Remote Work and COVID-19 1

LITERATURE REVIEW

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Literature Review
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Chapter 1. Literature Review Introduction

In this paper, the terms work from home (WFH) and remote work is used

interchangeably. Remote work has existed for a while through the use of technology to

facilitate communication. WFR, on the other, is a concept emerging as people adhere to

government regulations. These processes are widely known as an alternative strategy to

continue work while minimising the risk of COVID-19 infection by staying at home. For

many years, researchers have developed various schools of thought to understand WFH. The

term was first coined by Nilles (1988) in 1973 and was used synonymously with words like

“telecommuting” or “telework” (Messenger and Gschwind, 2016). Over these years, different

scholars have used a variety of terms to refer to the concept of WFH, including flexible

workplace, telecommuting, remote work, telework, and e–working. These concepts refer to

the ability of employees to work in flexible workplaces, especially at home, by using

technology to execute work duties (Grant et al., 2019).

Chapter 2. Literature Review Main Body

Theoretical Frameworks

The theoretical framework will describe various theories and frameworks that have

been chosen because they are related to the study as its focus is on job performance and

motivation, work-life, and the psychological well-being of the IT sector employees. The

theoretical framework will also aim to help the reader to have a better understanding of the

background related to the research purpose and questions as well as the link between the

notions of incentives, work-life balance, and job performance.

Theory X and Y

Theory X was designed by Douglas McGregor in the 1950s. The scholar noted that

human beings are naturally lazy and will instinctively avert from work. Therefore, to work,

employees must be forced, controlled, and managed. Anthony et. al, (2014) also write that
 Remote Work and COVID-19 3

individuals will try to escape responsibility and prefer to be led by others. For instance, With

Douglas’s Theory X in mind, if an employee who used to be closely managed and supervised

by a higher authority was allowed to work from home where he will not be supervised, he or

she will struggle to generate the same results as they did while at the workplace (Ahmed and

Farooqi, 2020). Theory X implies that management assumes that all employees will

inherently work on their best self-interests. Based on these assumptions, the theory posits that

the typical workforce will only operate productively and efficiently when the management

takes a hands-on approach to supervision and control (Anthony et al., 2014; Azimov, 2020).

Therefore, in a situation where workers are allowed to operate remotely, like in the case of

the current covid pandemic, close supervision will not apply, thereby leading to diminished

productivity. Following this analogy, the study participants will be interviewed on their

motivation to work during and pre-covid period to observe if there is any correlation between

work from home and employee performance.

Douglas McGregor developed another theory to overcome the limitations of theory X.

In contrast to theory X, theory Y takes a positivistic aspect about employee motivation. There

are several interpretations of Theory Y. Ahmed and Farooqi (2020) state that theory Y

postulate that people will willingly work to meet their individual needs for achievement and

self-respect. Contrastingly to theory X, this hypothesis states that oppressive or overbearing

management of employees is not necessary for results to show. Accordingly, managers are

advised to focus on an employee’s self-sustaining motivation in a manner that aligns with the

company-wide objectives. In the case of remote work, productivity can be achieved when

employees work towards attaining company goals while also achieving theirs (Azimov,

2020). This can be achieved when employees strengthen their commitment to the objectives

of the company. As such, people will be working towards mutual objectives. Ahmed and

Farooqi (2020) note that theory Y is effective, only to the extent that the job fulfills the
 Remote Work and COVID-19 4

employees’ individual needs. Since theory X works in contrast to theory X, companies use it

to determine whether employees are working towards the organisation’s goals and self-

respect or whether there is a need for oppressive supervision to motivate the employees.

Another version of theory Y states that working comes naturally to humans as a

relaxing activity. Individuals are capable of leading and controlling their work if the reason

for the job is important and in sometimes and the right circumstances when even, they desire

responsibility. Inventiveness and the ability to work autonomously are common. (Anthony et

al., 2014; Ahmed and Farooqi, 2020). Theory Y assumes that people are inherently ambitious

and not lazy. Anthony et al. (2014) observe that most managers ascribe more to theory Y

while theory X is more aligned to the perceptions of employees.

Analytical framework

Vyas and Butakhieo (2020) developed a framework for investigating work from

home. Their researchers identify two main factors that works consider when working

remotely; work domain and life domain. These two factors are connected and they have a

significant influence on WFH. Organisational factors are involved in the work of the

employees. Several studies have discussed that organisational factors are crucial for remote

work arrangements Examples of organisational factors include but are not limited to

employers supporting workers’ demands while working remotely, cost of remote WFH

facilities as well as training on in the use of communication, how to use technology and

organisational communication, and any other support for the WFH arrangements.

Solís (2016) outlined various individuals factors that need to be addressed for remote

work. These include self-motivation, self-organisation, self-discipline, ability to work with no

or limited supervision, tenacity, self-confidence, as well as computer and time management

skills. The number of working days and the time spent on a task affects family conflicts.

Other family factors that influence performance while working from home include household
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characteristics such as living space, number of family members. Various studies have

identified positive outcomes of WFH on work domains such as job satisfaction, work

engagement, productivity, and flexibility (Purwanto et al. 2020; Gerards et al., 2018). Other

researchers have also identified negative outcomes of WH on the life domain (Eddleston and

Mulki, 2017; Arntz et al., 2019).

Figure 1: Work from home analytical framework (Vyas and Butakhieo, 2020)

Benefits and Shortcomings of WFH

Employees play a crucial role in the formation and development of the organisation’s

human and social capital. They are also a key source of information and support for the

advancement and implementation of sustainable practices involving human resource

management (HRM). The pandemic has made companies realise that workers, in some

occupations, can still discharge their duties efficiently from home. Dingel and Neiman (2020)

recently uncovered that 37% of jobs in the United States could be performed at home

including occupations business management, financial work, as well as scientific and

professional services. However, some jobs, especially those related to hospitality, farming,
 Remote Work and COVID-19 6

and healthcare cannot be done remotely. Although there is an increased global acceptance of

remote work, scholars still argue concerning its pros and cons. Both companies and their

workforce face different drawbacks and benefits from the work from home practice.

Benefits of WFH

Besides being a necessity during the covid-pandemic period, organisations have

embraced remote working for various reasons. WFH reduces several expenses including

utilities, rent, computers, lease, maintenance, parking space. offices, and equipment (Lupu

2017; Beňo (2018). Researchers have also linked remote work to increased productivity.

Lupu (2017) and Ford and Butts (1991) argue that employees working from home enjoy long

periods of uninterrupted time, allowing them to concentrate on their tasks. This assertion is

greatly debatable as it is easier to lose focus at home than in a dedicated work environment

(Greer et al., 2014). Thorstensson (2020) also mentions that remote work makes it possible to

recruit workers who may otherwise be restricted and unable to commute freely, such as

mothers and handicapped personnel. Lupu (2017) also claims that remote work reduces

absenteeism because one avoids challenges relating to diseases, family events, adverse

personnel, and weather conditions.

For employees, a flexible working schedule is the most influential reason for

preferring working from home. Flexible scheduling gives employees autonomy in planning

both their personal and work activities according to their needs (Wienclaw, 2019; Lupu,

2017). Employees also save time normally lost when commuting to the office, further

eliminating the stresses of driving in rush hour traffic (Wienclaw, 2019; Lupu, 2017). WFH

has several financial benefits as well. Remote workers save money that would otherwise be

part of daily expenditure to facilitate the work at the office, including fuel, clothing, and

babysitting (Wienclaw, 2019).

Drawbacks of WFH
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There are also several drawbacks of working from home for employees. Lupu (2017,

p.696) highlights these challenges as: “the technical problems that cannot be solved remotely,

the unequal salaries between employees working in the office and teleworkers; employee

isolation, limitation of normal interaction with the colleagues and difficulties in organizing

union activities”. Ford and Butts (1991 cited in Thorstensson, 2020) argued that remote work

also significantly hindered career advancement. The researchers claimed that the saying “out

of sight, out of mind” is valid for employees working from home when it is time for

promotions of the personnel. The researchers argued that the management easily identified

with employees in the office than remote workers giving the former priority during

promotions. Also related to this argument is that working from home minimises the

employee’s ability to develop an informal communication network with colleagues. This

leads to delineation from colleagues as well as the company goals and values (Thorstensson,

2020).

Several drawbacks enhance the reluctance of most organisations to adopt remote

working. Thorstensson (2020) observes that drawbacks of remote work are based on

perceived or actual loss of control of the organisation. Companies fear that employees may

give priority to personal errands overwork or may delegate to another person, thereby further

decreasing the control of the organisation and eventually creates data security problems. Also

related to this challenge is the risk of unauthorised access to the systems of the organisation

and privileged company data that competitors can use. Peters et al. (2004) cited in

Thorstensson, 2020) state that productivity and work quality challenges are also highly

ranked drawbacks of remote work. Greer et al. (2014) also mentions distractions because of

lacking supervision, inadequate work-related resources including technological equipment

and files stored at the office, as well as managing the performance of remote workers as

serious challenges.
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Chapter 3. Literature Review Conclusion

WFH allows employees to enjoy flexible working schedules. Although it existed

before COVID-19, it is a concept that has radically gained prominence due to the pandemic

that has forced organisations to adopt work from home strategies to ensure continuity of

services. The paper aims to investigate the impact of WFH strategy on employee

performance. several elements affect performance including employee motivation. Theories

X and Y provide an understanding of employees’ motivation to work. While theories X

consider employees to be naturally lazy and must be supervised to work, theory Y notes that

individuals work naturally. The theories provide a framework for understanding how various

elements of work from home concept contribute to improved or reduced performance.

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