8-Cereal Processing
8-Cereal Processing
8-Cereal Processing
Dr. ––Ing
Dr. Ing. . Dase
Dase Hunaefi
Hunaefi, M.Food.ST
, M.Food.ST
Brief history
• The first cereal grains were domesticated about 12,000 years ago by
ancient farming communities in the Fertile Crescent region Emmer wheat
ancient farming communities in the Fertile Crescent region. Emmer wheat,
einkorn wheat, and barley were three of the so‐called Neolithic founder
crops in the development of agriculture.
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• Agricultural grasses grown for their Introduction
edible seeds are called cereals. Three
cereals – rice, wheat, and maize (corn) –
provide more than half of all calories
provide more than half of all calories
eaten by humans. Of all crops, 70% are
grasses. Cereals constitute the major
source of carbohydrates for humans and
perhaps the major source of protein, and
include rice in southern and eastern Asia,
maize in Central and South America, and
wheat and barley in Europe, northern
Asia and the Americas.
• Grasses are, in human terms,
perhaps the most economically
important plant family. Grasses'
economic importance stems from
several areas, including food
production, industry, and lawns.
• Cereals, grains, or cereal grains are grasses (members of the
monocot families Poaceae or Gramineae) cultivated for the edible
components of their grain composed of the endosperm, germ, and
bran. (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis)
• However, when refined by the removal of the bran and germ, the
remaining endosperm is mostly carbohydrate and lacks the
majority of the other nutrients.
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Grains of cereal
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The most important cereal grain supply are: wheat, rice,
corn, rye, barley, oats, millet, sorghum and
(buckwheat).
What are Grains???
•Germ
•Tiny embryo that will
grow into a new plant
•Endosperm
•Food supply for a
seed’s embryo, made up
of proteins, starches,
and other nutrients
•Bran
•The edible, outer
protective layer of a
seed
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The Grass Family
• More than 50% of the calories consumed by
More than 50% of the calories consumed by
humans comes from members of the grass family
(Poaceae):
– wheat, corn, rice are the main grains, but also oats,
barley, sorghum, millet, and rye
– corn = maize
• Grasses make up 25% of all vegetation on Earth
• Grasses are monocots
• Tropical grasses (like corn but not wheat or rice)
have C4 photosynthesis
have C4 photosynthesis
– C4 means they can open their stomata at night,
store carbon dioxide, and then close the stomata
during the day and fix the CO2 into sugar while the
Sun shines.
Grass Family
Characteristics
• Parallel leaf veins (like all monocots)
• fibrous roots
• either annual or perennial
– but crop species are all annuals
b i ll l
• Growing point is below ground until
flowering. For most grasses, the flowers are
at the tip of each branch.
– Branches (tillers) also start below ground.
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Grass Flowers
• Grass flowers are small and inconspicuous: they are wind‐pollinated so there is
no need to attract pollinators.
• Many flowers grouped together (an inflorescence). Each one is called a floret.
• All angiosperm flowers have the same basic structure: from outside to inside
there are four whorls, sepals, petals, stamens (male parts), carpels (female
parts)
t)
• In grasses, the sepals and petals are fused into a small structure (the lodicule)
that swells up to open the flower.
• In place of sepals and petals are two bracts (leaves), the palea and the lemma.
Grass Fruits
• Each grain is a fruit: the ovary wall
surrounding a single seed. Grain fruits are
dry, not fleshy, and they are indehiscent: the
seed does not fall out of them.
• The embryo (which grows into the new plant)
is called the germ. It is protein‐rich.
• The endosperm is mostly starch, with a little
protein. It provides nutrients for the
germinating seedling before photosynthesis
starts.
• The bran is the outer coat: it consists of the
ovary wall fused to the seed coat.
• In wild grasses (and some domesticated
ones), the grain is surrounded by protective
leaves, the chaff. Chaff has no nutrient value
and must be removed.
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Grain Processing
• Most grains are low in some essential amino acids. To get a complete protein, it
is necessary to also eat something else, such as a legume.
• White flour, corn starch, white rice: just the endosperm, with the bran and germ
removed.
• Brown rice whole wheat flower popcorn = the whole grain including bran and
Brown rice, whole wheat flower, popcorn the whole grain including bran and
germ.
– It contains much more protein and other nutrients than the endosperm
alone.
– But, it spoils faster due to fats in the germ, and bread made with whole
flower doesn’t rise as well.
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Pseudocereals
• Pseudocereals are broadleaf plants (non‐grasses) that are used in much the same
way as cereals (true cereals are grasses). Their seed can be ground into flour and
y ( g ) g
otherwise used as cereals.
• Examples of pseudocereals are amaranth, Love‐lies‐bleeding, red amaranth,
Prince‐of‐Wales‐feather, quinoa, and buckwheat.
Buckwheat, Fagopyrum
B k h t F
esculentum, Polygonaceae
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Pseudocereals
Some p pseudocereals are important
p today;
y
others have been extremely important in the
past.
Amaranthus was the second most important
crop in Mexico in early 1500's.
Because of its association with sacrifices and
religion, the Spanish tried to put down its use.
Cultivation of Amaranthus has survived until the
present.
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Grain amaranth, Amaranthus sp.
Amaranth cultivated in Bolivia.
Amaranth
Amaranth
infructescence and
seeds
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Amaranthus retroflexus, a
weedy amaranth species of
Illinois
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Field with quinoa, a Chenopodium sp., in Bolivia
Winnowing quinoa and quinoa seed
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• Quinoa–the spectacular super food that
originated in the Andean region of Peru–is
NOT a grain. Despite looking like a baby
version of rice or barley and taking the
i f i b l d t ki th
place of various grain in recipes, quinoa,
the protein‐fiber powerhouse combo, is
actually a LEAFY PLANT.
• It is closely related to chard or spinach in a
bizarre category called pseudocereals… The
tiny grain like pieces which we cook are
tiny grain‐like pieces which we cook are
actually SEEDS from the plant. In fact, the leafy
part of the quinoa plant is edible, too. WOW!
Don’t know when the foodie world has been
so confused and misleading since we dubbed
the tomato as a fruit?
from Cereals to….. rice
corn
wheat
Biscuits
Flours
Savoury Sweet
snacks snacks
Products
Pasta
Pizza Bread
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• Staple foods
• Cereal Indust
• Engage your Audience
• Capture Audience Aryttention
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Pasta Processing
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Cerealphobia
Cerealphobia!! Diabetic
I’m afraid of CHO
because they make me
put on weight
Intollerant
Allergic
122 Kg pro‐‐capita of cereals 28 Kg
Kg pro Kg pro
pro‐‐capita 26 Kg
Kg pro
pro‐‐capita
in Italy pasta
vs 89 Kg in Italy of of sweets
Nutrition
Health
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http://www.phytochemicals.info/
Inorganic compounds
Vitamins
Carbohydrates
Dietary fibre
Sterols
Proteins Flavonoids
Phytic acid
Cereals&Co..
Cereals&Co
Pigments
Lipids
Phenolic acids
Tocols
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Beatification
of cereals
Cerealphobia
Cerealphobia!!
I’m afraid of CHO
because they make me
put on weight
cereal
Cereals and Mediterranean Diet
Carbohydrates in a
balanced diet provide
an
n intake
intake of 55‐
of 55‐60%
60% of
of
calories..
calories
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• sorghum is an important
food crop, especially for
subsistence farmers. It is
used to make such foods as
used to make such foods as
Sorghum(milo/jowar/jola/高粱) couscous, sorghum flour,
porridge and molasses.
• sorghum is the most
important ingredient for the
production of distilled
beverages, such as maotai
and kaoliang.
• It is drought tolerant and
heat tolerant, and is
,
especially important in arid
regions.
• It is an important food crop
in Africa, Central America,
and South Asia, and is the
"fifth most important cereal
crop grown in the world"
Sorghum Likes it Hot and Dry
Origin: Ethiopia
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Main Types of Sorghum
Four main types:
‐ grain sorghums
grain sorghums
‐ sweet sorghum (animal feed)
‐ Sudan grass (related species)
‐ broomcorn
Sorghum, Sorghum bicolor
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Johnson grass, Sorghum halepense
Sorghum ‐
S h ancient cereal l
an ancient
Sorghum ‐ a nutritious cereal
Sorghum ‐ a healthy
h l h cereal
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Sorghum(milo/jowar/jola/高粱)
Gluten‐induced
Gluten induced disorders
disorders
Celiac disease….
from a rare disorder typical of infancy to a
common auto‐immune inflammatory
disease of the small intestine.
It is mainly triggered and maintained by
the storage proteins (gluten) of wheat,
wheat
rye and barley, in genetically susceptible
individuals.
Gluten sensitivity
The causes The clinical spectrum
Ti
Trigger
+
Genes
+ Typical symptoms
Typical symptoms
Abdominal distension, diarrhoea, vomiting,
weight loss, fatigue
Leaky
Extraintestinal symptoms
small Alopecia, arthritis, ataxia, epilepsy, dental enamel hypoplasia,
infertility, osteoporosis
intestine
Associated diseases
Type 1 diabetes, vitiligo, primary biliary cirrhosis
Source: Greetje J et al., Nature: Gastr & Hepat 7:204, 2010
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Common nutritient deficiencies
Sorghum(milo/jowar/jola/高粱)
• the length of time Upon diagnosis Gluten‐free diet
Long‐term
Long term
that an individual gluten‐free diet
has lived with the Protein ‐ ‐
active, but
undiagnosed, Fibre Fibre Fibre
disease Iron Iron ‐
Calcium Calcium ‐
• the extent of
damage to the Vitamin D Vitamin D ‐
gut intestinal Magnesium Magnesium ‐
tract Folate, Niacin, Folate, Niacin,
Folate, Niacin,
Vitamin B12, Vitamin B12,
Vitamin B12
• the degree of Riboflavin Riboflavin
malabsorption Zinc ‐ ‐
http://www.phytochemicals.info/
Sorghum
Chemical composition
Minerals
(iron, zinc, iodine
iron zinc iodine)
Vitamins
(vitamin A and B‐complex)
Carbohydrates
(fibres and starches)
Dietary fibre
Proteins
(kafirins)
Lipids Phytochemicals
(tannins, phenolic acid, anthocyanins)
Sorghum(milo/jowar/jola/高粱)
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Sorghum
Factors affecting the chemical composition
Envirnomental
‐ strictly dependent on the plant (age, gender, stage of development …..)
Artificial
Suitable harvesting
Correct storage conditions (cleaning, drying ……)
Industrial processing (extrusion, puffing, cooking ….)
Source: Awika JM et al.. Phytochemistry. 2004 ‐ 65:1199‐1221
Chemical composition
(per 100 g edible portion; 12% moisture)
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Proteins (6‐18%) Proteins
Prolamins (Kafirins)
Fibre
Starch
Minerals
Enzymes
Proteins
Non‐Prolamine (albumins, globulins and glutelins)
Fibre
Lipids
Vitamins
Enzymes
Minerals
Sorghum(milo/jowar/jola/高粱)
Kafirins are classified as either , , or based on molecular weight and solubility
Kafirins are rich in glutamic and non
non‐‐polar amino acids (proline,
proline, leucine and alanine), but
almost without the essential amino acid lysine
lysine..
gliadins glutenins
Secalins Rye +
Hordeins Barley +
Avenins Oats ?
gluten
Zeins Maize ‐
Recent developments in Oryzins Rice ‐
proteomics have provided an Kafirins Millet, Sorghum ‐
important contribution to the
understanding of the biochemical
and immunological aspects and
the toxicity mechanism of
prolamins.
Source: Manone G et al., Expert Rev Proteomics 8(1):95, 2011
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Prolamines are a group of plant storage proteins having
a high proline content and found in the seeds of cereal
grains: wheat (gliadin), barley (hordein), rye (secalin), co
rn (zein),sorghum (kafirin) and as a minor
protein, avenin in oats. They are characterised by a
high glutamine and proline content and are generally
soluble only in strong
l bl l i t alcohol
l h l solutions. Some
l ti S
prolamins, notably gliadin, and similar proteins found in
the tribe Triticeae (see Triticeae glutens) may
induce coeliac disease in genetically predisposed
individuals
Carbohydrates
Cellulose
H i ll l
Hemicellulose
Starch Pentosans
(56‐73% amylopectine and amylose)
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Amylose Amylopectin
Starch
% %
e
ect on serum glucose
wheat 25 75
The digestibility of the starch, which depends on hydrolysis by pancreatic enzymes, determines the
available energy content of cereal grains. Processing the grains by methods such as steaming, pressure‐
cooking, flaking, puffing or micronization of the starch increases the digestibility of sorghum starch.
Effect of processing food
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(g/100g)
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Riccardi G et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;87:269S‐274S
Minerals Rice
11 mg Calcium
The bioavailability of minerals in
sorghum varies from less than 1% 1.60 mg Iron
Sorghum 1495 mg Calcium for some forms of iron
for some forms of iron to more
to more
than 90% for sodium and
77 mg Potassium
77 mg Potassium
7 mg Sodium
12.5 mg Iron potassium.
1.20 mg Zinc
3300 mg Potassium
0.1 mg Copper
26.4 mg Sodium
15 mg Selenium
1.4 mg Zinc
0.4 mg Copper
They are important components of
5.6 mcg Selenium
body tissues, fluids and work in
conjunction with enzymes,
C
Corn 7 mg Calcium hormones and vitamins. Amaranth
159 mg Calcium
2.71 mg Iron
7.61 mg Iron
287 mg Potassium
508 mg Potassium
35 mg Sodium
4 mg Sodium
2.21 mg Zinc
2.87 mg Zinc
0.31 mg Copper
0.5 mg Copper
15.5 mg Selenium
18.7 mg Selenium
Source: http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/
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Phytochemicals
Why
y is it important
p to talk about p
phytochemicals?
phytochemicals
y ?
Flavonoids ‐ Tannins
Tannins of sorghum
g are almost exclusivelyy of the condensed type.
yp
Grains mg/g (dry weight)
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Flavonoids ‐ Anthocyanins
Levels of anthocyanins ‐ water‐soluble pigments that contribute to the
red, blue and purple
bl l pigmentation in plant
l f
foods
Sample Amount
(mg/100g)
Corn
Pink 0.09
0.3‐0.9 0.2‐5.0 0.3‐7.5 0.2‐0.9 Red 0.56
(mg/100g or 100ml) Purple 1.6
Blue 0.23
Black Rice 0-4.9
Black sorghum 4.0-9.8
Brown sorghum 1.6-3.9
Source: L.Dykes et al.. Phenolic compounds in cereal grains and their health benefits. Cereal Foods World, vol. 52, 2007.
JM Awika et al.. Sorghum phytochemicals and their potential impact on human health. Phytochemistry, 65:1199‐1221, 2004
Red sorghum 3.3
Moreover
Phenolic acids reported in cereals occur in both free and bound forms. Sorghum and
millet contain the widest variety of them.
Source: L.Dykes et al.. Phenolic compounds in cereal grains and their health benefits. Cereal Foods World, vol. 52, 2007; 105‐111
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Phenolic acids
Levels of phenolic acids in foods and beverages
Sample Amount
(mg/100g)
Source: L.Dykes et al.. Phenolic compounds in cereal grains and their health benefits. Cereal Foods World, vol. 52, 2007; 105-111
Marja P. Kahkonen et al. Antioxidant Activity of Plant Extracts Containing Phenolic Compounds. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1999, 47, 3954-396
Phytosterols
Grain Phytosterols (mg/100g)
Sorghum 46‐51
Corn 70‐88
Barley 55‐76
Wheat 40‐74
Oats 35‐60
Rye 96
Brown rice 72
Buckwheat 96
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…. but
Sorghum has some limitations, due to the presence of some factors such as
Trypsin
These compounds are known to interfere
Amylasae inhibitors with protein, carbohydrates, mineral and
Phytic acid other phytochemicals metabolism.
Tannins
Fermentation makes the foods easier to digest and the nutrients easier to assimilate and also it
retains enzymes, vitamins and other nutrients that are usually destroyed by food processing.
Moreover, fermentation has been used for hundreds of years as an effective and low cost means to
preserve the quality and safety of food.
The scientific community is not in complete agreement on the use of sorghum as a food for human nutrition
but…….
Sorghum Injera Fermented
flour
Energy (kcal/100g) 385.88 388.48 379.67
Protein 12.25 11.55 10.70
Carbohydrate 74.68 80.16 75.36
Lipid 4.24 2.40 3.93 Fermentation was observed to
Fibre 1.71 1.95 1.82 reduce the negative effects of
Ca 3.75 4.75 4.99 some nutrients (write in red)
Fe 2.24 3.95 3.64 improve mineral extractability
Cu 0.61 0.71 0.32 improve protein digestibility
Polyphenols 8.10 3.69 6.64 improve the amino acid
Phytate 317.65 286.70 247.92 availability
Tannins 0.18 0.16 0.18
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Sorghum
• Sorghum is actually a genus name. The
crop species is Sorghum bicolor. The
other species in the genus are not
economically useful.
• native to Africa, where it is still heavily
used.
– Traveled to India and China in ancient
times.
• Closely related to maize, with one major
difference: sorghum has perfect flowers
while maize has imperfect flowers
– Which means sorghum flowers have both male
and female parts, while maize has separate
df l t hil i h t
male and female flowers
– Male flowers of maize = tassel (on top)
– Female maize flowers = ear (on the sides of the
stem)
– Sorghum flowers: tassel, on top of the plant.
Sorghum Maize
Uses of Sorghum
• Very drought tolerant‐‐it becomes dormant until
water arrives.
– Good food for famines. It grows when better‐tasting
grains don’t
– grows in places too dry for maize. Western US, for
example.
– Also, it's a very tough plant that grows well even in hard
ground: needs little cultivation
• Different varieties of sorghum can be used in
different ways:
– As a grain: the tassel produces many seeds, about the
size of a small pea,
– As a sweetener: the canes store sugar, which can be
As a sweetener: the canes store sugar which can be
extracted as molasses
– As fodder for animals: they eat the whole plant
(fermented in a silo: makes it more nutritious and better
tasting for the animals), as well as preserving it for winter
use).
– To make brooms. These days most brooms have synthetic
(plastic) bristles.
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Sorghum Beer
• Beer made from sorghum is very common in
Africa, often home‐brewed in small batches.
– Made from grain and naturally occurring yeast.
– Sipped through long straws to filter out the
chaff
– under apartheid in South Africa, Africans were
not allowed to buy alcohol, so they brewed
their own
• Sorghum does not contain gluten, so people
with gluten‐free diets can drink it.
• Beer making process: first convert the starch in
the grains to sugar (malting), and then convert
the sugar to alcohol (fermenting).
the sugar to alcohol (fermenting).
– Sorghum can be malted just like barley: get the
grains wet, allow them to germinate in a warm
environment, then dry them after sprouting.
(or, you can buy sorghum syrup)
– Fermenting with naturally occurring yeasts, or
add your own.
Sorghum Molasses and Maotai
• Like sugar cane, some varieties of
sorghum store sugar in their stalks.
– Eventually, the sugar gets used to
make the seeds, so harvesting occurs
, g
before the seeds are ripe.
• The juice is squeezed out of the
stalks by running them between
iron rollers.
• The juice is then boiled to remove
most of the water. Impurities are
skimmed off the top
skimmed off the top.
• In China, sorghum molasses is
fermented and then distilled used to
make maotai, a very popular form of
alcohol there.
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Corn
Corn or maize,
Zea mays
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Male and female corn structures
Carolina Biological Supply Co.
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Production of hybrid corn seed
Maize
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Maize
• The leafy stalk produces ears which contain seeds called
kernels.
• Maize kernels are used in cooking as a vegetable or starch.
Maize kernels are used in cooking as a vegetable or starch
• Maize constitutes an important source of carbohydrates,
protein, vitamin B, and minerals. As an energy source, it
compares favourably with root and tuber crops, and it is
similar in energy value to dried legumes. Furthermore, it is an
excellent source of carbohydrate and is complete in nutrients
compared to other cereals.
• Maize is a good source of vitamin B and B12. Yellow maize
Maize is a good source of vitamin B and B12 Yellow maize
can provide substantial amounts of vitamin A, and the maize
germ is rich in vitamin E. Furthermore, maize oil contains a
high level of polyunsaturated fatty acids and natural
antioxidants (Okoruwa, 1996). However, of the three major
cereal grains (wheat, maize, and rice), maize has the lowest
concentration of protein, calcium, and niacin.
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Corn Flowers, closer up
The Corn Fruit
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Origin: Mexico
Early Spread: Through New World
Maize – The New
World Cereal
The Corn Plant
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Evolution of Corn
Teosinte
Corn Relatives
Zea diploperennis
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Teosinte
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Teosinte in Mexico
Courtesy of Dr. J. M. J. de Wet
Teosinte, Zea mexicana
Courtesy of Dr. J. M. J. de Wet
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Teosinte ears and
seeds
Proposed origin
of maize ear
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Yoking of corn kernels
Changes from Teosinte to Corn
Teosinte Corn
1
1. N
Non‐shattering pistillate inflorescence (cob)
h tt i i till t i fl ( b)
2. Corn grains open, glumes soft
3. Cupule with 2 fertile spikelets, not one
4. Cupules 4‐10 ranked, not 2‐ranked
5. Corn – primary branches short, with pistillate ear
Changes were thought to be controlled by single gene changes (analysis of 50,000
segregating progeny)
More recently, shown to be somewhat more complicated
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Early
development of
corn
Corn – Natural Diversity
Corn variants Corn types, Peru farm field
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Modern Corn
• Corn is grown very widely in the US and many other countries.
– Described in a Chinese manuscript in 1550. It spread very quickly across the Old World.
• Needs more moisture than wheat. In the western US this means it must be irrigated,
from water stored below ground in the Paleozoic era, which is being used up rapidly
• Many different growing regions, each with slightly different cultivars that grow best
there.
there
• Many uses, and mostly not human food.
– About half of the corn in the US is used as animal feed.
– We eat sweet corn, popcorn, corn meal
– Corn derivatives: corn oil, bourbon whiskey, high fructose corn syrup
– Industrial products: ethanol , corn starch
Corn in the U.S.
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Field Corn: in endosperm sugars starches
Sweet Corn
Sweet Corn
Field Corn: in endosperm sugars starches
Mutant Genes
1. Sugary (su) – slows sugar starch
Result: more water‐soluble carbohydrates, sweeter,
different texture
Standard Sweet Corn
Standard Sweet Corn
Room Temp. – 50% sugar loss (24 hrs); 5‐10 C – 60% (3
days)
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Field Corn: in endosperm sugars
p g starches
Mutant Genes
2. Sugar enhancer (se)
Result: higher sugars; sweet, creamy endosperm
Sugar loss – same as for standard sweet corn
Germination – about same as for standard sweet
corn
Sweet Corn, continued
3. Shrunken (sh2) = “supersweet”
Sugar levels 4
Sugar levels 4‐8
8 X higher; higher lipids; lower starch;
X higher; higher lipids; lower starch;
different texture (tougher pericarp)
Storage: room temp., 48 hrs. – 2X sugar content vs.
standard
at 4 C, sugar loss very slow
Poor germination; “Husks are ugly. Remove for
display.”
Sweet Corn, Continued
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Maize has many
Maize has many
Maize applications and it can be
used for the production
of oil, alcohol, starch,
flour.
• Maize (Zea mays) is native to Mexico, and it was grown throughout North and South America before
Columbus.
• We call this plant "corn", but that word really just means "the most common grain". In England,
"corn" means wheat, and it Scotland it means oats.
• Unlike other grains, maize has the male flowers (the tassel on top of the plant) separate from the
female flowers (the silks and ears, growing out of the sides).
• Maize is a tropical grass with C4 photosynthesis. It can grow in hotter conditions than most other
grains.
Maize
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Maize Domestication
• Maize is a very unusual grain: the male and female flowers are separate, the female
inflorescence (the ear) is huge, the individual grains are not covered by bracts but the whole
inflorescence is.
– Maize seeds can’t disperse naturally: they are firmly attached to the ear even after the plant
p y y y p
dies.
• The ancestor of maize is teosinte, a native of Mexico.
– Teosinte ears are small, with kernels alternating on the stem, and each kernel is covered with
a hard shell
– Also, teosinte plants have many stalks (tillers)
• But, only 5 gene mutations convert teosinte into a single stalked plant whose ears are multi‐
rowed with naked seeds: a primitive version of modern corn.
Types of Corn
• Different types, based largely on starch quality in the endosperm:
Diff tt b dl l t h lit i th d
• Popcorn has hard starch surrounding water‐containing soft starch. When
heated, the water inside boils and blows up the kernel. This method can be
used to make hard teosinte kernels edible. It used to be a breakfast food,
sweetened with maple syrup or sugar.
• Dent corn has a mixture of hard and soft starch. Most corn grown in the US
is dent corn, which is a hybrid of flint (all hard starch) and flour (all soft
starch).
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Types of Corn
• Sweet corn has gene mutations that prevent sucrose from being converted
into starch It is harvested at an earlier stage than other corn The plants are
into starch. It is harvested at an earlier stage than other corn. The plants are
smaller than regular field corn.
• Pod corn is not grown commercially. It has long glumes (leaves) covering
each kernel. It is probably a primitive form.
• Fancy colors in corn, mostly seen as decorations, are the result of several
different genes affecting pigments in different layers of the kernel. These
layers are colorless in most corn, because we like our food that way.
Corn Flakes
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Corn Flase Processing and Bars
Pop corn
54
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Rice
55
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Rice cultivation in
the Orient
I. Polunin. Plants and Flowers
of Malaysia,
Times Editions, Singapore
1988. Courtesy Dr. Dorothea Bedigian
Rice,
Oryza sativa
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Rice
Rice
Rice is the main food
product for the
majority of the
world's population.
Rice comes in many
variations, depending
on the grain size, and
color and texture. For
food purposes rice
has to be boiled.
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Rice
• In India, there is a saying that grains of rice should be like two brothers, close but
not stuck together.
• Comparative nutrition studies on red, black and white varieties of rice suggest that
pigments in red and black rice varieties may offer nutrition benefits. Red or black
rice consumption were found to reduce or retard the progression of
atherosclerotic plaque development, induced by dietary cholesterol, in mammals.
• White rice consumption offered no similar benefits, and the study claims this to be
due to absent antioxidants of red and black varieties of rice
Rice
• Rice (Oryza sativa) was domesticated about 10,000 years
ago in the Yangtze River valley in eastern China. It spread
very quickly to northern India, where very different traits
yq y y
were selected.
– There is also a related species of rice that was
independently domesticated in Africa
– Wild rice grown in the US is another grass species, not
closely related to rice. (genus = Zizania)
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Growing Rice
• Rice is a multi‐stemmed plant with the inflorescence at the top.
• Rice has an adaptation to flooding: the stem contains air chambers that allow oxygen to get
to the roots, as long as the leaves are not underwater. This allows growth in paddies,
covered with water.
– Very few plants can survive flooding, so flooded rice paddies have very few weeds.
– Rice seedlings are started in dry ground, then transplanted into the paddies: very labor‐
intensive.
• Rice paddies also grow an aquatic fern (Azolla), which lives in symbiosis with a nitrogen‐
fixing bacterium. This provides a natural fertilizer for the rice.
• In the US, rice is grown in large, laser‐leveled fields, and all work is done mechanically.
Mainly in California, Louisiana, and other southern states.
Rice Varieties
• Rice was domesticated in two separate locations,
which has led to two major varieties.
– var. indica is tropical. Grains are long and don’t stick
t th
together.
– var. japonica has shorter grains that stick together:
“sticky rice”. This trait in not valued in the US, but
expected in China and Japan. Grown in more
temperate climates.
• The Green Revolution breeding techniques
were used to develop dwarf strains that
efficiently use fertilizer and are resistant to
many diseases. This has increased the area in
which rice can be grown as well as the yield.
hi h i b ll h i ld
• Recently, “golden rice” has been developed by
genetic engineering. It gets its color from
carotene, a precursor to vitamin A. Poor
people living exclusively in rice often
developed blindness from vitamin A deficiency.
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Rice
ce
• Short grained rice
– The grains are almost round. When cooked, the rice is
moist and the grains stick together.
– Good for creamy dishes and molded rice rings or to eat
Good for creamy dishes and molded rice rings or to eat
with chopsticks
Rice
• Medium grained rice
– The grains are plump, tender, and moist. They stick
together, but not as much as short‐grain rice.
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Rice
ce
• Long grains
– When cooked, the grains are fluffy and stay separated.
Brown Rice
• Brown rice is less processed than white rice. It is
the “whole‐grain version of rice.
White Rice
• White rice has the bran and germ removed
Converted Rice
ce as bee pa bo ed (b e y bo ed) to sa e
• Rice has been parboiled (briefly boiled) to save
nutrients before the hull is removed.
Instant Rice
• Rice has been precooked and dehydrated. It takes
only minutes to prepare.
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Wheat
Wheat is the most widely
used in the manufacture
of flour. There are
f fl h
different types of this
flour, such as white flour,
whole wheat and wheat
middlings.
Wheat
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Kansas Wheat
• A cereal found in many climates
• 3 Parts –
3 P t bran, endosperm, and
b d d
germ
Harvest
• A combine is used to separate the kernel from the
plant
• 9.3 million acres harvested for grain in Kansas
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wheat
• Wheat grain is a staple food used to make flour for leavened, flat and steamed
breads, biscuits, cookies, cakes, breakfast cereal, pasta, noodles, couscousand
, , , , ,p , , for
fermentation to make beer,other alcoholic beverages, or biofuel.
• Wheat is grown on more land area than any other commercial crop and is the
most important staple food for humans. World trade in wheat is greater than for
all other crops combined.
• The many forms of wheat are white , red wheat,purple wheat, a tetraploid species
of wheat that is rich in anti‐oxidants. Other commercially minor but nutritionally‐
promising species of naturally evolved wheat species include black, yellow and
blue wheat.
blue wheat.
Durum
Durum is a type of wheat
which is rich in protein. It
is used for the
manufacture of macaroni,
noodles, dumplings,
couscous and bread.
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Wheat
• Wheat (Triticum) is the source of most bread, noodles, beer.
• The foundation of Western civilization: Middle East, Egypt,
Mediterranean, Europe.
• Wheat was domesticated at about the same time and place
Wheat was domesticated at about the same time and place
as barley and rye: the uplands of Turkey, Iran, and Iraq,
roughly 10,000 years ago.
– In the book of Genesis, at the beginning of the Bible, Adam and Eve
are kicked out of the Garden of Eden and forced to grow wheat.
Domestication of Wheat
• Modern bread wheat is a hexaploid: three
different diploid grasses hybridized to form it.
These crosses occurred naturally, but were
noticed and propagated by people.
• The starting point: einkorn wheat, which is a
diploid wild grass. This means it was 2 sets of
chromosomes (one set = 7 different
chromosomes), or 14 chromosomes total.
– At first, gains from wild einkorn wheat were
harvested, and probably planted deliberately.
• Archeological evidence shows that about
10,000 years ago, einkorn wheat with non‐
shattering heads was grown. This is the first
h i h d hi i h fi
step in domestication.
– Non‐shattering = the grains don't fall off the
stalk spontaneously. Makes it easier for
humans to collect it, but harder for wild plants
to disperse their seed.
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Next Steps
• About 8000 years ago (very roughly), someone noticed a spontaneous
hybrid between einkorn wheat and a closely related plant called goat
grass.
– Much bigger grains
– This is emmer wheat, a tetraploid (4 sets of chromosomes, 2 from each of
p (
the parents = 28 total chromosomes)
• further breeding of emmer wheat led to durum wheat, which is also
tetraploid but has "naked grains": the chaff is much smaller and
doesn't surround the grains.
– Durum wheat is the source of pasta flour. It makes up 10% of today's
wheat production in the US.
Final Steps
• Tetraploid emmer wheat x another
diploid goat grass = hexaploid bread
wheat (Triticum aestivum).
– Also a spontaneous event
noticed and cultivated by
h b
humans, about 7000 years ago.
– Six sets of chromosomes, 2 sets
from each of the 3 parents = 42
total
– Bread wheat is about 90% of
today's wheat production.
• Wheat cultivation led to permanent
settlements, plus a food surplus that
led to having some people doing
led to having some people doing
things other than gathering food i.e.
the start of civilization
• Wheat cultivation spread out from
this center over the next few
thousand years.
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Modern Wheat
• Two types of wheat are currently grown: about 10% is durum wheat (tetrapoid,
goes into pasta) and the rest is bread wheat (hexaploid).
– There are many varieties and cultivars of both of these.
• Recent breeding: resistance to diseases, especially stem rust (a fungus), and
g , p y ( g ),
Green Revolution traits like dwarf varieties that can efficiently use large amounts
of fertilizer.
– Continued attempts to breed in new traits from other goat grass species
• It grows best in relatively cool and dry grasslands, such as the Great Plains west
of the Mississippi River.
– Also, Ukraine, France, Argentina, China
• Wheat didn’t become a major US crop until Russian immigrants (dodging the
compulsory military service in Russia) moved to the Great Plains They brought
compulsory military service in Russia) moved to the Great Plains. They brought
wheat varieties with them that grew well: similar climate to Ukraine.
• Winter wheat: planted in the fall, needs a cold period (winter) before it can
germinate in early spring, with harvest in late spring or summer
• Spring wheat: planted in the spring, harvested in the fall. This is necessary
where the winter weather is too harsh. Germination is controlled by day length.
Farming Basics
• Here are the basic steps involved in crop production. Details vary with the
crop, and modern farmers may through in some other steps to deal with
weeds and insect pests.
– Plowing: the soil needs to be loosened so seeds can be planted.
– Cultivating: removing weeds and further breaking up the soil
– Planting
– Harvesting
– Threshing: separating the grains from the stalks and chaff.
• Before about 1700, the basic techniques were more or less unchanged since
very early times.
• Between 1700 and 1850, the Industrial Revolution changed farming by
, g g y
developing mechanical methods.
– At first, the mechanical implements were powered by horses or oxen. “Oxen”
are bovines, usually castrated males , trained as draft animals.
– Also some use of steam power, but it was cumbersome and dangerous
• Between 1900 and 1950, internal combustion engines replaced animals
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Plowing
• Plowing. To loosen the soil for planting.
Better plows also turn the soil over to kill
weeds.
• Simple: drag a stick through the ground
• F i
Fancier: plowshare and mouldboard. The
l h d ldb d Th
plowshare cuts the soil and the mouldboard
turns it over. Requires a lot of weight and
strength to pull: oxen. Developed before
1000 AD.
• Sticky soil, especially in western plains of US.
Steel plowshare invented by John Deere
about 1847.
• Tractors replaces animals early to mid
1900’s, which allowed multiple plow blades.
’ h h ll l l l bl
Cultivating
• Removing weeds and breaking up
the soil
• Can do this with a hoe (and it’s
still done this way for some
vegetable crops).
• Drag harrow: run some spikes
through the ground. Needs
animal to pull it.
• Cultivators mounted on wheels
control the depth better
• As usual, mechanisation has led to
bigger and better.
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Planting
• Early: broadcasting: throw the seeds on the ground
• An improvement: dig a hole with a stick and drop a seed in
it.
• Seed drill. Invented by Jethro Tull in 1701, but not widely
adopted until after 1750
adopted until after 1750.
• It has 3 parts: first, a blade cuts a small furrow in the ground.
Then, a seed wheel drops seeds down a tube into the furrow
at precise intervals, and finally, a rake covers the seeds up.
• Much higher rate of seeds turning into plants, not getting
eaten by birds or rotting on the ground.
• Automatic seed drill. Pulled by animals or machines;
multiple rows at once. Modern seed drills use compressed
air to move the seeds.
Harvesting
• Reaping is cutting the stalks for harvest.
• Hand reaping uses a sickle. The early ones have flint blades
mounted in bone or antler, later ones were made of metal.
You grab a handful of stalks, saw them off, then tie the
stalks into bundles (sheaves) to dry and then thresh later
on.
o
• The scythe was invented by the Romans. Full body motion
allowed faster harvesting.. Later versions had a cradle
attached, so the stalks didn’t just fall on the ground.
• Mechanical reapers were invented in the 1800’s. The best
know is the McCormack reaper. The stalks fell onto a board
behind the blade, and a set of “sails” pushed the stalks off
into bundles that were tied by hand. Later machines also
bound the sheaves.
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Threshing and Winnowing
• Threshing is removing the grain from the stalks; winnowing
is removing the chaff (protective leaves covering the grains).
• The original method was to beat on the grain stalks with
flails, then winnowing by throwing it up in the air and letting
the wind carry off the chaff: the heavier grain fell straight
down.
down
• A later method was to lay the stalks on a stone floor and let
animals trample it. The grain would fall through properly
spaced cracks and be collected below.
• Threshing machines were usually stationary, powered
originally by horses and later by steam.
• By 1900, reapers were combined with threshers to become
the combine, which harvests the grain in the field and
produces cleaned grain.
YouTube Videos
• http://www.historylink101.com/lessons/farm‐city/reaping.htm
• Plowing
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9x‐AR5RuO6Y
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xuytRXRfyeI
• Pl i
Planting
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DqhdumfLtJw
• Cultivating
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ZEntqFSMJU
• Harvesting
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DcDv545uA4c
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KW1lxWRY5kE&playnext=1&list=PL1F1B0360104DF6A9&featur
e=results_video
• Threshing
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jleK4pHtQIw
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2‐p_2i1p8bA
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iReC7WpveVs
• Grinding
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TZyl7URyn10
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Bread
• Wheat (and other grains) is hard to eat raw, and not very
digestible.
• In the oldest times, wheat was ground up and cooked with
water in a stew.
• Bread
B d is i far
f more digestible
di tibl andd storable.
t bl
• At its simplest, bread is made by mixing flour with water, then
baking it. Adding salt helps with flavor. And, salt is necessary
for humans but not much found in plants.
Flour
•Flour is finely ground grain.
•At first, grain was ground between stones.
This process leaves stone fragments in the
flour that wear down the teeth.
•Various improvements: grinding wheels,
wheels
use of animal, water, and wind as power
sources
•Modern method: grinding between metal
rollers.
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Leavened Bread
• Most bread is leavened: yeast is added to the flour and water.
– The yeast is allowed to grow for a few hours, which produces carbon dioxide
gas.
• It is also possible to produce carbon dioxide bubbles with baking soda, or
mechanically by creating a foam
– Why this works: the gluten
h h k h l proteins in the wheat flour are elastic, and they trap
h h fl l d h
the bubbles of gas. Baking causes the bubble to expand further.
– Kneading the bread increases the elasticity of the gluten. Too much kneading
destroys this property.
– After baking, the bread is lighter and tastier than unleavened bread.
– Discovered by the Egyptians about 4000 years BP.
– Unleavened bread, or flatbread, is made without yeast or other leavening
agents
• LLeavened bread requires gluten in the flour. Only wheat and rye have
db d i l t i th fl O l h t d h
enough gluten to rise properly. Other breads (corn, oat, potato, etc.) all
have some wheat flour in them.
• Refined flour, with bran and germ removed, ground very finely, does the
best job (think of cake flour).
– But, refined flour is less nutritious. It is often supplemented with iron and vitamins to
make up for this.
The Food Pyramid
• 6‐11 servings of
grain a day
grain a day
• EAT GRAINS
LIBERALLY!!!
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Grain Elevators
• Used to store the grain
before milling
before milling
• Grain is brought in by
trucks
• Grain leaves elevator by
railway
Cleaning Process
• Grain passes through several machines
• Each machine separates the kernels from other
objects
• Conditioning mixes water with the grain to obtain
Conditioning mixes water with the grain to obtain
the right moisture level
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Milling Process
• Milling consists of grinding and separating the grain
• By using different machines, different results can be
obtained
Milling Process (continued)
• Rollers are used to release the endosperm
• The opened grain then passes through a series of
sieves to separate the finer grains
• These finer grains are considered flour
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Example: Saint Vincent Gristmill
Packing Process
• Different types of grain are stored in
separate storage bins
• Grains can be blended to form various
grades
d
• Enrichments may be used on the grain
before packaging
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Packing Process (continued)
• Quality Management teams inspect the grain to
ensure safe and healthy batch of flour
• Final Product is placed in retail bags and shipped to
bakeries
Finished Product
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Interesting Wheat Facts
• Approximately 3/4 of all U.S. grain products are
made from wheat flour.
• One bushel of wheat contains approximately one
million individual kernels.
• A bushel of wheat makes about 42 pounds of pasta.
• It is estimated that one Kansas
farmer feeds 128 people + you!
Other Uses for Wheat
• Wood • Medical Swabs
• Paper • Roofing
• Adhesives • Cosmetics
• Polymers • Hair Conditioners
• Plastic Bags • Moisturizers
• Charcoal • Egg white substitutes
• Cups • Golf Tees
• Fuels • Skeet Pigeons
• Insulation • Foams
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Ready to serve products of wheat
161
Wheat flakes
Sieve the whole wheat grain
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Winter wheat in Oklahoma
Harvesting wheat
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Shocks of wheat in
Austria
Harvesting wheat
Harvesting wheat
in Colombia
Malt
• The key to beer making is malt. Malt is used to convert starch into
sugar; yeast then converts the sugar into ethanol.
• Malt is made by soaking barley grains in water and letting them
germinate.
– During germination, enzymes are released into the starchy endosperm to
u g ge at o , e y es a e e eased to t e sta c y e dospe to
release nutrients for the developing embryo.
– The germinating barley seeds are then dried and ground up into malt
powder.
– This powder contains amylase enzymes that can break down any starch
into sugar.
• Barley malt is also used to make malted milk products.
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Making Beer
• The malted barley can be fermented by itself, or other grains can be added
to it. Any good source of starch will do: wheat, rice, corn, potatoes are all
used. Most American beer uses starch from rice.
1. The first step in beer making is to mix the malt with the grain and let it sit
for a few hours The starch is converted to sugar producing a sweet liquid
for a few hours. The starch is converted to sugar, producing a sweet liquid
called “wort”.
2. The wort is then boiled with hops, the female flower of Humulus luputus.
This adds bitterness to the beer and prevents spoilage by killing bacteria.
– Hops addition was invented around 800 AD in Bohemia. Without it beer is too
sweet.
3. Yeast is then added and allowed to grow anaerobically. Yeast uses the sugar
in the wort to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide gas as waste products
in the wort to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide gas as waste products.
Beer
Making
malt yeast
Starch Sugar Ethanol
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Alternative Beer Production
• Many cultures have some form of fermented grain beverage.
• Sake, a traditional Japanese drink, is made by converting the starch in
polished rice to sugars with Aspergillus fungus instead of using malt.
– Polished rice has had the germ and bran removed.
– Yeast is then added to the rice to ferment it
• Chicha is a beer made from corn by the natives of Central and South America.
Instead of malt, they chew the corn kernels briefly. Amylase enzymes in saliva
convert the starch to sugar, and fermenting occurs with naturally‐occurring
yeast.
• Modern beer brewing has several additional steps that make the flavor better
and more uniform with well‐engineered equipment to streamline the
and more uniform, with well‐engineered equipment to streamline the
process.
– Different types of yeast affect the type of beer produced.
• Grown for malting and livestock on land too poor or
too cold for wheat
• It serves as a major animal fodder, a source of
fermentable material for beer and certain distilled
beverages, and as a component of various health
foods. It is used in soups and stews, and in barley
bread of various cultures.
• Barley contains eight essential amino acids.
• According to a recent study, eating whole grain barley
can regulate blood sugar (i.e. reduce blood glucose
response to a meal) for up to 10 hours after
consumption compared to white or even whole‐grain
consumption compared to white or even whole grain Barley
wheat
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Barley
Barley
Barley as barley is
used in soups and as
malted barley ‐ used in
brewing beer.
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Barley
• Barley may be the oldest domesticated grain, in the Fertile Crescent region.
– But, which crop was first depends on which archeological sites have been
investigated. Agriculture did not spread outward from a single center; no single
person invented the concept of agriculture.
• Like all grains barley was originally toasted or eaten as a porridge But very
Like all grains, barley was originally toasted or eaten as a porridge. But, very
early, people learned how to make beer from barley. Laws regulating beer are
found in the Code of Hammurabi (about 1790 BC, Babylonian Empire).
– Most water is contaminated with microorganisms that cause disease, especially
before people knew about microorganisms.
– Making beer sterilizes the water: it was much safer and healthier to drink beer than
water. Also the reason for coffee and tea.
– The desire to be intoxicated seems pretty universal across human cultures.
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Oat
Oats
• Formerly the staple food of Scotland
and popular worldwide as a winter
breakfast food and livestock feed
• h h k b h
which is known by the same name
(usually in the plural, unlike other
grains). While oats are suitable for
human consumption as oatmeal and
rolled oats, one of the most common
uses is as livestock feed. Oats make up a
part of the daily diet of horses, about
20% of daily intake or smaller, and are
regularly fed to cattle as well Oats are
regularly fed to cattle as well. Oats are
also used in some brands of dog food
and chicken feed.
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Rye
Important in cold climates.
Rye grain is used for flour, rye bread, rye beer, some whiskeys,
some vodkas, and animal fodder. It can also be eaten whole,
either as boiled rye berries, or by being rolled, similar to rolled
oats.
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Oats, Avena sativa
Rye
Rye is used for making rye
bread and certain alcoholic
bread and certain alcoholic
products.
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Triticale
• Hybrid of wheat and rye, grown
similarly to rye.
• The primary producers of triticale
are Poland, Germany, France,
Belarus and Australia.
• Triticale has potential in the
production of bread and other
food products, such as cookies,
pasta, pizza dough and breakfast
cereals.
• The protein content is higher than
that of wheat, although the
glutenin fraction is less.
• Fonio is the term for cultivated grains in the
Digitaria genus. These are notable in parts of
Fonio West Africa and one species in India. The grains
are very small.
• Black fonio (D. iburua) is a similar crop grown in
Nigeria, Togo, and Benin.
Nigeria, Togo, and Benin.
• In the Akposso area of Togo fonio (called ɔva) is
primarily a women's crop; it and cowpeas are
used to make a traditional dish.
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Millets – A Mixed Bag
millet
• A group of similar but distinct cereals
that form an important staple food in
Asia and Africa.
• They grow in harsh environments where
other crops do not grow well.
Improvements in production,
availability, nutritional content, storage
and utilization technology for millets
may significantly contribute to the
household food security and nutrition of
the inhabitants of these areas.
• Is cereal grain popularly used in rural
and poor people to consume as staple in
the form of roti or other forms is called
Ragi in Karnataka or Naachanie in
Maharashtra, with the popularly made
Ragi Rotti in Kannada. Ragi Mudde is a
popular meal in Southern India.
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A millet, Eleusine coracana
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Nutrients in Grains
Endosperm: complex carbohydrates, proteins, and small
amounts of vitamins and minerals
Bran: rich in fiber, B vitamins, and some trace minerals
Germ: B vitamins, vitamin E, iron, zinc, and other trace
minerals; some protein, and a small amount of
saturated fat
Grain Processing
All grains must be processed, and When the bran and germ are
this begins with removal of the
this begins with removal of the removed, many nutrients are lost.
removed many nutrients are lost
outer husk. Examples include white bread and
most breakfast cereals. When this
•Whole Grain
happens, the grain products are
•The entire edible grain kernel enriched and fortified.
is used, the resulting product
•Enrichment: a process in which
contains most of the kernel’s
some nutrients lost as a result of
original nutrients. Examples:
processing are added back to the
whole wheat flour, whole‐
product
product.
grain cereals
•Fortified: a process of adding 10%
or more of the Daily Value for a
specific nutrient to a product.
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Ready‐to‐Eat and Instant Cereals
• B
Breakfast cereals are among the largest selling foods
kf t l th l t lli f d
in the U.S. $1billion spent annually!
• Choose nutritious cereals! Remember ingredients
are listed by quantity. Avoid cereals high in sugar!
95