In the picture, a lobby with travertine cladding
but this application must be renewed after and marble pavement, downtown Los Angeles,
every cleaning. USA, is shown (photograph I. Helmedag).
191
BB
Herzog, Thomas. Krippner, Roland. Lang, Werner. Fassaden Atlas. Basel, 2004
Hugues, Theodor. Steiger, Ludwig. Weber, Johann. Detail Praxis. Naturwerkstein: Gesteinsarten. Details.
Beispiele. Edition Detail, München, 2002 (2008); respectively: Detail Practice. Dressed Stone: Types of Stone.
Details. Examples. Detail Edition, Munich, 2005
Mäckler, Christoph. Werkstoff Stein. Material, Konstruktion, zeitgenössische Architektur. Birkhäuser. Basel, Berlin,
Boston, 2004
Schittich, Christian. Im Detail: Gebäudehüllen: Konzepte. Schichten. Material. Birkhäuser (Edition Detail), Basel,
Berlin, Boston, 2001
Stein, Alfred. Fassaden aus Natur- und Betonwerkstein, Konstruktion und Bemessung. München, 2000
DETAIL. Zeitschrift für Architektur und Baudetail - Review of Architecture. Bauen mit Naturstein - Natural
stone construction. 06/1999, 11/2003
http://www.naturstein-datenbank.de
http://www.halfen.de (Referring to various systems and drawing details concerning the anchoring of flagstones.
English version available.)
192
BB references
193
BB
194
Olaf Reiter
PASSIVE HOUSING PROJECTS IN GERMANY

with an introduction by Ingo Helmedag
Realizing that fossil energies are depleting, envelope must be airtight, therefore requir-
and that CO2 reduction is necessary to pro- ing a controlled ventilation system, usually
tect our environment, energy efficiency has in combination with an efficient heat recov-
become a key issue in resolving these prob- ery system. Heating can be done over con-
lems in Germany and other countries. Passive trolled fresh air flow only, thus a steady com-
Houses have a very low energy consumption, fort zone is guaranteed. Passive Houses are
and provide an important energy-saving solu- not restricted to certain climate zones. They
tion for buildings, especially in housing where work in hot and cold climates alike. Neces-
up to 40% of all energies are used. sary heating and cooling demands are very
To achieve low energy consumption, Passive low due to the high thermal insulation and
Houses require a certain building standard, sufficiently controlled ventilation.
which guarantees high energy efficiency and As Passive Houses are not built according
comfortable living. It is important to under- to a certain construction method or speci-
stand that they are not built in a specific con- fied building materials, they could easily be
struction method. Passive Houses use less adapted to local requirements. Energy gains
than 15 kWh per year and square meter of through sustainable planning methods and
living area, which is the energy equivalent techniques to cover the rest of needed ener-
of 1.5 litres of oil or 1.5 cubic meter of gas, gies are encouraged, but not demanded.
less than 10% of average consumption in a The standards for Passive Houses are con-
common house. Simply heating the supply vincingly clear, easy to understand and can
air required for good indoor air quality can be universally adapted to locally prevalent
cover the small amount of remaining energy. possibilities. The quality requirements of in-
Technically low energy consumption is a- dividual components may be adapted to the
chieved by exceptional high thermal insula- prevailing local climate. For example double
tion, including well-insulated windows and low-e glazing with noble gas filling might be
window frames. Thermal bridges in the build- a sufficient choice for hotter climates where
ing envelope are not allowed. The building shading systems become a necessity.
195
OR
Housing project in Dresden Pillnitz, A main aim of the owners was to create an
Germany ecologically sound and healthy living envi-
ronment. The energy consumption was to
The Nestwerk Pillnitz housing project con- be minimized as much as possible without
cept began in 2000 with 9 families totaling compromising quality of life. To achieve that,
39 members as a self-organised group who a low energy house concept was used in a
decided to build and live together in an eco- more developed form.
logically sound manner. A site was found
on a sunny south-facing slope near the ri- The buildings are built of timber-frame con-
ver Elbe and the park of the former royal struction with healthy building materials. The
palace in Pillnitz. It was an urban location, walls are constructed with Doka studwork
yet in a green setting. Two Passive Houses (timber T profiles at 1,28m centers) as well
with a total of 9 apartments were construc- as oriented-strand-board, which guarantee
ted using ecologically sound materials and stiffness and air tightness. The outer walls
technology. (three stories high) were made in one piece
and then raised to be subsequently attached
Two buildings, each consisting of three ter- to inner walls and floors, thus guaranteeing
raced houses and three loft apartments, were an air-tight façade. The walls were then in-
built around a shared atrium providing an sulated with cellulose (over a width of 37cm)
ideal space for community life. Every apart- which is a product of recycled newspapers
ment also had an adjacent garden as private and achieves u=0,11W/m2K. The green roof
space. The apartments are sized from 52m2 was insulated with 34cm of cellulose (u=
to 144m2. Varying levels allow the buildings to 0,12W/m2K). Deepened roof battens form the
follow the form of the slope. The ground floor protruding eaves.
is thus made up of a kitchen and spacious The required energy conservation in the par-
living room comprising two levels with ge- tial basement (or ground level) is achieved
nerous room heights. Bedrooms and bath- by crossing boards with an insulation of
room are located in the upper story. Loft apart- 30cm. The total area of windows surface
ments are reached by covered stairs stand- was reduced to 30% to avoid overheating
ing separately and extend over one level. the buildings in summer. The wood windows
Decisions during the planning stage, as well have three pane energy-efficient glazing
as during actual construction, were reached and insulated frames, which achieve
in discussions involving the ownership com- u=0,85W/m2K and g=44%. Only the timber
munity, the architects and the engineers. of the sill is chemically treated.
196
OR
OR01
OR01 Multi-family residence,

Dresden-Pillnitz, Germany.
OR02 Site plan / ground floor plan,

multi-family residence,
Dresden-Pillnitz, Germany.
The materials to complete the structure

were chosen to meet high ecological stan-
dards. Almost no chemical wood protection
was used. Painting inside as well as outside
was done using natural colors.
Pigment joints were sealed with cotton,
wool and flaxes. Clay was added in places
to enhance the timber construction. The
utilization of green roof and rain-water-use
complete the concept. OR02
197
OR
Energy
The elements of the energy concept are

an automatic ventilation system with air
heating in every apartment, solar panels
(12m²) on every house with interim storage
of a thousand litres and gas central heating.
The legal division of the apartments and the
individual floor layouts account for the de-
OR03
cision to install separate ventilation systems
(with attached ground heat exchanger) in OR03 Section / energy concept.
each apartment. Additionally, a heated towel
rail was installed in the bathrooms, as well In response, doors were sealed on four sides.
as 3m² of heating pipes embedded in the The incoming air and soundproofed overflow
living room wall. These were installed sole- openings can be separately locked. Thus the
ly for comfort, to allow the users to feel room temperature can vary, and an open
warmth on cold and unpleasant days. window at night does not cool the apartment.
The heating is distributed in insulated double Building costs

pipe assemblies that are commonly employ-
ed in solar technology. The interim storage The building costs with connecting media and
takes heating from both solar panels and earth exchange, were 1,345 EUR/m². The
the community gas boiler. The gas boiler technological installations (sanitary, elec-
with a performance of 36kW was designed tric, heating, air circulation) comprise about
for warm water heating. The times required 17%. Regarding heating and air circulation,
to heat up the water were considered. The this part is about 9% (OR04). Based on these
total remaining required energy of both figures, a comparison with a low-energy house
houses is 8kW, calculated on the basis of and the project´s dynamic rentability was cal-
PhPP. The remaining required heating energy culated. A comparable user comfort was as-
of the apartments lies between 650W and sumed, in this case solar collectors and venti-
1600A. There are performance reserves for lation system. The running costs were based
higher temperatures. As per the wish of on an offer by the install company. Per year
some owners, a solution was to disconnect and apartment, the costs are 316 EUR with
the master bedroom from the air circulation. the different maintenance cycles considered.
198
OR
Costs of 75% are due to the ventilation sys- Running costs Costs Costs
tem. The largest portion, 118 EUR, is the ex- per year per year
change of the filter in the outside air filter box for a flat and m²
where a lifetime of one year was assumed. Heating and Solar 78,37 0,75
As listed in OR05, the running costs are 1.60 Ventilation system 238,00 2,29
EUR/m²a. The rentability calculation takes
Usages costs 166,11 1,60
the installation costs of the energy techno-
Sum 482,48 4,64
logy and the increased construction costs
of a Passive House (wood construction, in- Living unit of 100 m² 464,00
sulation, windows and doors) into account.
OR05 Running costs.
The increased building costs are about 5%
of total costs. Over a period of 20 years, tak-
ing a capital increase of 10% p.a. into ac- Conclusion
count, the Passive House has a cost balance
compared to the low-energy house. Further development of the Passive House
should in our opinion aim to be a complete
Building costs EP [Euro] GP [Euro] ecological concept. Only saving energy is not
sufficient. Architectural ambitions of owners,
Site preparation 6,800
such as a beautiful, comfortable house with
Building: labor and material 1,043,500
little energy consumption, are not hampered
Building: technology 208,500 by the idea of the Passive House. Eaves, the
Heating, solar installation 52,900 composition of structures, large window open-
Sanitary installments 59,900 ings in the living area, even round buildings
Air circulation 59,300
are easily realized. The amount of design
does increase. Eighty details were drawn for
Electric installments 27,100
this building including invisible air circula-
Earth warmth exchange 9,300 tion ducts. After initial scepticism, the owners
Total costs 1,258,800 were delighted with the living qualities of
Specific costs Euro/m² 1,345 Passive Houses. Combining individual satis-
Percentage technology 17 % faction with community emphasis has prov-
ed to be practicable. In the next two years
Percentage of heating, solar
Air circulation installments 9% the structures will be measured to chart the
energy consumption, as user behaviour re-
OR04 Building costs (EP-price per craft, GP-total price). mains the key determining factor.
199
OR
Kindergarten in Döbeln, Germany recreating a cloister and an inherent rela-
tionship with the church. It was immedi-
ately apparent that the proposed modern
timber building would require sensitive
treatment when placed next to a 19th cen-
tury church.
When entering the enclosed kindergarten

from the street into the foyer, a person’s
gaze is immediately drawn to the church
via an expanse of north facing glazing. A
curved earthen wall, polished carmine red,
OR06
with built-in wardrobe, separates the cir-
culation space from the south facing group
rooms. Stepping through the doors with
large glazed elements, the children enter
a play space complete with timber galler-
ies and bathrooms. From the group rooms
it is possible for four groups of sixty-eight
nursery and kindergarten children to di-
OR06 Perspective and concept connecting cloister,
19th century church and kindergarten.
rectly access the garden.
OR07 Kindergarten Döbeln, Germany. The building has the pleasant aroma of na-
tural materials, such as earth and timber.
Directly by the Jakob Church in Döbeln This combined with controlled mechanical
the Lutheran church commissioned a new ventilation results in fresh and healthy air
kindergarten. Similar to a monastery, the quality. The ventilation and heat recovery
original kindergarten St. Florian was inti- unit, located above the north wing of ancil-
mately connected to the church by means lary rooms, is expressed and visible though
of a cloister. However, due to severe flood- a glass wall.
ing in 2002 a replacement kindergarten was
required and an architectural competition The ecological and Passive House concepts
was announced. Architects Reiter Rentzsch were very well received by the children and
won the competition with the concept of clients.
200
OR
OR07
Timber frame construction with engineered The floor plate is of warm construction, and is
beams insulated on the underside (u=0.13W/m²K).
Additionally, the whole of the timber frame is
All external walls and roof are of timber raised on foam glass footings, which protects
frame construction utilizing engineered tim- the construction and minimizes the thermal
ber I-beams (360mm Doka), stiffened with bridging. The internal walls of the group
OSB panels. A u=0.11W/m²K is achieved rooms are of timber frame construction
by filling between the timbers with cellu- with solid timber joists. Children and par-
lose insulation. Additionally 4cm of wood ents were capable of building the infill ele-
fibreboard encloses the structure to achieve ments of unfired clay bricks. Over this were
thirty-minute fire resistance and to ensure installed areas of wall heating tubes covered
the construction is free of thermal bridges. by a clay plaster and finished in breathable
This is vital for Passive House construction natural paint. The earthen construction pro-
as thermal bridges must be minimized. This vides high thermal mass for the building, and
is particularly difficult at the corners of tim- regulates not only the temperature swings,
ber construction (OR08). but also the internal moisture levels.
201
OR
1
The gallery and ancillary room ceilings are 2

solid glue laminated timber. For the glazed
4
façades a Passive House glazing system
3
(u=0.85 W/m²K, g=55%) was installed on
5
the load-bearing timber elements. The ex-
ternal cladding consisted of painted larch
timber cladding for the walls, a rear ventila-
6
ted green roof and timber window complete
with material blinds for solar shading. The
application of a vapour barrier or water-
proof membrane was intentionally excluded,
therefore allowing the walls and roof to be
breathable, which is highly desirable for
healthy construction. A blower door test
achieved the air tightness n50 require-
ments of a Passive House (0.5 internal vo- 7
lume air changes per hour at 50 pascals).
The timber construction, including glazing,
was completed in two weeks. The clients
were impressed by the quality and the finish
of the construction. The winter erection of a 8
timber building encountered no problems. OR09
OR08 Timber frame on foam glass footing.
OR09 Passive House external wall build section.

1 clay plaster adherred to gridded reed layer
2 sheetrock, 2.2cm
3 water proof insulating layer
4 Doka I-beam, 360mm
5 cellulose insulation layer
6 MDF-board, 4cm
7 lattice framework
(battens and counter battens, 3/5cm)
8 colored larch timber cladding, 2.5/12cm
OR08 OR10 Foyer with interior planting.
202
OR
Sixty percent north facing glazed façade – from Tübingen Botanical Gardens to design
is that possible? a scheme that would enable them to use
internal planting as a means of providing
With Passive House design it is desirable to ideal moisture levels.
have the majority of glazing in a south fac- For example a 2m high Ficus alii can in-
ing orientation in order to optimise solar crease moisture levels by transpiring around
gains. However, central to the architectural 1.5 litres per 24 hours. Two large planting
concept was a strong visual connection be- troughs were built directly into the floor slab.
tween the church and kindergarten, there- To ensure air tightness 20cm of a special
fore a highly glazed north facade was essen- clay, peat and clay granule mix was added.
tial. The first PHPP (Passive House Project The natural habitat of the selected plants
Package) calculated that the building was are tropical rainforests, one trough contains
a little over the required 15kWh/m²a heat- African species and the second Asian. The
ing load. Through the inclusion of a small children water the plants themselves and are
windowsill and additional insulation on the fascinated by the rate at which they grow.
external walls, the building was able to
achieve the Passive House standard. After OR10
several years of use it has been demonstrat-
ed that Passive House designs can function
effectively as part of the urban fabric.
OR09 Timber frame on foam glass footing.
Interior planting to remedy dry air
A child requires a minimum of 15m³/h sup-

ply of fresh air. With a relatively high oc-
cupation of one child per 2.5m², the group
rooms require 300m³/h for the eighteen
children and one adult. Therefore the group
rooms with an internal volume of 185m³
require 1.6 air changes per hour. In winter
this could result in low moisture levels and
uncomfortably dry air. To remedy the sit-
uation, architects Reiter Rentzsch worked
in collaboration with a horticultural expert OR09
203
OR
Environmental Strategy and Servicing duces comfortable radiant heat in addition
to removing the need for cumbersome radi-
The fundamental concept of a Passive House ators. The ventilation system is designed to
is that heat losses are minimized through require a minimum amount of energy, while
high insulation and tightness. Passive heat operating at the optimum. Heat recovery is
gains, people, lighting, solar transmittance central to this concept, whereby the heat
etc. are optimized so that no active heating from the stale extracted air is recovered by a
system is required in order to achieve ther- rotating heat exchange plate, which is then
mal comfort. However, after a weekend or a transferred to heat the fresh supply air. This
holiday when the building is missing the heat ensures that optimal levels of fresh air per
gains from the occupants and use, internal person are supplied while minimizing the
temperatures can become unsatisfactory. heat loss usually associated with ventilation.
As mentioned in the previous section, the pre-
heating of air supply can result in low mois-
ture levels, however the strategic inclusion of
internal planting mitigated this potential pro-
blem. Additionally as the incoming fresh air
is filtered the air quality is further improved
by the removal of fine particles and pollen.
OR11 The air is distributed via a canal system and

OR11 Ventilation as visible architectural component. is supplied to the group rooms and the mul-
tiple purpose hall. It is supplied at a high level
To ensure that the building could deal with in the galleries above the foyer and extract-
these occasions and future energy demands, ed from the bathrooms and ancillary areas.
an auxiliary heating system was devised. This results in Passive House buildings hav-
These additional heating loads are provided ing very high air quality in addition to good
by solar thermal collectors in combination hygiene. The project is located in Saxony
with the excess capacity of the existing low where the building regulations require natu-
temperature gas boiler located in the Jacob ral ventilation in kindergartens. Because the
Church. This auxiliary heating is delivered to windows in the buildings are always oper-
the group rooms by wall heating as narrow able, allowing for potential natural ventilation
metal tubes laid beneath the clay plaster. As in conjunction with the mechanical system,
this employs a relatively large area, it pro- a regulatory issue is mitigated.
204
OR
Play in the Passive House
Hill Kindergarten in Heidenau, Germany
Before 1995 there was a nursery situated on

Diesterwegstraße in Heidenau. The build-
ing was in such bad condition that it was
demolished. It was replaced with a muni-
cipal park. A children’s nursery was situated
next door in the grammar school.
OR12
In 2007 the town of Heidenau decided to
build a new nursery for seventy-two child-
ren on the north side of the park. At this
time it was planned to locate the nursery
on a hill. We used this geographical feature
to develop the initial idea, which was to in-
tegrate the building into the hill. The con-
struction of the nursery fit perfectly into the
scenery resulting in an organic architec-
tural expression experienced at all levels of
the design.
The plan follows a curved line, and the un-

dulating wave of the roof, which appears
to be growing, fits perfectly into the land-
scape. The building is sympathetic to the
surrounding area and integrates well with
the existing park. This design also allows
for the preservation of trees to the south
and the west of the site.
OR12 Site plan.

OR13 Aerial view. OR13
205
OR
Plan Design Next to the toilet is a gallery, which can
serve as play area. Secondary rooms run
The site of the nursery lies directly on the like a spine along the northern side of the
Diesterwegstraße and opens up to the nursery. The inner use is reflected in the
south. It is a single story building designed outwardly visible façade. The north view,
to have a minimal barrier to the outside with the functional areas lying behind it,
thus increasing the connection to external appears closed. However, the south façade
space. In addition, fire protection is kept to appears very open with its big glass win-
a minimum, and the disabled can easily ac- dows. Timber sliding elements provide so-
cess the nursery. lar protection for these windows.
The entrance is found under the highest Building Construction

point of the undulating roof. On the oppo-
site side of the nursery is the children’s play The nursery is an ecological Passive House.
area. From the entrance one can reach the Only building materials that were recom-
foyer and a multi-functional space. The im- mended by the Federal Ministry of Environ-
portance of this exposed space emphasizes ment have been used. In some areas non-
that the head of the building can be felt. The ecological materials were used with the
room, which can be used for sport, dance owners consent to compromise.
and theatre, is 5.6m high and is mostly glaz-
ed affording a view to the park. The plan The walls, roof and floor have very good in-
layout offers interesting and flexible spatial sulation (u=0.11W/m²K). The outer walls
options. are built in brick filled with perlite. On top of
The multi-functional space together with the this is a vapour permeable structure made of
foyer, vestibule, storeroom, toilet and kitchen mineral wool insulation which is covered by
form their own separate unit. Therefore this a colourful scumble larch timber facade. In
unit can be used independent of the nursery between these two materials is a ventilation
by inhabitants of the surrounding area. As layer. This wall construction qualifies as suit-
well as the multi-functional space, there are able for a Passive House, and has a u-value
four south facing group rooms. They are ex- of 0.11W/m²K. All wooden windows and the
tensively glazed and each has a large door curtain wall system are triple glazed which
to the outside terrace. The four rooms follow again qualifies for use in a Passive House.
the same basic module; a group space with The corrugated roof is flat with a 3% slope
an attached sanitary space built for children. to the north. A structure of timber purlins,
206
OR
insulation made from cellulose and a green
roof construction as the top layer, complete
the roof structure. The extensive green roof
holds approximately 50% of the rainwater on
the roof and contributes to the improvement
of the microclimate of the property. Hemp
as a material for sound absorption and flax
or coconut palm fibres for the fastenings of
joints, complete the whole ecological concept.
OR14 Brick wall and timber roof under constriction.

OR15 Elevation showing undulating roof and land-
scape integration. OR14
OR15
207
OR
The air supply, and therefore also the ex-
haust air streams, in the main stay areas
(multi-function room, foyer, group rooms)
are variable and adjustable. The regula-
tion occurs as a function of the CO2 value in
the rooms or ambient temperature in com-
parison to allowed maximum or minimum
value. The ventilation system has several
steps, from the basic ventilation of 510m³/h
to the maximum ventilation of 1,270m³/h.
The supplied air has a maximum tempera-
ture of 45°C, and a minimum of 17°C.
OR16 To reheat the building after the ventilation
system has been switched off takes one to
two hours, and therefore automatically starts
Energy concept and house technology before the children arrive to the nursery. All
of the building is ventilated at the same time.
The thermal quality of the house corre- During the summer when the outside tem-
sponds to the quality of a Passive House. perature is over 18°C, the air inlet into the
It has the very low energy consumption of nursery is closed. But air is allowed to leave
15kWh/m². from the sanitary rooms and the kitchen.
The ventilation and heating technology is
In addition to natural ventilation by windows, accommodated above the secondary rooms
a ventilation system was inserted which has on the functional northern wall and can be
a heat recovery system. It provides fresh seen from the hall. The kind of warm deliv-
warm air in winter. The fresh air is sucked ery system in the space is adapted to the
into the house under the roof from the north respective requirements of that space. The
side and passed through a heat exchanger. four group rooms have wall surface heating.
The exchanger has an efficiency of 90%. In personal rooms there are flat radiators
The incoming fresh air is warmed by the and in the multi-functional space there is
exhaust air before being distributed in air a skirting board heater. All the systems are
channels. The air channels are hidden from thermostatically adjustable and have a low
view in a false ceiling. Fresh air is continious- surface temperature so that the children will
ly circulated within the house environment. not burn themselves.
208
OR
A thermal solar-energy collector with a cover
rate of 70% provides the hot water. The
main components of the collectors are the
flat collectors (12m²) on the roof and a
storage tank (750l). With an ecological con-
struction method and the technology of a
passive house this nursery provides high
quality living conditions for the children as
well as being environmentally friendly.
OR16 Interior group room.

OR17 North facing glazed façade under construction.
OR18 Multi-purpose hall showing the completed north
facing glazed façade. OR17
OR18
209
OR
Schnieders. J. Passive Houses in South West Europe. A quantitative investigation of some passive and active
space conditioning techniques for highly energy efficient dwellings in the South West European region.
2nd corrected edition, Darmstadt, Passivhaus Institut, 2009
http://www.passiv.de
http://www.passivehouse-international.org
210
OR references
211
OR
212
Margaret Louderback
WAITING FOR THE RAIN

A PHENOMENOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE ON SITE ANALYSIS
Landscape architecture is a melding of varied phenomenology there is a shift from an ab-

contexts discovered and revealed as design stracted scientific perspective, where things
processes move through layered under- are pulled apart toward holistic, qualitative
standing of existing and potential surrounds. and human centered experience. Different
Understanding context leads to responsible from the scientist, a phenomenologist “takes
design solutions. Sustainable design deci- experience just as it is, and tries to make it
sions come from understanding the parti- his own”3.
cular context of a particular environment.
A “landscape is an environment with parti- Experiencing landscape as a verb, a dynam-
cular features”1. Landscape architects ex- ic and personal process occurs. Landscap-
periencing these particular features find de- ing brings one into a close interpersonal
sign inspiration. The contextual landscape experience of self-space. With conscious
motivates and directs design decisions. awareness, there is an automatic gathering
together; a surrounded experience of im-
Landscape and phenomenology mediacy brought home to the personal self.
a roundness of being
Landscape is roundness of being. Landscape

“is not seen according to its exterior en-
velope; I live in it from the inside. I am
immersed in it, after all, the world is around
me, not in front of me”2.
Defined in the roundness of being is an in-

clusion of all the senses in the experience
of landscape. This definition introduces the
phenomenological perspective. By way of
213
ML
The experience is immediate and primitive Landscape and existential meaning
in the sense that it occurs before thoughts
or words are formed and attached. “In fact, What is meant by meaningful places? To an-
we are counting on the wordlessness to swer this question, a series of questions must
comfort us”4 explains artist Agnes Martin be posed. Why is meaningful significant?
who poetizes landscape in her paintings. “What must be demanded from architectural
The power of awareness lies not in the abili- space (the space of built environments which
ty to describe, but in the felt process of includes landscape architectural space) in
absorbing oneself into a landscape. order that man may still remain human?”5
This experience is a working description of What is the definition of architectural space?
phenomenology, an unguided direct connec-
tion of what is surrounding and inside oneself Architectural space in simple terms can be
as a whole unit. A landscape designer can divided into two categories. Euclidean space
translate personal landscape experiences is a systemized concept of space based on
into a design context. Viewpoints rooted in geometric relationships.
the human senses guide the designer in the A second category of architectural space
creation of new meaningful human places. is existential space. This theory of space is
214
ML
centered around ideas, which include man forming the basis of dwelling”9. An under-
and his emotions, or personal connections. standing of a natural environment (a parti-
It is deeply reliant on phenomenological cular landscape or region) grows out of “a
theory. Phenomenology is basic to the defi- primeval experience of nature as a multi-
nition of existential space because primary tude of living forces”10.
sensory perceptions are how man initially
defines and identifies himself the space in These living forces fused with man’s percep-
which he lives. tual abilities define existential space, the
In existential space, the particular environ- space of man’s beingness. All are essen-
ment or landscape shifts position from ex- tially manifest in the landscape, or to quote
ternal and separate to a holistic continuum Willy Hellpach, “existential contents have
of inside and outside, a definition of round- their source in the landscape”11.
ness, with man himself as the author. Land-
scape becomes through man’s abilities to Existential contents in landscape
perceive it.
The emphasis is on man’s interaction and Existential contents found in the landscape
interconnectedness with the environment are categorically defined as “things, order,
of which he is a part. “Space becomes a character, light and time”12. Theoretically
dimension of man’s human existence”6 or applied they form a foundation for under-
his beingness in the world. This beingness standing what makes space into meaningful
is man’s ability to grasp spatial dimensions place.
that are then assimilated as meaningful
experiences in one’s life. Martin Heidegger Between earth and sky primary natural
calls this dwelling. Dwelling suggests, “that things exist. Among them is the materiali-
the space where life occurs is place”7. ty of stone, further defined as mountains,
Through the act of being, which is percep- which can be understood existentially to
tion based, man makes “spaces into places”8. represent a state of permanence or close-
ness to a culturally defined god or higher
In the natural landscape essential meaning- power. Considering mountains, one recalls
fulness can be found and applied to man’s symbolic architectural examples like the
sense of self-identity, his roundness of ziggurat, a mountain-like structure built
being. “Landscape is not a mere flux of in ancient Babylon. Man may conceptually
phenomena. It has structure and embodies draw from physical nature, or its processes
meanings, which give rise to cosmologies, to serve his existentially defined needs.
215
ML
Things also consist of vegetation. For ex- that allow for settlement and permanence.
ample, different cultures have metaphoric- The primary acknowledgment of things like
ally structured cosmologies around the tree. the presence of water combine to make
Used as a symbol for the tree of life, the centers or places where man can settle in a
palm tree affords not only food and shelter, self-identified home.
but is grounded in the earth, growing to-
ward the sky providing a cosmic link. A “cosmic order”13 is established each day as
the sun moves across the sky. In its move-
In the contemporary culture of sustainabili- ment, directions or the cardinal points are
ty a plant’s morphology may be consider- defined which orient man in the space of
ed as a design concept. Plants, one of the landscape. Man establishes a sense of where
five basic design elements in landscape he is on earth. He locates himself in the
architecture, are living design materials. space that surrounds him. In Islam, direc-
(Landscape design elements include plants, tion toward Mecca is found in every mosque.
hardscapes, lighting, site furniture and An integral consideration of landscape archi-
water features.) As sustainable issues gain tects, and significantly related to sustainabili-
deeper understanding, a built environment ty, requires paying attention to sun exposures.
may be thought of conceptually as a plant An area designed to take advantage of sun-
in terms of its flexibility, adaptability and rise or sunset views affords meaningful and
ability to integrate with the natural forces universally felt satisfaction.
in which it is situated. Built environments
can be conceptually approached as living Man further defines his position integrated
through contextual connection with natural between earth and sky by relating with the
landscape forces. Adaptability and flexibility character of spaces in the natural world.
can be brought into sustainable design con- The character, partly a combination of topo-
texts physically and metaphorically. graphical elements and climate, may gen-
erate feelings of safety or danger, openness
Water is included in the category of things. or enclosure, closeness to the grounding
Water symbolizes generosity in arid climates. of earth or piety in a high place. A speci-
A generously flowing fountain in a hot desert fic character in a landscape context may
climate is a welcoming relief. Water is used connect man to his own personal nature,
in cleansing before ritual performance in the feelings and self-identification. Man recog-
Islamic tradition. Places are made manifest nizes some sense of humanness in a natural
by water sources forming gathering points place that surrounds him as he resonates
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with a particular landscape. In this sense a Time has the dimension of constancy and
particular landscape setting extends beyond change. Like in a human being many things
cultural familiarity into personal identity. change in a person’s lifetime, but an essen-
Desert landscapes generate feelings of spatial core of being remains. The capturing of
ciousness. Their character is open and ex- light aligns man with this basic central core
pansive encouraging clear simple thoughts. in the roundness of evolving life.
Uncomplicated perceptions may forward a
deeper connection to beingness. These existential contents are interrelated
and not realistically separate. One cate-
Things and the character of a place are gory is used in the definition of the others,
a combination of forms defined by light. all supporting the idea that the landscape
Light, direct or diffused, defines space. In holds existential meaning. Landscape is ba-
the Christian religion god is metaphorically sic and integral to man’s presence. Respect
symbolized as light. God is divine light, and a for natural elements within a particular
manifestation of spirit central to man’s exis- landscape, brought to the fore by sustain-
tential being. In much church architecture able application, reinforces man’s ability
the capturing of light is part of the design and vibrancy to dwell. A simple ordered un-
concept. Light and its requisite opposite, derstanding of the natural world has been
shadow, are important design considera- highlighted through these five categories;
tions in making a space become a place. things, orientation, character, light, and
time.
Light by its changing nature connects man to Coming together they define the sense of a
temporality or time, temporal rhythms, and particular place, the genius loci, which can
seasonality. Light defines time in man’s daily be discovered and revealed by the percep-
human scale existence and in the cycle of tive awareness of a designer.
seasons.
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In the arid context of Jordan and Syria sur-
roundings are absolute and elemental par-
ticularly in the desert regions. There is a
natural call for limits; limitations brought
on by climate, seasonal rains, and rugged
isolated topography. Acknowledgment of
these conditions directs flexibility of design,
seasonal adaptability and human adjust-
ment necessary for living in this region’s
demanding and ever changing nature.
Flexibility is part of the new paradigm. Recog-
nizing a consistent but changing dynamic is
inherent in sustainable design. A landscape
Critical Regionalism design has the capability of integrating with
the natural forces present in the environ-
In the design context respect for regional ment. Nature has always been flexible, man
landscapes forwards the feeling of dwelling. is learning to become more so.
Dwelling holds to a phenomenological pers-
pective and supports underlying theories of Environmental acknowledgement under-
Critical Regionalism.Drawing from Martin stands designing with plant species, orna-
Heidegger’s philosophy, Kenneth Frampton, mental or otherwise, that are suited for
an architectural critic and theorist, artic- arid and mountainous climes. Plants found
ulated six points of Critical Regionalism. existing in the context, for example the sur-
As “phenomenology provides a theoretical rounding wheat fields of the Hauran, may
basis for contextualism”14 these points used be useful in forming a design concept. When
as guidelines emphasis the building of organized in a graphic unit and brought
meaningful places within the context of a into public places, mass plantings of wheat
particular landscape or region. The theories may act as cultural reminders or celebra-
formulated in the six points of Critical Re- tions of the sustenance that they provide
gionalism (attention to climate, topography, and have provided over time. Additional
time, light, tectonic form and emphasis plants introduced in the design context
on the tactile over the visual sense) assist should support sustainable requirements
concept building resulting in a quality of and aesthetic sensibilities, both adding to
space enriching man’s life experience. a sense of place.
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Time has the dimension of constancy and An understanding of the authentic working
change. Light defines time and particularly essence found in local materials, and the
the cycle of seasons. Seasons change the formal concepts found in vernacular architec-
appearance of places. Again an example of ture combined with new technological sen-
this can be seen in the altering appearance sibilities can make meaningful felt places.
of bare soil newly seeded to the full green The use of new technologies, sustainable in
maturity of wheat fields through out the orientation or environmentally appropriate
region. Passage of time can be understood in choice, combined with a clear understand-
in other examples like the signs of decay ing of local mediums and concepts supports
seen in fading façades, worn paving or the sense of place building.
knotted trunks of older trees.
Critical Regionalism stresses the importance
More specific to the construction of meaning- of tactile over the visual sense. The posi-
ful place is Frampton’s articulation of tec- tion of landscape architecture has shifted
tonic form. Tectonic form, the “art of con- in importance from scenery, the cosmetics
struction”15, is an understanding of the lan- of built environments supported by vision,
guage of materials, the medium which design- to an integration of full-bodied experience
ers of built environments use as a means in the design of meaningful and livable
of spatial communication. Materials are tools places.
of expression. The melding of medium and In his seminal work The Eyes of the Skin,
concept creates a sense of place. A built en- Juhani Pallasmaa includes a quote by
vironment becomes a clearly felt statement Johann Wolfgang von Goethe “The hands
or a fabricated imitation based on an integral want to see, the eyes want to caress”18,
understanding of tectonic form and context. poetically defining phenomenology in the
spatial context. By downplaying the cur-
Scott Patterson explains the danger of rent cultural emphasis on the visual sense,
mimicking vernacular settings as “a kind of Pallasmaa opens spatial design to expand-
reduction of architecture to a scenography ing full body peripheral experience. “The
which makes a very gratuitous, or parodied very essence of the lived experience is mold-
use of historicist motifs”16. Structure creation ed by hapticity and peripheral unfocused
is thinking about materials that accentuate vision. Focused vision confronts us with the
regional identity, are appropriate to the con- world whereas peripheral vision envelops
text and forward the creation of an “iconic us in the flesh of the world”19.
expression of sense of place”17.
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A full-bodied phenomenological approach Landscape and aesthetics
used in environment building reduces the
poverty of environmental separation, and In these contemporary times, the impor-
forwards quality life experience. Just as tance of landscape is shifting position from a
sound comes into the ever-present world of source of natural resources for commercial
silence, peripheral space holds the poten- gain, toward a focusing on the relevance of
tial perceptive abilities of all the senses. environmental context. Value is placed on
One can almost taste the coming of desert quality environments where one can feel
rains. at home. The creation of “existential foot-
holds”20 is the forwarding aim as relationship
with landscape is redefined as connected,
ecological, and contextual rather than deta-
ched and separate. There is a renewed ap-
preciation of experience in context. Appre-
ciation introduces an aesthetic component.
“To the unreflective eye no two interests must
appear less related. The one, aesthetics,
is an esoteric discipline, an inquiry into
the nature and meaning of the arts. And
the arts, whatever they may be, stand in
the minds of most people as the epitome
of contrivance, a manipulation of materials
There is a shift toward process as an eco- beyond their ordinary appearances. Nothing
logical concept. Similar to the phenomeno- seems further removed from environment
logical approach, ecological mindfulness than this, for environment in its purest
encompasses a shifting toward full body form connotes the natural world, while art
sensory involvement emphasized in dyna- represent the height of artificiality.”21
mic states of experience. There is a step-
ping into process where full-bodied experi- But environment and aesthetics support
ences are engagement detectors within the each other. There is a provocative connec-
surroundings. Acknowledging this process tion between the two. Environments offer
oriented engagement as the dwelling aspect rich opportunities for stimulating aesthe-
man begins to gain an existential under- tic experience that goes beyond mere ap-
standing of the world in which he lives. preciation. As particular qualities of the
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environment are perceived, yielding exis- Not only are environmental issues at the
tential understanding, self-identification fol- fore, but also questions of identity loss, or
lows. “The order of nature is explicate the destruction of environmental “realms of
(explainable), the order of landscape is im- possibilities”24. The disappearing richness of
plicate (a personal connection)”22. Personal perceivable contexts holding human mean-
connections experienced through interaction ing is of great concern. Thomas Moore states,
with art imply self-knowledge gathering and the soul has a need “for vernacular life -
leads to further self-identification. Landscap- a relationship to a local place and culture.
ing as a verb is another means of self-iden- It has a preference for details and parti-
tification. Phenomenology is a link between culars, intimacy and involvement, attach-
aesthetics and environment. Vital to human ment and rootedness. Like an animal, the
existence the link between environment soul feeds on whatever life grows in its
and aesthetics is the ability to insight per- immediate environment”25.
sonal connections, which may translate into
findings meaningful in man’s life. Environ- The designer’s intention is to strengthen
mental aesthetics is more than appreciati- sense of place, which can be existential,
on and appearance. It defines a way of self- poetic and body centered in approach. The
knowing which is poetic and humanistic. critical criteria and skill of a designer is to
The landscape perceived by humans is where communicate these findings into spaces,
it all starts... not as egotistical but experi- which then become places for quality living.
ential. Art and environment both have com- This requires playing by the rules dictated
ponents of self-identification or making life by the land, an applied understanding of the
meaningful. The well-known architectural landscape’s presence and the perceived dy-
theorist, Norgberg-Schultz substantiates namics that reinforce connection to place.
the necessity of artful environment build- Successful design decision-making results
ing in stating “It is one of the basic needs in built environments that are tied to the
of man to experience his life-situations as designer’s depth of contextual understan-
meaningful, and the purpose of art is to ding ultimately leading to the question…
keep and transmit meaning”23. what am I as a landscape designer? I went
to change the landscape, but the landscape
Conclusion changed me.
In these times there is a desperate search for

meaning and rediscovery of the landscape.
221
ML
1 Ingold, 2000
2 Berleant, 2005, p. 7
3 Bachelard 1964, p. 227
4 Doyle, 2008, Internet source
5 AL‘Saigh, Internet source
6 Ibid
7 Norberg-Schultz, 1980, p. 5
8 Ibid, p. 5
9 Ibid, p. 23
10 Ibid, p. 23
11 Ibid, p. 32
12 Ibid, p. 32
13 Ibid, p. 28
14 Clare, 2011
15 Ibid
16 Patterson, Internet source
17 Clare, 2011
18 Pallasmaa, 2005, p. 2
19 Ibid, p. 17
21 Berleant, 2005
22 Bohm, 1980
24 Bachelard, 1964, p. 218
25 Moore, 2008, p. 203
Drawings by Margaret Louderback, 2009-2011.
222
ML references
AL‘Saigh, Mariam Y. book review Norgberg-Schultz, Existence, Space and Architecture. Studio Vista, London,
1971, book review, Internet source http://www.biblioteca.dpa.polimi.it/interni/lectures/05-norberg schulz.htm,
June 2011
Bachelard, Gaston. The Poetics of Space. Orion Press, New York, 1964
Berleant, Arnold. Aesthetics and Environment, Variations on a Theme. Ashgate Publishing Limited, England,
2005
Bohm, David. Wholeness and the Implicate Order. Routledge, London, 1980
Clare, Kerry and Lindsay. Sustainability in Australia. Kamra tal-Perit Architecture Nights lecture series, Aula
magna, University of Malta, Valletta, Malta, May 31, 2011
Doyle, Nancy. Artist Profile: Agnes Martin. Internet source, www.ndoylefineart.com/martin.html, February 2011
Frampton, Kenneth. Modern Architecture, A Critical History. Thames and Hudson, London, 1987
Ingold, Tim. The Perception of the Environment, Essays in Livelihood, Dwelling and Skill. Routledge, London and
New York, 2000
Larice, Micheal. Macdonald, Elizabeth. (eds.) The Phenomenon of Place, a book review. Routledge Taylor and
Francis Group, London and New York, 1976
Matter, S. Fred. Critical Regionalism from a Desert Dweller’s Perspective. Arid lands newsletter, University of
Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, no. 28, spring/summer 1989
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. Phenomenology of Perception. Routledge, London, 1962
Moore, Thomas. Care of the Soul. Piatkus, Great Britain, 2008
Norberg-Schultz, Christian. Genius Loci, Toward a Phenomenology of Architecture. Academy Editions, London,
1980
Pallasmaa, Juhani. Touching the World – architecture, hapticity and the emancipation of the eye. Internet source
http://www. Arquitectura-ucp.cpm/images/Pallasmaa TW.pdf, September 2011
Patterson, Scott. Critical Analysis of Towards a Critical Regionalism by Kenneth Frampton. Internet source
http://home.earthlink.net/~aisgp/texts/regionalism/regionalism.html, June 2011
223
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224
Ammar Khammash
THE STONE MAN OF THE THIRD MILLENNIUM

ARCHITECTURE FROM MATERIAL TO NON-MATERIAL
With the first development of architecture, stone, especially limestone appears to have
man’s relationship to material began an irre- been the most important. (Sun-dried mud
versible course forwarding the infinite oppor- brick, a later invention, required a more
tunities found in the human value of the idea. complex process of manufacturing.) Stones
The beginning of architecture, as a natural were naturally found on the ground, ready
result of agriculture and settlement, was se- for use and requiring only minimal selection
cond in importance to the initial human use efforts. Unlike the common impression, lime-
of tools. As tools became simply an exten- stone was not only the product of chemistry
sion of the hand and fingers, architecture be- and physics in the geological sedimentation
came the expansion of the entire body. This process, but in fact its formation was largely
included not only of the individual, but also dependent on biology, on design by process
extended into small groups, especially dur- of life.
ing critical productive periods experienced in Almost the entire exposed limestone land-
the making of a nucleus family. scape of Jordan and the East Mediterranean
Design above all is a total and mutual un- tableland is of the Cretaceous period, formed
ion between matter and idea. What life on in the sedimentation floor of the Tethys Sea
earth has realized out of matter are ideas some 100 million years ago. During this peri-
upon ideas in an evolutionary line for the od biology seems to have made a major im-
past half a billion years. As time passed pact in the sedimentation process resulting
humans became idea-originating creatures in a period of lime. This was different from
par excellence, taking design into new orbits earlier periods where layers of sand and
outside the realm of life itself. materials closer to the lifeless plutonic rocks
The evolutionary idea cycle was extended were formed during the time of the earth’s
by humans into a spiral, a tangent built on cooling process. Life, or biology added before
exploring new possibilities for shaping humans, a new layer of complexity to geo-
matter. Among original construction materi- logical processes that otherwise would have
als that early humans experimented with, depended only on physics and chemistry.
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The beginning of architecture can be linked to Over the last ten thousand years stone-
the specific characteristics of this Cretaceous wall architecture, found in the present day
rock stratum. Beginning with hydrology, as in landscape of Jordan, has witnessed minimal
the location and nature of water springs relat- change. The majority of stonewalls were built
ed to issues like karst systems and retention, with two main layers; the better and bigger
to the morphology that allowed for topsoil stones on the outside, the second best on
to form meadows for rain-fed grain concen- the inside, and the rest in the middle as a
trations of early farming. Specific rock strata mixture of earth, pebbles and water. In ad-
of the Upper Cretaceous Jordan, such as the dition, there must have been some use for
folded plates of the Amman Silicified Lime- walls of single stone layer. This can be in-
stone Formation (visible in Ain Ghazal and tuited in village architecture of the recent
along hillsides of the Amman ravine) provided past by what seems to be informal additions
natural caves. These caves were easy to ex- next to main structures, such as chicken
pand and finish with minimal architectural sheds and boundary walls. These features
intervention. This specific geological layer were relatively fragile leaving little record in
inspired early builders by providing natural the face of gravity and time.
half houses easy to enclose or expand; thus
the origins of architecture. It could be said At the very beginnings, the beginnings that
that the beginnings of architecture were ex- have left something for archaeology to re-
tensions or adaptations of an earlier nature- cord, such as the pre-pottery Neolithic site
made architecture, which was found natural- of Ain Ghazal in Amman or Baida in Petra,
ly ready to be used as a shelter with some stones were simply gathered on site and used
extension and improvement. The Upper in their natural state. Only during the Iron
Cretaceous layer also provided the flint that Age (around 700 BC) did dressed stones be-
could be shaped into sharp implements satis- gin to appear. Dressed stone, which is shaped
fying needs associated with the development into geometric building blocks, was the direct
of animal and plant domestication. result of major technological achievements in
Specific geological features mostly related to the area of metallurgy. These achievements
layers of the Cretaceous Period can explain expanded man’s ability to reach higher tem-
the entire beginning of agriculture and archi- peratures for smelting, and thus resulted in the
tecture. This layer is found in Jordan along the manufacturing of pivotal iron stone-shaping
Great Rift Valley that extends out of Africa tools. Following the Iron Age, the Hellenistic
and into the eastern Mediterranean region period evidenced elaborate limestone struc-
in what is often called the Levantine Bridge. tures such as Qasr al Abd at Iraq al Amir.
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At this site, stone building blocks of impres- technical evolution partially yields or totally
sive sizes demonstrate the advancement of collapses. An interesting observation can
the technology related to the new power of be made on how the stonewalls of village
iron tools. architecture of the Late Ottoman period
are in fact almost identical to walls at one
During the Roman period, Jordan witness- of the world’s early architecture sites at
ed the largest scale of stone quarrying Ain Ghazal built almost ten thousand years
and dressing in antiquity. The scale of build- ago.
ing block production was so large that one
can assume that all the following periods Late Ottoman urban architecture in towns
(Byzantine, Islamic, Ottoman and even Early like Salt, Irbid, Madaba and Amman, along
Hashemite) did very little quarrying, finding with some mansions, was a natural continua-
it more convenient to recycle the pre-shaped tion of the Mamluk and earlier Islamic periods’
Roman building blocks. Generally speaking way of wall-building. After the Ottoman pe-
the size of building blocks of masonry walls riod, stonewalls saw the first development
was most profound in the Hellenistic period, under the tide of the industrial revolution
and gradually reduced in size until the Late with the arrival of manufactured Portland
Ottoman building of town of Salt. During this cement in the early 1920s. The use of ce-
building period (1890s-1930s) stone courses ment, on the one hand, is nothing new. Good
were only around 20 cm in height, one tenth examples of cement can be found from the
the size of the blocks at Iraq al Amir. Hellenistic through the Late Islamic times,
still strong and relatively water-resistant
Throughout the ten thousand year expanse until this day. The marked difference is that
of stone architecture, a line of rubble-stone during the Industrial Revolution cement was
building technique must have contined par- manufactured using machines, which re-
allel to the architecture of dressed stone. sulted in better strength, consistency, and
Rubble stone building techniques survived quantities. The Industrial Revolution also
with no change, providing retaining walls for laid down the foundation of scientific speci-
cultivation and terraces as well as walls for fication continuously monitored by tests and
the architecture of the poor. This building analysis secured by the solid infrastructure
technique can be seen through the present. of laboratories and testing technologies and
Rubble stone building remains common, procedures. During the last century, cement
particularly in times of man-made or na- research and development became one of
tural disasters when the elaborate line of the most important fields of modern life.
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A whole branch of science has been devoted bones in the living body, slowly cast into
to understanding and further exploiting the place by liquid blood as the body grows.
fascinating properties of cement. The magi- There is no better example of the architectu-
cal role in the making of concrete, rein- ral achievement of biology than the way birds
forced by the addition of steel, has resulted swallow small limestone pebbles to provide
in a technology that has opened up struc- for construction material of the eggshell, the
tural possibilities never before possible. In temporary architecture of their unhatched
a nutshell, cement technology followed a chicks. The shell of an egg is an amazing
parallel line similar to the story of biology, example of structural-architectural design.
which made new compositions out of ele-
mental matter by transforming earth, air Liquid stone is now flowing in the veins of cit-
and water into the building blocks of trees ies that are growing like a giant living body
or animals. reminiscent of the plant or animal kingdom.
Looking at the earth from afar, overwhelm-
Like in the making of the ancient lime, ce- ing urbanism now appears like expanding
ment is simply the liquidation of limestone. gray matter. From the viewpoint of space,
Man took the building blocks of mountains, this sprawling urbanism appears like some
crushed them, roasted them, refined the biological growth, something like a germ
powder, enhanced its properties with addi- culture that has proven to be invasive and
tives, filled the powder in bags or pumped advantageously healthy. Our cities are the
it into tanks and called it Portland cement. latest shell of all organisms on this earth,
This cement, then remixed with aggregates manipulated by one species that learned to
and sand, produces a liquid conglomerate mimic the design process of biology, but at
stone (concrete) that can be molded into a much faster pace than that of evolution.
any form or size. Once man learned to turn Man-made structures on earth are the crea-
stone into liquid, a bright new page opened tion of biology. They are the trace-fossils of
for architecture. The abundance of stone as one species that managed to take advantage
a geological material could now be formed of all others with the obsession of breaking
to materialize both the massive and the in- out of what has been achieved, and traveling
tricate pieces of a new virtual world evolving into the unknown. Not to fall into an exclusive
in human imagination. The process of liqui- human-centered view, the fact remains
dating stone can be compared to the meta- that humans could only achieve this design
bolism in zoology. Calcium, iron and other big-bang with the help and manipulation of
elements of matter, turns into the functional the rest of the plant and animal kingdom.
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The future of stone may best be predicted Living walls with good biology that breathe
by reviewing the projection of it’s past. At like a tree (giving oxygen and trapping car-
this point, the irrelevant lines of the deco- bon), possibly the harvesting of water and
rative, nostalgic, rustic, artistic expressions energy, and production of food for humans
in stone should be skipped. Concentration and for the passing bird are viable potentials.
should be put on the non-fashion bulk hous-
ing of the mass population, infrastructure, Stone was the idea of nature. One day man
and the industrial and public structures of may outgrow the borrowing of nature’s
modern needs. Reflecting on the trends of ideas, through the efforts of the human brain,
the past, it is predictable that stone will be the most advanced product of nature. At this
further crushed into even smaller particles, time all brains conceivably could be connect-
made into better-designed liquids, and ed by nerve fibers, or some sort of intangible
pumped into finer forms and in more far- communication lines that extend outside the
away locations. The further liquidation of skull of the individual, making the entire earth
stone will continue to incorporate new rein- one single mass of real-time thinking entan-
forcement, tension-handling materials, such glement. This is partially happening right now.
as carbon fiber, fiberglass, and new mate-
rials that have not yet been made. There Man may outgrow the need of physical ar-
may be a time when tension might even be chitecture altogether. Architecture could
achieved by non-material elements such as become a relic of the past’s endless line of
gravity and magnetism. This imagined in- evolution. Humans may outgrow the need of
novation would allow better concrete rein- matter altogether by finding the missing link
forcement options, since gravity itself has that can make a virtual world temporarily
no weight and does not rust. tangible, usable, and able to shelter us with-
out the environmentally-destructive use of
It can be imagined that one day, stone will stone or cement.
be rearranged on the molecular level in great
quantities for better delivery, constructiblity Design is the collaboration of matter and
and fidelity of form, addressing the urgent idea. Life is designs in evolution. Design can
need to comply with the pressing issues of evolve to outsmart matter ultimately using
environmental compatibility. With the de- matter’s properties as a springboard to snap
velopment of nano-technology for use in out of matter’s material use.
architecture, stone could be rebuilt into an
intelligent element for architectural finish. From the beginning, matter is an idea.
229
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AK01
AK01 Painting by Ammar Khammash entitled
Gardens and the Great Mosque,
180 x 240 cm, oil on canvas, 2004.
http://www.khammash.com
230
AK references
231
AK
Wadi Mujib, Jordan.
Wadi El Feynan, Jordan.
232
233
Approaching Karak Castle, Jordan.
Stone quarry
Wadi Mujib, Jordan.
234
235
Sandstone formation
Wadi Rum, Jordan.
Shading device
Feynan Eco-Lodge, Jordan.
236
237
Wadi Mujib, Jordan.
Rainbow street pavement

Amman, Jordan.
238
239
Sandstone formation
Petra, Jordan.
Mosaic
Madaba, Jordan.
240
241
Abandoned village
between the Dead Sea and Al Karak, Jordan.
Water reservoir staircase

Amman Citadel, Jordan.
242
243
Oak trees in limestone formation
near Ajloun, Jordan.
Green valley
near Ajloun, Jordan.
244
245
Abandoned basalt stone village of Al Msekeh
Hauran, Syria.
The Tree and the Sky
There‘s a tree walking around in the rain,

it rushes past us in the pouring grey.
It has an errand. It gathers life
out of the rain like a blackbird in an orchard.
When the rain stops so does the tree.
There it is, quiet on clear nights
waiting as we do for the moment
when the snowflakes blossom in space.
Tomas Gösta Transströmer

Nobel Prize in Literature, 2011.
246
247
Stone pavement
Kempinski Ishtar Dead Sea Hotel, Jordan.
Remains of basalt stone rotary querns

Jerash, Jordan.
248
249
Illuminated stone
Petra Guest House, Jordan.
Basalt stone door leaves

Umm Qais Museum, Jordan.
250
251
Interior facade
possibly a pigeonry
Wadi Al Seer, Jordan.
Interior facade
possibly a pigeonry
Petra, Jordan.
252
253
Alabaster window
Madaba, Jordan.
Further In
On the main road into the city

when the sun is low.
The traffic thickens, crawls.
It is a sluggish dragon glittering.
I am one of the dragon’s scales.
Suddenly the red sun is
right in the middle of the windscreen
streaming in.
I am transparent
and writing becomes visible
inside me
words in invisible ink
which appear
when the paper is held to the fire!
I know I must get far away
straight through the city and then
further until it is time to go out
and walk far in the forest.
Walk in the footprints of the badger.
It gets dark, difficult to see.
In there on the moss lie stones.
One of the stones is precious.
It can change everything
it can make the darkness shine.
It is a switch for the whole country.
Everything depends on it.
Look at it, touch it…
Tomas Gösta Transströmer

Nobel Prize in Literature, 2011.
254
255
256
INGO HELMEDAG STONE AND ARCHITECTURE
DAAD JULIANE JÄGER in the mountainous regions of Jordan and Syria

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8 Ingo Helmedag & Juliane Jäger Preface

13 Juliane Jäger Describing traditional architecture

61 Ingo Helmedag Contemplations on contemporary

121 Thomas Maria Weber Rock and order

157 Nizar Abu-Jaber Geological outline of Syria and Jordan

171 Abdulhamid Suleiman Accumulative architecture as a sustainable

181 Berthold Burkhardt The sight behind the façade

195 Olaf Reiter Passive housing projects in Germany

213 Margaret Louderback Waiting for the rain

225 Ammar Khammash The stone man of the third millennium

Architectural quality is a process that starts

DESCRIBING TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE IN RURAL AREAS

Similar environments and naturally available

a good portion of space for utilization as an

JJ09 Liwān House illustrating an asymmetrical L-

JJ10 A courtyard elevation facing the liwān opening

JJ11 In any case, courtyards serve as circulation

Most commonly, Courtyard Houses were not JJ12

In the urban context or in terms of exten-

JJ12 The courtyard acts as a central circulation zone.

JJ13 Planted with shade trees, grapevines and flowers,

year it stands as a vibrant core and social meet-

JJ14 A Courtyard House consisting of four buildings

JJ16 Upper floor of Riwāq House, Al Kaimeh, Syria.

JJ17 Main house elevation mentioned in JJ16.

JJ18 Upper floor of Riwāq House with an unusually

JJ20 Central Hall House II interior central hall showing

inside outside inside outside inside outside

JJ23 Wall constructions

1.1 in-situ solid rock foundation

JJ25 Double-walled quarry

JJ26 Double-walled dry

JJ27 Detail of interior

JJ28-30 Masonry façades

JJ36 Example of a simple yūk, a large internal

JJ37 Floor construction I.

1 foundation on earth or in-situ solid rock

JJ39 Example floor construction I, surface of packed earth, Mistayeh, Syria.

JJ42 Subdivided spatial plan

JJ43 Rafted ceiling on pillars of wood.

JJ44 Pillar variations.

1 branching log approximately 10-20 cm in dia-

JJ45 Rafted ceiling on wooden pillars, ‘Anaz, Syria.

JJ46 JJ47 JJ48

JJ49 Spatial plan subdivided

JJ50 Rafted ceiling on transverse arches.

1 transverse arch (qantara)

JJ51 Transverse arch variations.

1 transverse arch, single or parallel in row,

JJ55 Subdivision of space utilizing

JJ56 Cross vault construction.

1 pillars (da‘meh), made from quarry-stone

JJ57 Commonly used vault constructions.

1 barrel vault, less common