Summary

1- Gordon Allport's trait theory represents a blend of humanistic and personalistic approaches to
the study
of human behavior.
2- Allport regarded the trait  as the most valid unit of
analysis for understanding and studying personality.
In his system, traits are predispositions to respond in an equivalent manner to various kinds of stimuli. In
short, traits account for a person's behavioral consistency over time and across situations. They may be
classified under one of three headings- cardinal, central, or secondary - according to their degree of
pervasiveness within a personality.
3- The overall construct that unifies traits and provides direction for the person's life is termed the
proprium.  This concept essentially refers to the "self-as-known," including all aspects of personality that
contribute to an inward sense of unity.
4- Another of Allport's personality concepts, his best-known and most controversial, is that of functional
autonomy. This principle asserts that adult motives are not related to the earlier experiences in which
appeared. Allport further distinguished between preservative functional autonomy (reverberatory, or
feedback, mechanism in the
nervous system, and Propriate functional autonomy (the latter allows for the
development of the truly mature person
5- One useful application of Allport's theory, the Study  of  Values,  is a self-report personality test. Based
upon Spranger's value types, it assesses the relative strength of each of six basic values
in the individual's
life: theoretical, economic, aesthetic, social, political, and religious. Persons can be characterized
by their
dominant value orientation or by their particular patterns of values.
Example we have used this scale extensively with students and the values
of aesthetic, economic are there
in females while social and political are there in males.

MURRAY
Example: (A producer)
1-His or her personality is an abstraction.
2- It refers to series of events that ideally span over life time from childhood to adulthood.
3-It reflects novel, unique , recurrent and enduring patterns of behaviors.-his education and training.
4- Personality is located in brain -imagination, perception.
5-Personality functions are reduce conflicts, satisfy individual needs and to make plans for attainment of
future goals to be incharge of entire productions of VU-TV
Henry Murray
1. 1. Henry Alexander Murray was born on May 13, 1893. He was an American psychologist. In
1938 he published Explorations in Personality. Murray's most significant and well-known
contribution is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), a personality test he developed which
involved having individuals interpret a series of pictures to tell a story.
2. 2. Murray established, with others, the Psychological Clinic Annex in 1949. He received the
Scientific Contribution Award from the American Psychological Association and the Gold
Medal Award for lifetime achievement from the American Psychological Foundation. Murray
died from pneumonia at the age of 95 on June 23, 1988.
3. 3. Murray used the term “personology” to describe his study of human lives and individual
differences in personality
4. 4. Henry Murray formulated five principles of personology.  First principle: Personality is
rooted in the brain. The individual’s cerebral physiology guides and governs every aspect of
the personality.
5. 5.  Second principle: Involves the idea of tension reduction. Murray agreed with Freud and
other theorists that people act to reduce physiological and psychological tension, but this
does not mean we strive for a tension free state. It is a process of acting to reduce tension
that is satisfying , according to Murray rather than the attainment of condition free of all
tension. Murray believed that a tension-free existence is itself a source of distress.
6. 6.  Third principle: The third principle of Murray’s personology is that an individual’s
personality continues to develop over time and is constructed of all the events that occur
during the course of that person’s life. Therefore, the study of person’s past is of great
importance.  Fourth principle: Murray’s forth principle involves the idea that personality
changes and progress; it is not fixed or Static. Emphasize on the uniqueness of each person.
7. 7.  Fifth principle: Fifth, Murray emphasized the uniqueness of each person while
recognizing similarities among all people. As he saw it, an individual human being is like no
other person, like some other people, and like every other person.
8. 8. Divisions of PersonologyDivisions of Personology
9. 9.  Murray divided personality in three parts. For this, he used Freud’s terms but these
terms differ in interpretation. • Id • Superego • Ego
10. 10. Id:  Id is the repository of all innate impulsive tendencies.  It is concern with behaviour.
 It provides the energy and the direction of behavior.
11. 11. Id  Freud: Freud said, Id contains primitive, amoral & lustful impulses.  Murray: Murray
believed, Id contains socially acceptable impulses like empathy and love.
12. 12. Id  Murray was influenced by Jung’s Shadow Archetype which has good impulses as
well as bad ones.  The strength of Id impulse varies among individuals.
13. 13. Superego  Freud: Freud was of the view that superego stems out after the child
identifies with his/her parents. Superego acts as the parental voice.  Murray: Murray
defined superego as the internalization of the culture’s values and norms by which we come
to evaluate and judge our behavior and that of others.
14. 14. Superego  Freud: Freud said that at the age of 5, the superego is crystallized. 
Murray: Murray suggested that Superego continuously develop throughout lifetime.
15. 15.  Freud: The superego is in constant conflict with Id.  Murray: Murray opposed the
Frued’s this concept and said that superego is not in constant conflict with id because the Id
contains bad and good impulses.
16. 16.  Freud: Freud stated that when ego acts contrary to the demands of superego and does
not meet its standards, it gives of guilt and feelings of inferiority  Murray: Murray believed
 that superego prevents occurrence of socially unacceptable impulses and expresses
acceptable needs appropriately.
17. 17. Ego-ideal While the superego is developing so is the ego-ideal. Ego ideal represents
what we can become at our best (IDEALIZED SELF IMAGE) and not what we can become if
we do not meet superego’s standard.
18. 18. Ego  Ego is the rational governor of personality.  He opposes Freud’s contention that
ego is the slave of id, superego and the reality.  Ego organizes our behaviors coming from
the id impulse whether good or bad.
19. 19. Ego  Ego is the central organizer of all behaviors. It plan courses of action. It suppress
unaccepted id impulses and promote accepted id impulses pleasure.
20. 20. Ego  It is called the arbiter of the two contenders, id and superego. It may favor one
over the other. Example  Ego supports id. This support leads the personality towards a life
of crime.
21. 21. Ego  Sometimes ego may ay favors both, the id and the superego. Example  Ego
supports both. This thing leads to the harmony between what a person wants to do and what
the society expects from person.
22. 22. Ego  In Murray’s system conflict can arise between the id and the superego. A strong
ego can mediate effectively between the two, but a weak ego leaves the personality a
battleground.
23. 23. Henry’s personality theory is organized in terms of motives, presses, and needs.
Theories of personality based on needs and motives suggest that our personalities are a
reflection of behaviors controlled by needs. Some needs are temporary and changing, other
needs are deeply seated in our nature (Cherry, 1945).
24. 24. Murray defined needs as, "potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under
certain given circumstances" (1938). Needs energize and direct our behaviors-that is, they
activate behavior in direction to satisfy the needs. Needs may arise either from internal
processes, such as hunger, or from events in the environment (Cherry, 1945).
25. 25. He identified needs as one of two types:  Primary Needs: Also called “viscerogenic
needs”. Primary needs are based on biological demands. They arise from internal bodily
processes. These are need for air, food, water, lactation , and urination.  Secondary Needs:
Also called “psychogenic needs”. These needs are evolved from primary needs. Among
many psychogenic needs he listed are needs for achievement, power, play, and order
(Cherry, 1945).
26. 26. According to Murray, these psychogenic needs function mostly on the unconscious level,
but play a major role in our personality. All people have these needs, but each individual
tends to have a certain level of each need (Cherry, 1945). Murray’s research led him to
formulate a list of 20 needs.
27. 27. Materialistic NeedsMaterialistic Needs
28. 28.  Acquisition: Needs related to obtaining things. People who have high need for
acquisition want to gain possessions and property. They grasp, snatch, steal or gamble
(Cherry, 1945).  Example: Gamblers, thieves, etc.
29. 29.  Order: It is related to organize, arrange things in order to achieve neatness. People
who have higher need for order always want to be clean, neat and tidy. They try to make
their surroundings neat by putting things in order (Cherry, 1945).  Example: House wives,
etc.
30. 30.  Retention: Need for retention involves keeping things. People who have need for
retention refuse to give or lend things, they try to retain possessions of things (Cherry, 1945).
 Example: Miser, economical, etc.
31. 31.  Construction: People have a need for creating and organizing new things (Cherry,
1945).  Example: Chefs, artists etc.
32. 32.  Achievement: It involves overcoming obstacles and attaining high standards. It also
includes exercising power, to strive to do something difficult and as quickly as possible. It is a
need to surpass others (Cherry, 1945).  Example: Suppose you have a big test tomorrow,
but your friends are having a party tonight. If your need for achievement is higher on your
need of affiliation or play, you will probably stay with your books.
33. 33.  Exhibition: It is a need to attract attention to one’s self, to excite, amuse or thrill others.
It involves showing off and the need to be seen and heard (Cherry, 1945).  Example:
People do odd makeup, wear odd dress codes or striking/bright colors.
34. 34.  Recognition: It involves the need for receiving credit for action. People with need for
recognition want to display achievement, gain social status and demand respect. (Cherry,
1945).  Example: CEO, administrative head, etc.
35. 35.  The need of power refers to the desire or need to impact other people, to control or be
in position of influence (Cherry, 1945). Example, teachers, journalist, etc.
36. 36.  People with a high need for attachment have a larger social circle. They spend more
time in interacting with others and they are more likely to be the members of social clubs or
groups (Cherry, 1945).
37. 37.  Information need is a need to be constantly informed and aware about the world and its
happenings. People with this need want to analyze and gain experience and can help others
by sharing their knowledge (Cherry, 1945).
38. 38.  Abasement: Confessing and apologizing. It means to submit passively to external
force. To accept injury, blame , criticism and punishment. To become resigned to fate. To
admit inferiority, error, wrong doing, or defeat. To seek and enjoy pain, punishment, illness
and misfortune
39. 39.  INDEPENDENCE AND RESISTENCE .  It means to get free off restraint, or break out
of confinement. To resist coercion and restriction. To be independent and free to act
according to impulse . To defy conventions.
40. 40. Attacking and ridiculing others. To overcome opposition forcefully. To fight, attack, injure,
or kill another. To maliciously belittle, censure, or ridicule another.
41. 41.  Following the rule and avoiding blame.  For example in a college a student will follow
the rules and regulations of a college and will definitely try to avoid blames and punishments
to get a secure position in the college.
42. 42.  Obeying and cooperating with others.  To admire and support a superior person. To
yield eagerly to the influence of allied others. To conform to custom.
43. 43.  Controlling others.  To control ones environment, to influence and direct the behavior
of others by suggestion, seduction, persuasion or command. To get other to cooperate . To
convince another of the rightness of one’s opinion.
44. 44.  AFFIILIATION :  Spending time with other people. It means to draw near and
enjoyably cooperate or reciprocate with an allied person who resembles one or who likes
one. To adhere and remain loyal to a friend.
45. 45.  Taking care of another person. To give sympathy to and gratify the needs of a helpless
person, an infant or one who is week, disabled, tried, inexperienced, infirm, humiliated,
lonely, dejected or mentally confused.
46. 46.  Having fun with others. To act or fun without further purpose. To like a laugh and make
jokes. To seek enjoyable relaxation of stress. To participate in games, supports, dancing and
playing cards.
47. 47.  Rejecting other people.  To exclude, abandon, expel, or remain indifferent to an
inferior person. To snub or jilt another person.
48. 48.  Being helped or protected by others.  It means to be nursed, supported, sustained,
surrounded, protected, loved, advised, guided, indulged, forgiven or consoled. To remain
close to a devoted protector.
49. 49. COGNIZANCE : To speculate , formulate analyze and generalize. Seeking knowledge
and asking questions. For example in a class students seek knowledge and ask questions
from teachers to fulfill their information need and to become more acknowledged.
50. 50.  Educating others.  By educating others u can get more knowledge. The process of
seeking knowledge never stops. For example, teachers educate students and gain more
knowledge and can fulfill their information need and desire for knowledge.
51. 51. Each need is important in itself but needs can be interrelated, can support other needs
and can also conflict with other needs (Cherry, 1945). For example, the need for dominance
may conflict with the need for affiliation when overly controlling behavior drives away friends,
family, and romantic partner. Murray also believed that environmental factors play a role in
how these psychogenic needs are displayed in behavior. Murray called these environmental
forces “PRESSES”.
52. 52. Psychologists have subjected Murray’s psychogenic needs to considerable research. 
For example: Research on the need of achievement has revealed that people with the high
need for achievement select more challenging tasks.
53. 53.  Another example can be of affiliation need. People who rate high on affiliation needs
tend to have larger social groups spend more time in social interaction and more likely to
suffer loneliness when faced with little social contact (Cherry, 1945).
54. 54.  NEED’S PREPOTENCY : Needs differ in terms of the urgency with which they impel
behavior. This characteristic of the needs is called Need’s Prepotency.  FUSION OF
NEEDS : Some needs are complementary and can be satisfied by one behavior or a set of
behaviors. This is called Fusion of Needs.
55. 55.  Subsidiation: It is a situation in which one need is activated to aid in the satisfaction of
another need. For example, To satisfy the affiliation need by being in the company of other
people, it may be necessary to act deferentially towards them, thus invoking the deference
need. In this case, the deference need is subsidiary to the affiliation need.
56. 56.  The influence of the environment and past events or the current activation of a need is
called PRESS. For example, Murray recognized that childhood events can effect the
development of specific needs and, later in life, can activate those needs. He called this
influence Press because an environmental object or event presses or pressures the
individual to act in a certain way
57. 57.  A combination of press and need(the personality) that brings order to our behavior is
called Thema. It is also called UNITY THEMA.  The thema is formed through early
childhood experiences and becomes powerful force in determining personality. Largely
unconscious, the thema relates needs and presses in a pattern that gives coherence, unity,
uniqueness and order our behavior (Cherry, 1945).
58. 58.  Drawing on Freud’s work, Murray divided childhood into 5 stages. Each stage is
characterized by a pleasurable condition that is inevitably terminated by demands of the
society (Murray, 1938).  Each stage leaves its mark on our personality in the form of an
unconscious complex that directs our later development.
59. 59.  Definition of Complex: To Murray, complex is “A normal pattern of childhood
development that influences the adult personality” (Murray, 1938).  According to Murray,
everyone passes through 5 developmental stages and also experiences 5 complexes
associated with these stages (Murray, 1938).
60. 60.  There is nothing abnormal about these complexes except when they are manifested in
extreme conditions, that leaves a person fixated at that stage.  As a result, the personality is
then unable to develop spontaneity and flexibility, and this situation interferes with the
formation of ego and super-ego (Murray, 1938).
61. 61. 1. Claustral Stage (Claustral Complexes). 2. Oral Stage (Oral Complexes). 3. Anal Stage
(Anal Complexes). 4. Urethral Stage (Urethral Complex). 5. Genital Stage (Genital or
Castration Complex).
62. 62.  Claustral stage comprises of the secure, serene and dependent existence of fetus
within the womb.  Basically, these are the conditions we may all occasionally wish to
reinstate (Murray, 1938).
63. 63. a) Simple Claustral Complex:  In this complex, the person has a desire to be in small,
warm, dark places that are safe and secluded.  For example, one might long to remain
under the blankets instead of getting out of bed in the morning.  People with this complex
show: need to reinstate womb-like conditions, dependency on others, passive tendencies
and are oriented to past and also they don’t like to change (Murray, 1938).
64. 64. b) Insupport form of Claustral Complex:  This complex is related to feelings of insecurity,
lack of trust and helplessness, fear of open places, falling, drowning, fires, earthquakes or
any situation of novelty and change (Murray, 1938).
65. 65. c) Anti-claustral Complex (Egression form):  People with this complex show: a need to
escape from restraining womb-like conditions; fear of suffocation; preference for open
spaces, fresh air, travel, movement, change and novelty (Murray, 1938).
66. 66.  This stage comprises of sensuous enjoyment of sucking nourishment through mother’s
breasts.  There are 3 types of Oral Complexes associated with this stage of development
(Murray, 1938).
67. 67. a) Oral Succorance Complex:  This complex is related to a combination of mouth
activities (sucking, kissing, eating, drinking), passive tendencies, need to be protected and
supported. People with this complex also show hunger for affection and love (Murray, 1938).
68. 68. b) Oral Aggression Complex:  This complex is a combination of oral and aggressive
behaviors such as biting, spitting, shouting and verbal aggression e.g. sarcasm (Murray,
1938).
69. 69. c) Oral Rejection Complex:  This complex includes vomiting, being picky about food,
eating less, fearing oral contamination (such as from kissing), desiring seclusion and
avoiding dependence on others (Murray, 1938).
70. 70.  This stage consists of pleasures resulting from defecation as children become aware of
toilet related activities.  There are 3 complexes associated with this stage of development
(Murray, 1938).
71. 71. a) Anal Rejection Complex:  People with this complex are disorganized, dirty, pre-
occupied with defecation, anal humor, feces-like material (mud, plaster etc.) and are fond of
activities involving aggression such as dropping and throwing things, firing guns (Murray,
1938).
72. 72. b) Anal Retention Complex:  This complex is characterized by accumulating, saving and
collecting things, neatness, cleanliness and orderliness (Murray, 1938).
73. 73.  This stage is associated with the pleasure accompanying urination. Urethral Complex:
 This complex is associated with excessive ambition, exhibitionism, distorted sense of self-
esteem, bed- wetting, sexual cravings, self-love (narcissism) (Murray, 1938).
74. 74.  This complex is sometimes referred to as ‘Icarus Complex’, named after mythical
Greek figure who flew so close to the sun that the wax holding his wings melted (Murray,
1938).  Like Icarus, people show high ambitions and their dreams are shattered by failure.
75. 75.  This stage is accompanied by genital pleasures. Genital / Castration Complex:  This
complex is related to the anxiety evoked by the fantasy that the penis might be cut off
(Murray, 1938).  Such a fear grows out of childhood masturbation and parental punishment
that may have accompanied it (Murray, 1938).
76. 76.  Murray gave images of human nature according to his personality theory. 1. Equilibrium
vs. Growth:  In Equilibrium vs. Growth issue, Murray gave his viewpoint that ‘growth’ is
responsible for shaping our personalities.  According to Murray, our goal is not tension-free
state but the satisfaction achieved by acting to reduce the tension (Shneidman, 1981).
77. 77. 2. Free-will vs. Determinism:  Murray explained this issue of human nature by creating a
balance between the two.  According to him, free-will and determinism both are responsible
 in shaping our personality.  He was of the view that personality is determined by our needs
and our environment. Moreover, he explained that free-will is also responsible for growth and
change (Shneidman, 1981).
78. 78. 3. Uniqueness vs. Universality:  There exists a balance between uniqueness and
universality according to Murray’s personality theory.  He believed that every person is
unique, meaning that there are distinct characteristics which are responsible for shaping
one’s personality (Shneidman, 1981).  Also, he was of the view that there exist similarities
between all of our personalities.
79. 79. 4. Nature vs. Nurture:  Murray believed that both nature and nurture are responsible for
shaping one’s personality.  He suggested that inherited attributes as well as the
environment play an equal role throughout the personality development.  It means we
cannot understand human personality unless we accept the impact of physiological forces in
our physical, social and cultural environments (Shneidman, 1981).
80. 80. 5. Optimism vs. Pessimism:  Murray’s view of human nature was optimistic, which
means that through positive thinking, we have a hopeful view about the future and we are
capable of solving our problems through reasoning, creativity and imagination (Shneidman,
1981).  He criticized the psychology that projected a negative image of human beings.
81. 81. 6. Past vs. Present:  Murray explained this image of human nature by creating a
balance between the two (Murray, 1938).  He was of the view that not only the childhood
experiences are responsible for shaping our personality because the childhood complexes
affect our development unconsciously, but personality is also determined by present events
and aspirations for the future (Shneidman, 1981).
82. 82.  Murray’s techniques for assessing personality differ from those of Freud and the other
neopsychoanalytic theorists. Because Murray was not working with emotionally disturbed
persons, he did not use such standard psychoanalytic techniques as free association and
dream analysis.  The Thematic Apperception Test
83. 83.  The Thematic Apperception Test The TAT consists of a set of ambiguous pictures
depicting simple scenes. It is a projective and subjective test that is used for assessing
unconscious thoughts, feelings, and fears.
84. 84.  It uses a standard series of provocative yet ambiguous pictures about which the
subject is asked to tell a story. The subject is asked to tell as dramatic a story as they can for
each picture presented, including the following:  what has led up to the event shown  what
is happening at the moment  what the characters are feeling and thinking  what the
outcome of the story was
85. 85.  Murray has exerted an impressive and lasting influence on the study of personality. Of
particular importance is his list of needs, which is of continuing value for research, clinical
diagnosis, and employee selection, and his techniques for assessing personality. Overall,
these innovations, and the personal impact he made on at least two generations of
personology researchers at Harvard, have had a more lasting effect than the details of his
theory.
86. 86.  Cherry, K. (1945). Murray’s theory of Psychogenic Needs. Retrieved on: 27/11/2011
from http://www.psychology.about.com/od/psychogenic.htm  Murray, H. A. (1938).
Explorations in Personality. New York: Oxford University Press.  Shneidman, E. S. (1981).
Selections from the Personology of Henry A. Murray. New York: Harper-Collins Publishers.

10- Summary
1- Cattell's approach to the study of personality first measures a large group of individuals in
as many ways
as possible. The measures then are intercorrelated and displayed in
a correlation matrix. The measures that
are moderately or highly correlated are thought to be measuring the same attribute. This procedure
is called
factor analysis, and the attributes it detects are called factors or traits Cattell describe a number
of different
kinds of traits. For example, he feels that common traits are possessed only by a specific individual.
2- Unlike Allport, Cattell is mainly concerned with common traits. His most important distinction is
between surface traits and source traits. Surface traits are those that are actually measured and are,
therefore, expressed in overt behavior of some kind. Source traits are those that are the underlying caus
es of
overt behavior. He feels that most people have about sixteen source traits. Some source traits are
genetically determined and are called constitutional traits. Other source traits are shaped by one's cultu
re
and are called environmental mold traits.
3- Cattell also distinguishes among ability, temperament,
and dynamic traits. Ability traits determine how
well a task is performed. The most important ability trait is intelligence of which Cattell describes two
kinds. Fluid intelligence is general problem-solving ability and is thought to be genetically determined.
Crystallized intelligence is the cumulated knowledge of the kind learned in school and is thus gained
through experience.
-Temperament traits are constitutional and determine a person's emotional make-up
Dynamic traits are those that set the person in motion toward a goal; in other words, they determine a
person's motivational make-up. Cattell distinguishes two categories of dynamic traits: ergs and meta-
ergs.
Ergs are roughly equivalent to instincts, biological needs, or primary drives. Meta-ergs are learned drives
,
divided into sentiments and attitudes. Sentiments are predispositions to act in certain ways to classes of
objects or events. Attitudes are specific responses to specific objects or events. Since ergs are at
the core of
one's motivational patterns, sentiments are said to
be subsidiary to ergs, and since attitudes are dependent
on sentiments, attitudes are said to be subsidiary to sentiments.
5- Cattell's describes the relationship among ergs, sentiments, and attitudes.
6- The fact that humans almost inevitably take indirect routes to satisfy ergic tensions is referred to
as long
circuiting.
7- To explain how personality develops, Cattell postulates three kinds of learning: classical and
instrumental conditioning and structured learning. The last is by far the most important kind of learning
since it involves a change in one's entire personality. Cattell exemplifies structured learning by showing
what happens at a number of choice points following the arousal
of ergic tension. A series of such choice
points is called dynamic crossroads.
Prediction is made by including as much information about a person as possible in
a specification equation.
Cattell's theory is probably the only theory of personality that employs a research technique as complica
ted
as that which it is designed to study. He has been praised for his scientific approach to the study of
personality and criticized by those who feel certain human attributes are not quantifiable.
11- Evaluation
1- Cattell's theory, like most theories of personality, has received mixed reviews. On the positive side,
many feel that too much personality research has been unscientific, and therefore Cattell's effort to qua
ntify
personality is most welcome. There is no doubt that Cattell has been a careful researcher in one of
psychology's more complex areas. His use of factor analysis has necessitated the clear and unambiguous
definition of his concepts.
2- However, as one may expect, there are those who look upon Cattell's attempt
to quantify personality as
negative rather than positive, saying that scientific method is not appropriate to the study of human
attributes.
Allport was disturbed by Cattell's emphasis on groups
rather than on individuals\. Allport felt that Cattell's
method yielded average traits which no individual actually possessed.
An entire population (the larger the better) is put into the grinder, and the mixing is so expert that what
comes through is a link of factors
in which every individual has lost his identity. His dispositions are mixed
with everyone else's dispositions. The factors thus obtained represent only average tendencies. Whethe
r a
factor is really an organic disposition in any one individual life is not demonstrated. All one can say for
certain is that a factor is an empirically derived component of
the average personality, and that the average
personality is a complete abstraction. This objection gains point when one reflects that seldom do the
factors derived in this way resemble the disposition and traits identified by clinical methods when the
individual is studied intensively. (Allport 1937, P.244)