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ENVIRONMENT AND ITS COMPONENTS

ECOSYSTEM AND ITS COMPONENTS:
 Ecosystem is the basic functional unit in ecology.
 It is a complex ecological community consisting of living and non living
components and their interrelationship. In this complex system both the living and
non-living components influence each other and both are indispensable for the
maintenance of life in the world.
 The term ecosystem was first propounded by Tansley (1935). According to him,
it’s a system (biomes) with the physical environment.
 Krishnamurthy (2007) states that there is a lack of any unique definition as well as
the classification of the ecosystem
 Community, habitat, biome ect are other terminologies used interchangeably with
ecosystem.

Ecology
 The term ecology is derived from the word oekology.
 First coined by the biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866.
 Ecology is the study of organisms in their natural habitat, in other words it is the
study of organisms, their relationship with physical environment, and their
interactions among organisms.

Forest ecosystem
 Forest is a complex ecosystem characterized by dense and extensive tree and plant
cover. It acts as a buffer zone on the surface of earth and creates a unique
environment, protecting the different species of plants and animals contained in it.
 The organisms involved in a forest ecosystem are interdependent on one another
for survival .Forests is the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of Earth, and are
distributed around the globe.
 Forests account for 75% of the gross primary production of the Earth's biosphere,
and contain 80% of the Earth's plant biomass. Forests at different latitudes and
elevations form distinctly different eco zones: boreal forests around the poles,
tropical forests around the Equator, and temperate forests at the middle latitudes.
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 Forests provide ecosystem services to humans and serve as tourist attractions.

Human activities, including harvesting forest resources, can negatively affect
forest ecosystems.

Layers of forest
A forest is made up of many layers. The main layers of all forest types are the forest
floor, the understory and the canopy. Each layer has a different set of plants and animals
depending upon the availability of sunlight, moisture and food. Forest floor contains
decomposing leaves, animal droppings, and dead trees. Decay on the forest floor forms
new soil and provides nutrients to the plants. The forest floor supports ferns, grasses, and
mushroom and tree seedlings.

Understory is made up of bushes, shrubs, and young trees that are adapted to living in the
shades of the canopy.

Canopy is formed by the mass of intertwined branches, twigs and leaves of the mature
trees. The crowns of the dominant trees receive most of the sunlight. This is the most
productive part of the trees where maximum food is produced. The canopy forms a
shady, protective "umbrella" over the rest of the forest.

Emergent layer exists in the tropical rain forest and is composed of a few scattered trees
that tower over the canopy

Significance of forest
 Forests provide a diversity of ecosystem services including:
 Convert carbon dioxide into oxygen and biomass.
 Act as a carbon sink.
 Aiding in regulating climate. For example a research from 2017, show that forests
induce rainfall. If the forest is cut, it can lead to drought.
 Purifies water.
 Mitigating natural hazards such as floods.
 Serves as a genetic reserve.
 Serves as a source of lumber and as recreational areas.

Wildlife ecosystem
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Wildlife involves all the organism that exist in the wild. Though in specific cases wildlife
refers to wild animals only, in general , it includes all plants , animals and all micro-
organisms of the natural environment. Wildlife has a major role in complex transfer of
food and energy , and its existence is important to keep the natural process moving. Thus,
protection of wildlife is indispensable to maintain the delicate balance prevalent within
the nature, as well as to preserve the gene pool. Wildlife can be found in all ecosystems.

Deserts, forests, rain forests, plains, grasslands and other areas including the most
developed urban areas, all have distinct forms of wildlife.

Biotic component

The biotic component is a important part of the ecosystem, which includes all living
organisms in the environmental systems. As mentioned earlier the biotic segments of an
ecosystem are the living organisms which are contained in five biological kingdoms.
They are:

a) Monera -bacteria and blue-green cyanobacteria

b) Protista – algae and protozoa

c) Fungi - mushrooms, molds etc.

d) Plantae – all green plants

e) Animalia - different species of animals

Through these components energy flows from one organism to other within the
community. Based on different modes of nutrition , biotic components are further
classified into PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS, PARASITES AND DECOMPOSERS

PRODUCERS

 Producers in ecosystem are green plants that make their own food by harnessing
the energy from sun. They manufacture carbohydrates by the process
photosynthesis.
 In terrestrial ecosystem the plants are mainly rooted and include shrubs and herbs.
 In aquatic ecosystem the plants are submerged or floating ext.
 Producers or plants are also termed as transducers as they transduces solar energy
into food.
 the plants being self nourishing they are also known as autotrophs
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CONSUMERS

 The consumers in the ecosystem are animals which depend on producers directly
or indirectly for their food and energy.
 They eat other organisms for the energy requirements to survive in the ecosystem.
 Based on their position in ecosystem, consumers are classified into:-
o Primary consumers – which includes herbivores that feed directly on
producers
o Secondary consumers – which includes carnivores that feed on other
organisms
o Tertiary consumers eat other smear carnivores.

PARASITES

 Parasites are organisms that derive their foods directly from producers or other
living organisms known as hosts.
 And the hosts are normally injured or harmed.

DECOMPOSERS

 Decomposers are essential for the long term survival of the community.
 The role of the decomposers is to break dead organic matter into molecules
inorganic compounds.
 It is through its activity that the enormous wastages which include organic matters
like plant litter , dead anima bodies and excreta are broke down and nutrients like
nitrogen , phosphorous and potassium are released into the soil.
 They include fungi and bacteria that secret digestive enzymes that decompose
organic matter into simple sugars
 They are the recyclers of ecosystem

Abiotic component

 The non-living factors in the environment are called the abiotic components. The
abiotic components include the atmospheric gases, water in different forms, and
sediments.
 In technical terms they are called atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere
 All the 28 chemical elements that are required by the living organisms are
contained in these three physical spheres that are closely interconnected.
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Agriculture
Agricultural ecosystem is open system, whereby continuous human intervention is
needed for the maintenance of equilibrium with the aim of maximizing the production
provided by a few domesticated plant and animal species. Agriculture is the process of
producing food, feed, fiber and many other desired products by the cultivation of certain
plants and the raising of domesticated animals (livestock). The practice of agriculture is
also known as "farming", while scientists, inventors and others devoted to improving
farming methods and implements are also said to be engaged in agriculture. Subsistence
farming, who farms a small area with limited resource inputs, and produces only enough
food to meet the needs of his/her family. At the other end is commercial intensive
agriculture, including industrial agriculture.

Such farming involves large fields and/or numbers of animals, large resource inputs
(pesticides, fertilizers, etc.), and a high level of mechanization. These operations
generally attempt to maximize financial income from grain, produce, or livestock.

Modern agriculture extends well beyond the traditional production of food for humans
and animal feeds. Modern agriculture, plant breeding, and agrochemicals such as
pesticides and fertilizers, and technological developments have sharply increased yields,
while causing widespread ecological and environmental damage. Selective breeding and
modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly increased the output of meat, but
have raised concerns about animal welfare and environmental damage. Environmental
issues include contributions to global warming, depletion of aquifers, deforestation,
antibiotic resistance, and growth hormones in industrial meat production.

Fishery
 Generally, a fishery is an entity engaged in raising or harvesting fish which is
determined by some authority to be a fishery.
 According to the FAO, a fishery is typically defined in terms of the "people
involved, species or type of fish, area of water or seabed, method of fishing, class
of boats, and purpose of the activities or a combination of the foregoing features".
 The definition often includes a combination of fish and fishers in a region, the
latter fishing for similar species with similar gear types. A fishery may involve the
capture of wild fish or raising fish through fish farming or aquaculture.
 Directly or indirectly, the livelihood of over 500 million people in developing
countries depends on fisheries and aquaculture. Overfishing, including the taking
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of fish beyond sustainable levels, is reducing fish stocks and employment in many
world regions.

Types

 Fisheries are harvested for their value (commercial, recreational or subsistence).

They can be saltwater or freshwater, wild or farmed.
 Close to 90% of the world's fishery catches come from oceans and seas, as
opposed to inland waters. These marine catches have remained relatively stable
since the mid-nineties .
 Most marine fisheries are based near the coast.
 This is not only because harvesting from relatively shallow waters is easier than in
the open ocean, but also because fish are much more abundant near the coastal
shelf, due to the abundance of nutrients available there from coastal upwelling and
land runoff.

Air
Air is a mixture of gases that is present in the troposphere. The gases present in
atmosphere, as discussed earlier are nitrogen (78.084) , oxygen(20.946), Argon(0.934),
and carbon dioxide(0.033).

Various gaseous cycles

 Nitrogen cycle: Though nitrogen is the most abundant gas found in the
atmosphere, it is chemically inactive. Plants cannot use the nitrogen in the gaseous
form. Certain bacteria can convert gaseous nitrogen into nitrogen compounds.
These are essential for plants. E.g.: ammonia, nitrates and organic matter .This
process is called nitrogen fixation. The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen
through a series of processes into nitrates in soil and other nitrogenous compounds
in plants ; which is used by animals to be converted to ammonium compounds ;
and the ultimate breaking down of ammonium compounds to return the nitrogen to
the atmosphere is called nitrogen cycle
 Oxygen: Oxygen is the most chemically active gas. It combines readily with other
elements through the oxidation process. The plants return oxygen to the
atmosphere by photosynthesis. The complex process of oxygen cycling in the
atmosphere is called oxygen cycle Oxygen is absorbed by plants and animals from
the air during respiration and carbon dioxide is released. During the process of
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photosynthesis, plants return oxygen into the atmosphere after utilizing carbon
dioxide and spitting water molecule. Some part of the oxygen that reaches the
upper level of the troposphere is reduced to ozone by action of high energy
ultraviolet radiation.
 Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide is the most significant of the smaller and visible
constituent of the atmosphere .Though this gas has only minor presence, it is of
great importance. Carbon is contained in every organic compound and makes up
the living beings. The circulation of carbon atom in the nature is called carbon
cycle. Carbon is fixed from the atmosphere through the process photosynthesis.
During this process plants take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere with water
in the presence of sunlight to produce carbohydrates, glucose and oxygen. This
oxygen released in the atmosphere is consumed by animals and plants during
respiration. The fixed carbon in plants are either retained by it or passed on to the
herbivores when they feed on the plants. The carbon is released into soil either by
their excreta or when they die they are used as food by microorganisms and latter
microorganism release carbon dioxide into atmosphere. This process is called
carbon cycle

Eco friendly farming

Eco friendly farming is the sustainable way of meeting society's food and textile needs in
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs based on an understanding of ecosystem services, the study of relationships
between organisms and their environment. Prolonged and over usage of chemicals in
crops production has resulted in human health hazards and pollution of environment and
ground water. Green Pesticides or ecological pesticides which are believe to be
environmentally friendly and thus cause less harm to the eco system and animal health.
Farmers and rural communities are key factors in conserving biodiversity and ecosystem.
It should :

 Maintain or improve the production of clean food.

 Maintain or improve the quality of landscapes, which includes soils, water and
biota .
 Have minimal impact on the wide environment.
 Be acceptable to society

Eco-friendly approaches for farming system:

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The following eco-friendly approaches are as:

A. Organic farming: Organic farming is a production system, which avoids or largely

excludes the use of synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators,
and livestock feed additives. To the maximum extent feasible, organic farming system
rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, lagumes.

B. Biological farming: Biological farming allows the use of selected chemical fertilizers
(avoiding disruptive materials such as anhydrous ammonia and potassium chloride) and
adopts low-inputs approaches to use of herbicides and insecticides.

4 Spheres Of Earth
1. LITHOSPHERE:
Lithosphere is the rigid outermost shell of a rocky planet. It contains the upper mantle
and crust. The earth has two types of lithosphere, they are oceanic and continental. The
lithosphere is broken up into tectonic plates. Oceanic lithosphere consists mainly of
magnesium and iron and is denser than continental lithosphere. It thickens as it ages and
moves away from the mid-ocean ridge. This thickening occurs by conductive cooling,
which converts hot atmosphere into lithosphere mantle. The continental lithosphere is
also called the continental crust. It is the layer of igneous, sedimentary rock that forms
the continents and the continental shelves. This layer consists of granitic rocks. About
40% of the earth’s surface is now covered by continental crust, but this makes up about
70% of this volume of earth’s crust. Continental crust ultimately derived from fractional
differentiation of oceanic crust over the eons. This process was primarily a result of
volcanism and subduction.
2. ATMOSPHERE:
The atmosphere is the body of gas that surrounds our planet, held in place by earth’s
gravity. Most of our atmosphere is located close to the earth’s surface where it is most
dense. The air of our planet is 79% nitrogen and just under 21% oxygen, carbon dioxide
and other trace gases. The atmosphere itself rises to about 10000 km height and is divided
into four zones. The troposphere, where about three-quarters of all atmospheric mass can
be found, stretches from about 6 km above the earth’s surface to 20 km. beyond this lies
the stratosphere, which rises to 50 km above the planet. Next comes the mesosphere,
which extends to about 85 km above the earth’s surface. The atmosphere rises to about
690 km above the earth, then finally the exosphere. Beyond the exosphere lies the outer
space.
3. HYDROSPHERE:
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Hydrosphere is the discontinuous layer of water at or near earth’s surface. It includes all
liquid and frozen surface water, groundwater held in soil and rock and atmospheric water
vapors. The water in the sea and oceans consisting of all the ice (cryosphere) and frozen
water, lagoons, lakes, rivers and ponds as well as water in the water table are the parts of
hydrosphere as well as together they cover more than 70% of earth’s surface. Water
moves through the hydrosphere in a cycle. Water collects in clouds, and then falls to
earth in the form of rain or snow. This water collects in river, lakes and oceans. Then it
evaporates into atmosphere to start the cycle all over again. This is called water cycle.

4. STRATOSPHERE:
The stratosphere is a layer of earth’s atmosphere. It is the second layer of the atmosphere
s you go upward. The stratosphere is the layer between the lower layer troposphere and
higher layer mesosphere. No weather occur in the stratosphere. The stratosphere contains
over 15% of the total mass of the atmosphere and is where the ozone layer is located.
This ozone layer is important for man’s survival and for the survival of life on earth, as it
absorbs the UV (ultra-violet) radiation from the sun that would be deadly otherwise.
These gases which are found stratosphere are nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%) with
only (1%) concentrations of other trace gases.

Food chain
Green plants trap solar energy and convert it into chemical energy in the ecosystem. This
chemical energy so converted is locked in various parts of plants in the form of
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, etc. These plants are eaten by herbivores, which are in turn
eaten by carnivores. It is in this way that one form of organism supports the other form of
organism. According to Odum (1971), this transfer of food energy from the source in the
plants through a series of organisms with repeated eating and being eaten is referred to as
food chain

Food web
In any ecosystem, one organism is not dependent just on other organism. The primary
resource of the ecosystem is shared at the beginning of the chain. Thus, in the ecosystem,
number of food chain exist, and a single organism may derive food from more than one
food chain. The complex interrelations of food chains are termed as food web. And this
food web maintains the stability of ecosystem.

Ecological pyramid
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The concept of pyramidal structure of the food chain was proposed by Elton (1997). On
the base of the pyramid is the producers , which is followed upward by herbivores, small
carnivore and large carnivores. It was also proposed that the pyramidal structure of the
food chain is dependent on the size and populations of a species as well as to its position
in the pyramid. The ecological pyramid is based on the principle that the ecosystems
obey the laws of physics, as energy is transferred from lower level to the next higher
level.

Climate
Climate includes factors like heat, light, temperature, precipitation, rainfall, humidity,
wind etc .They are also known as physical factors. All the above factors interact with
each other and the interaction determines the nature of the ecosystem.
Any variation in the climate affects the distribution, structure and lifestyle of organisms.
Climate is influenced by altitude, latitude, availability of water bodies, air, etc .

Climate change
Climate change is now an important environmental problem that has received wide
attention. It is an issue that has global, regional, national and local implications. The main
reason for climate change can be attributed to the increased use of fossil fuel
consumption, which is causing exceedingly high concentration levels of GHGs ,
especially co2 .

Causes of climate change

The natural causes that lead to global warming are as follows :

1) The sun’s energy: the quantum of the solar energy that reaches earth varies
over a period of time , and makes an impact on the temperature. Earth
becomes warmer or cooler based on the solar energy it receives. This will
ultimately result in changes to the climate.
2) Atmospheric gases: Certain gases have a strong effect on the climate. These
gases trap the heat in the earth’s atmosphere. Climate change is due to the
trapping of sun’s heat energy by the GHG’s in the atmosphere. This trapped
energy is then radiated or redistributed on the earth’s surface altering the
temperature and climate. Among GHGs, co2 has a major role to play in driving
climate change.
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3) Ocean currents: the water in oceans is constantly in movement in regular

patterns due to the activity of winds. This movement of water is called ocean
currents. This movement plays a significant role in heating up of the globe.
4) Volcanic eruptions: the eruption of volcanoes release tiny particles, dust, fumes
etc. into the atmosphere .These particles reaching upper parts of atmosphere
and staying there for fairly long periods can directly affect the earth’s
temperatures and climate.

Carbon credit
 A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable certificate or permit representing
the right to emit one ton of carbon dioxide or the equivalent amount of a different
greenhouse gas.
 Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of national and international
attempts to mitigate the growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs).
Greenhouse gas emissions are capped and then markets are used to allocate the
emissions among the group of regulated sources.
 The goal is to allow market mechanisms to drive industrial and commercial
processes in the direction of low emissions or less carbon intensive approaches
than those used when there is no cost to emitting carbon dioxide and other GHGs
into the atmosphere.
 Since GHG mitigation projects generate credits, this approach can be used to
finance carbon reduction schemes between trading partners and around the world
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Prepared by:
AKHILA
ALANA
ARUNIMA
NAJLA
PREETHI
SUVIL
VIPIN