1-16-2018

Subgroups

Definition. Let G be a group. A subset H of G is a subgroup of G if:

(a) (Closure) H is closed under the group operation: If a, b ∈ H, then a · b ∈ H.

(b) (Identity) 1 ∈ H.

(c) (Inverses) If a ∈ H, then a−1 ∈ H.

The notation H < G means that H is a subgroup of G.

Notice that associativity is not part of the definition of a subgroup. Since associativity holds in the
group, it holds automatically in any subset.

Look carefully at the identity and inverse axioms for a subgroup; do you see how they differ from the
corresponding axioms for a group?

In verifying the identity axiom for a subgroup, the issue is not the existence of an identity; the group
must have an identity, since that’s part of the definition of a group. The question is whether the identity for
the group is actually contained in the subgroup.

???

group
In a group, the question is:
1
"Is there an identity?"

group

subgroup
In a subgroup, the question is: ???
"Is the identity contained in the
subgroup?" 1

Likewise, for subgroups the issue of inverses is not whether inverses exist; every element of a group
has an inverse. The issue is whether the inverse of an element in the subgroup is actually contained in the

1
subgroup.
???

group In a group, the question is:

"Does every element have an
inverse?"
x-1

group
x

subgroup
???

x-1
In a subgroup, the question is:
"Is the inverse of a subgroup
element also a subgroup element?"

Lemma. Let G be a group. Then {1} and G are subgroups of G.

{1} is called the trivial subgroup.

Proof. The proofs are almost too easy! Consider {1}. The only possible multiplication is 1 · 1 = 1, which
shows {1} is closed.
{1} obviously contains the identity 1.
{1} is closed under taking inverses, since 1−1 = 1.
The proof that G is a subgroup is equally easy; I’ll let you do it.

Example. (Subgroups of the integers) Let n ∈ Z. Let

nZ = {nx | x ∈ Z}.
Show that nZ is a subgroup of Z, the group of integers under addition.

nZ consists of all multiples of n.

First, I’ll show that nZ is closed under addition. If nx, ny ∈ nZ, then
nx + ny = n(x + y) ∈ nZ.
Therefore, nZ is closed under addition.
Next, the identity element of Z is 0. Now 0 = n · 0, so 0 ∈ nZ.
Finally, suppose nx ∈ Z. The additive inverse of nx in Z is −nx, and −nx = n(−x). This is n times
something, so it’s in nZ. Thus, nZ is closed under taking inverses.
Therefore, nZ is a subgroup of Z.
I’ll show later that every subgroup of the integers has the form nZ for some n ∈ Z.
Notice that 2Z ∪ 3Z is not a subgroup of Z. I have 2 ∈ 2Z and 3 ∈ 3Z, so 2 and 3 are elements of the
union 2Z ∪ 3Z. But their sum 5 = 2 + 3 is not an element of 2Z ∪ 3Z, because 5 is neither a multiple of 2
nor a multiple of 3.
This example shows that the union of subgroups need not be a subgroup.

Example. (A subset that isn’t closed under inverses) Z is a group under addition. Consider Z≥0 , the
set of nonnegative integers. Check each axiom for a subgroup. If the axiom holds, prove it. If the axiom
doesn’t hold, give a specific counterexample.

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 If m, n ∈ Z≥0 , then m ≥ 0 and n ≥ 0, so m + n ≥ 0. Therefore, m + n ∈ Z≥0 , and the set is closed
under addition.
0 is a nonnegative integer, so 0 ∈ Z≥0 .
However, 3 ∈ Z≥0 , but the inverse −3 is not an element of Z≥0 . Therefore, Z≥0 is not closed under
taking inverses, so it’s not a subgroup of Z.

Example. (The integers as a subgroup of the rationals) Show that the set of integers Z is a subgroup
of Q, the group of rational numbers under addition.
If you add two integers, you get an integer: Z is closed under addition.
The identity element of Q is 0, and 0 ∈ Z.
Finally, if n ∈ Z, its additive inverse in Q is −n. But −n is also an integer, so Z is closed under taking
inverses.
Therefore,Z is a subgroup of Q.

Example. (A subgroup under multiplication) Let Q∗ be the group of nonzero integers under multipli-
cation. Consider the set  
1 
H= m∈Z .
2m
Is H a subgroup of Q∗ ?
1 1
Let , ∈ H, where m, n ∈ Z. Then
2m 2n
1 1 1
· = m+n ∈ H.
2m 2n 2
Thus, H is closed under multiplication.
1
The identity of Q∗ is 1, and 1 = 0 ∈ H.
2
 −1
1 1 1 1
Finally, let m ∈ H. Then = −m , and −m ∈ H. Therefore, H is closed under taking
2 2m 2 2
inverses.
Therefore, H is a subgroup of Q∗ .

Example. Z2 = Z × Z denotes the set of pairs of integers:

Z2 = {(m, n) | m, n ∈ Z}.

It is a group under “vector addition”; that is,

(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d).

The identity is (0, 0) and the inverse of (m, n) is −(m, n) = (−m, −n).
Taking this for granted, consider the set

H = {(x, y) | x + y ≥ 0}.

Check each axiom for a subgroup. If the axiom holds, prove it. If the axiom doesn’t hold, give a specific
counterexample.

In words, an element (x, y) is in H if the sum of its components is nonnegative.

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 Suppose (a, b), (c, d) ∈ H. This means

a + b ≥ 0 and c + d ≥ 0.

Then
(a + c) + (b + d) = (a + b) + (c + d) ≥ 0 + 0 = 0.
Therefore,
(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d) ∈ H.
Thus, H is closed under addition.
Since 0 + 0 = 0 ≥ 0, I have (0, 0) ∈ H.
(1, 2) ∈ H, because 1 + 2 = 3 ≥ 0. But −(1, 2) = (−1, −2) ∈
/ H, because

−1 + (−2) = −3 6≥ 0.

Thus, the inverse axiom fails (so H is not a subgroup).

Definition. If G is a group and g is an element oΥf G, the subgroup generated by g (or the cyclic
subgroup generated by g) is
hgi = {g k | k ∈ Z}.
In other words, hgi consists of all (positive or negative) powers of g.
This definition assumes multiplicative notation; if the operation is addition, the definition reads

hgi = {k · g | k ∈ Z}.

In this case, you’d say that hgi consists of all (positive or negative) multiples of g.
Be sure you understand that the difference between the two forms is simply notational: It’s the same
concept.
Since I’m calling hgi a subgroup, I’d better verify that it satisfies the subgroup axioms.

Lemma. If G is a group and g ∈ G, then hgi is a subgroup of G.

Proof. For closure, note that if g m , g n ∈ hgi, then

g m · g n = g m+n ∈ hgi.

1 = g 0 ∈ hgi. Finally, if g n ∈ hgi, its inverse is g −n , which is also in hgi.

Therefore, hgi is a subgroup of G.

In fact, hgi is the smallest subgroup of G which contains g.

Example. (Subgroups of a finite cyclic group) List the elements of the subgroups generated by elements
of Z8 .

h0i = {0},
h2i = h6i = {0, 2, 4, 6},
h4i = {0, 4},
h1i = h3i = h5i = h7i = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.

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 The way the subgroups are contained in one another can be pictured in a subgroup lattice diagram:

The following result is easy, so I’ll leave the proof to you. It says that the subgroup relationship is
transitive.

Lemma.(Subgroup transitivity) If H < K and K < G, then H < G: A subgroup of a subgroup is a

subgroup of the (big) group.

If you want to show that a subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G, you can check the three properties
in the definition. But here is a little shortcut.

Lemma. Let G be a group, and let H be a nonempty subset of G. H < G if and only if a, b ∈ H implies
a · b−1 ∈ H.
Proof. (⇒) Suppose H < G, and let a, b ∈ H. Then b−1 ∈ H (since H is closed under inverses), hence
a · b−1 ∈ H (since H is closed under products).

(⇐) Suppose that a, b ∈ H implies a · b−1 ∈ H. Since H 6= ∅, take a ∈ H. Then 1 = a · a−1 ∈ H.

If a ∈ H, then a−1 = 1 · a−1 ∈ H (since I already know 1 ∈ H). This shows H is closed under taking
inverses.
Finally, suppose a, b ∈ H. Then b−1 ∈ H, so ab = a · (b−1 )−1 ∈ H. Therefore, H < G.

Note: In order to use this criterion, you have to show that the set in question is nonempty before doing
the “a · b−1 ∈ H” check. Usually you show the set is nonempty by showing that it contains the identity
element. So you really have to do two checks, not just one.

Example. (A subgroup of a matrix group) Let GL(2, R) be the set of invertible 2 × 2 matrices with
real entries.

(a) Show that GL(2, R) is a group under matrix multiplication.

(b) Show that the following set is a subgroup of GL(2, R):
  
a 0 
D= a∈R and a 6= 0 .
0 a 

(a) If A, B ∈ GL(2, R), then det A 6= 0 and det B 6= 0. Hence,

det(AB) = (det A)(det B) 6= 0.

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 Therefore, AB is invertible, so matrix multiplication is a binary operation on GL(2, R). (The point is
that the set is closed under the operation.)
From linear algebra, I know that matrix multiplication is associative.
The 2 × 2 identity matrix is invertible, so it’s in GL(2, R). It’s the identity for GL(2, R) under matrix
multiplication.
Finally, if A ∈ GL(2, R), then A−1 exists. It’s also an element of GL(2, R), since its inverse is A.
This proves that GL(2, R) is a group under matrix multiplication.

(b) First,  
1 0
∈ D.
0 1
Therefore, D isnonempty.
  
a 0 b 0
Next, suppose , ∈ D, where a, b ∈ R and a, b 6= 0. Note that
0 a 0 b
 −1  
b 0 b−1 0
= .
0 b 0 b−1

Then   −1     
a 0 b 0 a 0 b−1 0 ab−1 0
= = ∈ D.
0 a 0 b 0 a 0 b−1 0 ab−1
Therefore, D is a subgroup of GL(2, R).

Definition. Let G be a group. a, b ∈ G commute if ab = ba.

The center Z(G) of G is the set of elements which commute with everything in G:

Z(G) = {g ∈ G | gh = hg for all h ∈ G}.

Lemma. Z(G) < G.

Proof. Suppose a, b ∈ Z(G). I’ll show ab ∈ Z(G). To do this, I must show that ab commutes with everything
in G.
Let g ∈ G. Then
(ab)g = a(bg) (Associativity)
= a(gb) (Since b ∈ Z(G))
= (ag)b (Associativity)
= (ga)b (Since a ∈ Z(G))
= g(ab) (Associativity)
Therefore, ab ∈ Z(G)
Next, 1 · g = g = g · 1 for all g ∈ G, so 1 ∈ Z(G).
Finally, let a ∈ Z(G). I need to show that a−1 ∈ Z(G). Let g ∈ G. I need to show that ga−1 = a−1 g.
I have
ag −1 = g −1 a (Since a ∈ Z(G))
−1 −1 −1 −1
(ag ) = (g a) (Take inverses of both sides)
(g −1 )−1 a−1 = a−1 (g −1 )−1 (Inverse of a product formula)
ga−1 = a−1 g (Properties of inverses)
Therefore, a−1 ∈ Z(G).
Hence, Z(G) is a subgroup of G.

The union of subgroups is not necessarily a subgroup, but the intersection of subgroups is always a
subgroup. Before I prove this, a word about notation.

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 In this result, I want to talk about a bunch of subgroups of a group G. How should I denote these
subgroups? I don’t want to write H1 , H2 , . . . , Hn , because I may want an infinite number of subgroups.
Well, how about H1 , H2 , . . . (where I think of the sequence as continuing forever)?
The problem in the second case is that I might not be able to list the subgroups in a sequence. You may
know that there are different kinds of “infinity” and some a bigger than others. Specifically, if the number
of subgroups under consideration is not countable, I can’t list them as “H1 , H2 , . . . ”.
I’ll use notation like {Ha }a∈A in situations like these. Each Ha is a subgroup, and A is an index set. In
other words, A is an unspecified set whose elements I use to subscript the H’s. Since A could be arbitrarily
big, this gets around the problems I had with the other notations.
Rather than get into technicalities, I will leave things at that and illustrate by example how you work
with infinite index sets. If the next proof confuses you, try writing out the proof for two subgroups: That
is, if H and K are subgroups of a group G, then H ∩ K is a subgroup of G.

Lemma. The intersection of a family of subgroups is a subgroup.

Proof. Let G be a group, and let {Ha }a∈A be a family of subgroups of G. Let H = ∩a∈A Ha . I claim that
H is a subgroup of G.
First, 1 ∈ Ha for all a ∈ A, because each Ha is a subgroup. Hence, 1 ∈ ∩a∈A Ha , and the intersection is
nonempty.
Next, let g, h ∈ H. I want to show that g · h−1 ∈ H. Since g, h ∈ H, I know g, h ∈ Ha for all a. Then
g · h ∈ Ha for all a, since each Ha is a subgroup. This implies that g · h−1 ∈ H, so H < G.
−1

Here is how I can use the preceding construction. Suppose G is a group, and S is a collection of elements
of G. S might not be a subgroup of G — it might not contain 1, or it might be missing the inverses of
some of its elements — but intuitively I ought to be able to add the “missing elements” and enlarge S to a
subgroup.
If you try to say precisely what you need to add to S, and how you will add it, you will quickly find
yourself tied in knots. Do you add elements one at a time? If you throw in an element, you have to throw in
the products of that element with everything else that is there (to ensure closure). If you do this sequentially,
how do you know the process actually terminates?
Instead of building up the subgroup from S, I’ll get at it “from above”. Consider the collection of all
subgroups {Ha }a∈A such that S ⊂ Ha . The collection is nonempty, because G is a subgroup of G and S ⊂ G.
Let H = ∩a∈A Ha . H is a subgroup of G, and S ⊂ H. H is the subgroup generated by S. It is
clearly the smallest subgroup of G containing S, in the following sense: If K is a subgroup of G and
S ⊂ K, then H < K.
It’s common to write hSi for the subgroup generated by S. So in case S = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } (a finite
set), write hx1 , x2 , . . . , xn i for the subgroup generated by the x’s.In the case of a single element x ∈ G, the
subgroup hxi generated by x is the cyclic subgroup generated by x that I discussed earlier.

Example. (Subgroups generated by elements) Let G = Z6 , the cyclic group of order 6. Show

h2i = {0, 2, 4}, but h2, 3i = Z6 .

The first statement is easy: 2 + 2 = 4, 2 + 2 + 2 = 0.

What about the second? By definition, h2, 3i is the smallest subgroup which contains 2 and 3. Since
subgroups are closed under addition, 2 + 2 + 3 = 1 must be in h2, 3i as well. But I can make any element of
Z6 by adding 1 to itself enough times, so h2, 3i must contain everything in Z6 — that is, h2, 3i = Z6 .

Example. R2 is a group under vector addition. Give an example of two subgroups R2 whose union is not
a subgroup.

R2 consists of the points in the x-y-plane, or equivalently 2-dimensional vectors with real components.

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 Two elements of R2 are added as 2-dimensional vectors:

(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d).

The following sets are subgroups of R2 :

A = {(a, 0) | a ∈ R} and B = {(0, b) | b ∈ R}.

A is the x-axis, and B is the y-axis.

For example, I’ll verify that A is a subgroup of R2 . It’s closed under addition: If (a1 , 0), (a2 , 0) ∈ A,
then
(a1 , 0) + (a2 , 0) = (a1 + a2 , 0) ∈ A.
2
The identity for R is (0, 0), which is contained in A.
If (a, 0) ∈ A, then
−(a, 0) = (−a, 0) ∈ A.
Try writing out the proof for B yourself.
However, the union A ∪ B is not a subgroup of R2 . A ∪ B is the union of the x-axis and the y-axis. This
set is not a subgroup because it’s not closed under addition. For example, (1, 0) ∈ A and (0, 1) ∈ B, but

(1, 0) + (0, 1) = (1, 1) ∈

/ A ∪ B.

This example shows that the union of subgroups need not be a subgroup.

c 2018 by Bruce Ikenaga 8