Lab# 01

 Objective:

To demonstrate test equipment of IC Engine Lab with special emphasis on

components / models of an IC Engine displayed on various Tables and to draw a
layout of IC Engines Lab

 Introduction
 IC engines:
The internal combustion engines are those engines in which the combustion of fuel takes
place inside the engine cylinder.
In other words, the internal combustion engines are those engines in which the
combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder by a spark. These are petrol,
diesel and gas engines.
An engine is a device, which by using the chemical energy of the fuel, transforms it into
thermal energy by combustion, to produce mechanical work. We have seen in steam
engines that the fuel, fed into the cylinder. It is in the form of steam. Which is already
heated and is ready for work in the combustion cycle of the engine

 Classifications of IC engines:
i. Spark ignition engine:

A spark-ignition engine (SI engine) is an internal combustion engine, generally a petrol

engine, where the combustion process of the air-fuel mixture is ignited by a spark from a
spark plug. This is in contrast to compression-ignition engines, typically diesel engines,
where the heat generated from compression together with the injection of fuel is enough
to initiate the combustion process, without needing any external spark.

ii. Compression engine:

 The diesel engine, named after Rudolf Diesel, is an internal combustion engine in which
ignition of the fuel is caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to
the mechanical compression; thus, the diesel engine is a so-called compression-ignition
engine (CI engine). This contrasts with engines using spark plug-ignition of the air-fuel
mixture

 FOUR strokes of SI engines:

i. Intake stroke
 Piston moves down the cylinder bore from top dead center (TDC) to bottom dead
center (BDC)
 Intake valve is open, the exhaust valve is closed
 Downward piston motion creates a vacuum (negative air pressure) that draws that
air/fuel mixture into the engine via the open intake valve

ii. Compression stroke

 Piston moves up the cylinder bore from bottom dead center to top dead center
 Both the intake and exhaust valves are closed
 Upward piston motion compresses air/fuel mixture in the combustion chamber

iii. Power stroke

 At the end of the compression (previous) stroke, the spark plug fires and ignites the
compressed air/fuel mixture. This ignition/explosion forces the piston back down
the cylinder bore and rotates the crankshaft, propelling the vehicle forward.
 Piston moves down the cylinder bore from top dead center to bottom dead center
 Both the intake and exhaust valve are closed
iv. Exhaust stroke
 Piston moves up the cylinder bore from bottom dead center to top dead center. The
momentum caused by the power stroke is what continues the crankshaft movement
and the other 3 strokes consecutively.
 Intake valve is closed, the exhaust valve is open
 This final stroke forces the spent gasses/exhaust out of the cylinder. The cycle in
now complete and the piston is ready to begin the intake stroke.
 OTTO cycle:

An Otto cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle that describes the functioning of a

typical spark ignition piston engine. It is the thermodynamic cycle most commonly
found in automobile engines. The Otto cycle is a description of what happens to a
mass of gas as it is subjected to changes of pressure, temperature, volume, addition of
heat, and removal of heat. The mass of gas that is subjected to those changes is called
the system. The system, in this case, is defined to be the fluid (gas) within the
cylinder. By describing the changes that take place within the system, it will also
describe in inverse, the system's effect on the environment. In the case of the Otto
cycle, the effect will be to produce enough network from the system so as to propel an
automobile and its occupants in the environment

Conclusion:

In this lab we studied about test equipment of IC Engine Lab with special emphasis on
components / models of an IC Engine displayed on various Tables and then we drew a
layout of IC Engines Lab.
 LAB # 2
 Objective:
To analyze various components of IC Engine with respect to their location, function and
material configuration
 Introduction:
 IC engines:
The internal combustion engines are those engines in which the combustion of fuel takes
place inside the engine cylinder.
In other words, the internal combustion engines are those engines in which the
combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder by a spark. These are petrol,
diesel and gas engines.
 Components of engine:
An engine is a device that converts thermal energy into mechanical work. The thermal
energy is produced by the combustion of air fuel mixture inside the cylinder by means of
a spark produced by the spark plug. Since it uses thermal energy, it is called as thermal
engines. It is a source of power for many application

 Cylinder:
 It is the part of the engine in which the conversion of thermal energy to
mechanical work takes place. The piston reciprocates inside the cylinder. ·
 Since energy conversion takes place inside the cylinder it must withstand high
pressure and temperature
 It must be able to resist wear and tear and must dissipate heat. So, material
selection is an import ant consideration. Ordinary cast iron is used in light duty
engines but in heavy duty engines alloy steels are used.
 The cylinders are provided with liners so that they can be replaced when worn
out. Liners are made of nickel chrome iron.
  Cylinder head:
 The cylinder head closes one side of the cylinder. They are usually cast as a
single piece and are bolted to the top of the cylinder.
 Between the cylinder and the cylinder head, gasket is provided Gasket is
provided in order to act as sealing (to prevent gases escaping during the
expansion stroke) and also to reduce shock.
 Piston and piston rings:
 Piston is the main part of the engine. The main function of the piston is to
compress the charge and to transmit the gas force to the connecting rod during
the power stroke.
 Piston rings are circumferential rings that are provided in the piston grooves.
 The piston rings are not fully circular; there is a clearance (Ring gap) between
the two ends.
 This is provided because during the expansion stroke piston rings

There are two types of piston rings

1. Compression rings·
2. Oil scraper rings
 Connecting rod:
 The connecting rod connects the piston and the crankshaft.
 The piston is connected to the connecting rod by means of gudgeon pin.
 It converts the reciprocating motion into rotary motion.
 The upper end of the connecting rod is called small head that is connected to
the piston and the lower end is called big end

 Crankshaft:
 It is steel forged and smooth finished. Both the ends of the crankshaft are
supported in the bearings.
  One end is provided with the flywheel. The crankshaft is provided with counter
weights for balancing

 Cam and camshaft:

 The main function of the camshaft is to open and close the valves at the
appropriate time. The cam is operated by means of gear arrangement driven by
the flywheel.
 The cam converts rotary motion into linear motion that operates the rocker
arm. The motion of the rocker arm operates the valves.
 Sometimes two camshafts are provided to operate inlet valve and exhaust valve
separately.

 inlet and exhaust valves

 They are the valves provided in the cylinder head to regulate the flow of working
fluid into the cylinder and expelling of combustion products to the atmosphere.

 Inlet manifold and Exhaust manifold

 The pipes which connect the inlet system to the inlet valve is known as the inlet
manifold. The air, air-fuel mixture is drawn into cylinder through inlet manifold.
 Exhaust manifold is the pipe which connects exhaust system to the exhaust valves.
The products of combustion like CO, NOx etc... escape into atmosphere through
exhaust manifold.
 Flywheel

The torque on the crankshaft fluctuates during the one cycle of combustion, and cause
fluctuation of angular velocity of the shaft. Flywheel is an inertia mass attached to the
output shaft to minimize this fluctuation and achieve the uniform torque.
Conclusion:
In this lab we analyzed various components of IC Engine with respect to their location,
function and material configuration. We studied that the internal combustion engines are
those engines in which the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder. In
other words, the internal combustion engines are those engines in which the combustion
of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder by a spark. These are petrol, diesel and gas
engines.
 Lab # 3

 Objective:

To demonstrate power transmission of an automotive vehicle with special emphasis on

functioning of its various assemblies/components.

 Introduction:
 Transmission system:

Transmission system is the system by means of which power developed by

the engine is transmitted to road wheels to propel the vehicle. In automobiles, the power is
developed by the engine which is used to turn wheels. Therefore, the engine is to be connected to
the transmission systems for transmitting power to wheels.

 Parts of Transmission System:

 Engine

 Flywheel

 Clutch

 Gear Box

 Propeller Shaft

 Universal Joint

 Differential

 Transfer Case Assembly

 Engine:
An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical
energy. Heat engines convert heat into work via various thermodynamic processes. The internal
combustion engine is perhaps the most common example of a heat engine, in which heat from
the combustion of a fuel causes rapid pressurization of the gaseous combustion products in the
combustion chamber, causing them to expand and drive a piston, which turns
a crankshaft. Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical motion

 Fly Wheel:

The flywheel is a cast iron, aluminum, or zinc disk that is mounted at one end of the crankshaft
to provide inertia for the engine. Inertia is the property of matter by which any physical body
persists in its state of rest or uniform motion until acted upon by an external force. Inertia is not a
force; it is a property of matter. During the operation of a reciprocating engine, combustion
occurs at distinct intervals. The flywheel supplies the inertia required to prevent loss of engine
speed and possible stoppage of crankshaft rotation between combustion intervals.

During each stroke of an internal combustion engine, the flywheel, crankshaft, and other engine
components are affected by fluctuations in speed and force. During the power event in a four-
stroke cycle engine, the crankshaft is accelerated rapidly by the sudden motion of the piston and
connecting rod assembly. The flywheel smooths out some of the rpm and force deviation by its
resistance to acceleration. The inertia of the flywheel provides a dampening effect on the engine
as a whole to even out radial acceleration forces and rpm deviations produced in the engine.

 Clutch:

A clutch is a mechanical device which engages and disengages power transmission especially
from the driving shaft to the driven shaft. In short, clutches connect and disconnect two rotating
shafts.

The purpose of clutch is to engage and disengage the transmission system from the engine when
a vehicle is being driven away from a standstill and when the gearbox gear change is necessary.
When the clutch is in the coupling (normal running) position, power flows through it from the
engine to the transmission. The clutch contains a friction plate/disc, spring arrangement,
diaphragm spring and pressure plate for pressing this disc tightly against the smooth rear face of
the flywheel

 Gear Box:

Gear Box is considered as the heart of the transmission system. It is located between Clutch and
Propeller shaft. Gear box varies the leverage (speed ratio & hence torque ratio) between the
engine and driving wheels. It is provided with either 4 speed or 5 speed ratios or more depending
on design to change the gears to travel at different speeds.

 Propeller shaft:

A propeller shaft is a mechanical component for transmitting torque and rotation, usually used to
connect other components of a drive train that cannot be connected directly because of distance
or the need to allow for relative movement between them. It propels the vehicle, thereby called
propeller shaft. A Propeller Shaft connects a gearbox to a Differential. It is used to transmit the
drive force generated by the engine to the axles.

 Universal Joint:

A universal joint is used to transmit power from gear box to propeller shaft and then from
propeller shaft to differential. So, to maintain uniform speed and motion, two universal joints
are used, one between gear box and drive shaft and another between drive shaft and
differential, this coupling is called universal coupling. They are designed to eliminate torque
and speed fluctuations (for constant velocity).
  Differential Assembly:

The differential gear is a part of the power transmission device. The driving force generated by an engine
is transmitted to the tires through various types of bevel gears. Differential gear is representative of the
automotive components that incorporate such bevel gears. The differential gear assembly absorbs
rotational differences due to the direction change of the rotational axis drive and/or the rotational
differences between the right and left wheels that lead to smooth cornering.

 Transfer Case Assembly

A transfer case is a part of the drive train of four-wheel-drive and other multiple powered axle
vehicles. The transfer case transfers power from the transmission to the front and rear axles by
means of drive shafts. It also synchronizes the difference between the rotation of the front and
rear wheels, and may contain one or more sets of low range gears for off-road use.

Conclusion: In this lab we demonstrated power transmission of an automotive vehicle with

special emphasis on functioning of its various assemblies/components. We studied that
Transmission system is the system by means of which power developed by
the engine is transmitted to road wheels to propel the vehicle. In automobiles, the power is
developed by the engine which is used to turn wheels. Therefore, the engine is to be connected to
the transmission systems for transmitting power to wheels.
 LAB# 04

 Objective:
To demonstrate Engine Test Bench Model GAE-5-10-HS-AV with respect to various systems /
test.
To determine the fuel consumption of an IC Engine and construct a graph between fuel
consumed and time in seconds with and without load.

 Apparatus

Engine Test bench model GAE-5-10-HS-AV available in the lab which facilitates to determine
various engine parameters such as:

 Brake Horse Power

 Specific Fuel Consumption

 Torque

 RPM

 Engine Details

Salient features of Engine installed on the test bench are as under:

No of Cylinder = 1

Stroke Length = 120 mm

Dia. Of bore = 90 mm

Radius of Fly Wheel = 239 mm or 0.239 m

Torque Arm Constant = 0.239 m

  Necessity / Purpose of I.C. Engine Testing:
o To get information, that is not possible to be determine by calculations.
o To confirm the validity of data used while designing the engine.
o To verify and measure engine performance and how this performance changes when the test
conditions change.
o To satisfy the customer as to rated power with guarantied fuel consumption.
o To reduce the cost and to improve the power output and reliability of an engine.
o To know & improve the performance of an engine (develop sensorial awareness to how a
running engine sounds, smells, vibrates, releases heat, exhaust gases etc.)
 Test carried out on I.C. Engine:

Commercial Tests:

o These tests are carried out in order to check following:

o Rated power out-put with guarantied fuel consumption in kg / kw-hr
o Quantity of lubricating oil per kw-hr
o Quantity of cooling water per kw-hr
o Steadiness of engine under varied load conditions
o Overload carrying capacity of the engine

Thermodynamic Tests:

o These tests are carried out for the purpose of comparing actual results with theoretical
results by measuring following parameters and then drawing heat balance sheet.
o Indicated power (Morse Test applicable only to multi-cylinder engines)
o Brake power
o Frictional power
o Rate of fuel consumption
o Rate of flow of cooling water and its temperature rise
o Heat carried by exhaust gas
Indicated Horse Power (IHP):

o Indicated Horse Power (IHP) is defined as “the power developed in the cylinders of an

engine”
o IHP is calculated from the average pressure of the working fluid, the piston area, the stroke,
and the number of working strokes per minute.
o Device used for this purpose is perimeter.

IHP = (Pm* A*L*n*k) / 60 (Watt)

Where, Pm is Indicated mean effective pressure (N/m2), A is area of piston (m2), L is stroke
length of piston (m), k is number of cylinders, n is N (rpm of driveshaft) and N/2 for 02 and 04
strokes engines respectively.

Brake Horsepower (BHP):

o Brake Horsepower (BHP) was created to account for these losses and is the actual
measured output of the engine.
o There are standards in the automotive industry that determine what accessories must be on
the engine when measuring BHP.
o The “brake” comes in as the machine used to measure the power is often a brake
dynamometer.
o The BHP can be measure with no alternator, water pump, or other accessories normally
mounted on the front of the engine along with a free-flowing exhaust to maximize the
numbers.

BHP < IHP (15% - 30% less than IHP)

BHP = IHP – FHP

BHP = 2πNT / 60 (Watt) or BHP = (BMEP* A*L*n*k) / 60 (Watt)

Where, T is torque (R*F; R is moment arm and F is brake load), BMEP is brake mean effective
pressure (N/m2), A is area of piston (m2), L is stroke length of piston (m), k is number of
cylinders, n is N (rpm of driveshaft) and N/2 for 02 and 04 strokes engines respectively.
  Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption (ISFC)

Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption (ISFC) is defined as “the ratio of mass of fuel supplied to
indicated horse power.”

ISFC = ṁf / IHP (kg / kw-h)

 Brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC)

Brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is defined as “the ratio of mass of fuel supplied to

brake horse power.”

Brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is a measure of the fuel efficiency of any prime mover

that burns fuel and produces rotational, or shaft power.

It is typically used for comparing the efficiency of internal combustion engines with a shaft
output.

Simply, it is the rate of fuel consumption divided by the power produced.

BSFC = ṁf / BHP (kg / kw-h)

 Procedure:
i. Measurement of fuel consumption is made through burette (fuel consumption meter).
ii. Fill the fuel gauges with gasoline to desired level.
iii. First close the knob C2 to stop the fuel flow through fuel tank. This will allow fuel
available in fuel consumption meter to flow into engine through knob C3.
iv. Now start the engine.
v. Maintain a desirable operating speed.
vi. Level of fuel comes down inside the fuel consumption meter and start measuring time by
using stop watch while consuming 5, 10 & 20 cc of fuel.
vii. Measure speed from tachometer in RPM.
viii. Take three readings / observation at five different speeds (RPM) as shown in table below
Conclusion: In this lab we demonstrated Engine Test Bench Model GAE-5-10-HS-AV
with respect to various systems / test. We further determined the fuel consumption of an
IC Engine and then constructed a graph between fuel consumed and time in seconds with
and without load.
 LAB # 5

 Objective:

To determine torque and brake horse power (BHP) of IC Engine and observe its variation with
change of speed and construct a graph between Torque vs. RPM and BHP vs. RPM.

 Apparatus:

Engine Test bench model GAE-5-10-HS-AV available in the lab which facilitates to determine
various engine parameters such as:

o Brake Horse Power

o Specific Fuel Consumption

o Torque

o Stop Watch

o Tachometer

 Theory:
 Necessity / Purpose of I.C. Engine Testing:
o To get information, that is not possible to be determine by calculations.
o To confirm the validity of data used while designing the engine.
o To verify and measure engine performance and how this performance changes when the test
conditions change.
o To satisfy the customer as to rated power with guarantied fuel consumption.
o To reduce the cost and to improve the power output and reliability of an engine.
o To know & improve the performance of an engine (develop sensorial awareness to how a
running engine sounds, smells, vibrates, releases heat, exhaust gases etc.)
 Test carried out on I.C. Engine:

Commercial Tests:
o These tests are carried out in order to check following:
o Rated power out-put with guarantied fuel consumption in kg / kw-hr
o Quantity of lubricating oil per kw-hr
o Quantity of cooling water per kw-hr
o Steadiness of engine under varied load conditions
o Overload carrying capacity of the engine

Thermodynamic Tests:

o These tests are carried out for the purpose of comparing actual results with theoretical
results by measuring following parameters and then drawing heat balance sheet.
o Indicated power (Morse Test applicable only to multi-cylinder engines)
o Brake power
o Frictional power
o Rate of fuel consumption
o Rate of flow of cooling water and its temperature rise
o Heat carried by exhaust gas

Indicated Horse Power (IHP):

o Indicated Horse Power (IHP) is defined as "the power developed in the cylinders of an

engine”
o IHP is calculated from the average pressure of the working fluid, the piston area, the stroke,
and the number of working strokes per minute.
o Device used for this purpose is perimeter.

IHP = (Pm* A*L*n*k) / 60 (Watt)

Where, Pm is Indicated mean effective pressure (N/m2), A is area of piston (m2), L is stroke
length of piston (m), k is number of cylinders, n is N (rpm of driveshaft) and N/2 for 02 and 04
strokes engines respectively.

Brake Horsepower (BHP):

 o Brake Horsepower (BHP) was created to account for these losses and is the actual
measured output of the engine.
o There are standards in the automotive industry that determine what accessories must be on
the engine when measuring BHP.
o The "brake" comes in as the machine used to measure the power is often a brake
dynamometer.
o The BHP can be measure with no alternator, water pump, or other accessories normally
mounted on the front of the engine along with a free-flowing exhaust to maximize the
numbers.

BHP < IHP (15% - 30% less than IHP)

BHP = IHP – FHP

BHP = 2πNT / 60 (Watt) or BHP = (BMEP* A*L*n*k) / 60 (Watt)

Where, T is torque (R*F; R is moment arm and F is brake load), BMEP is brake mean effective
pressure (N/m2), A is area of piston (m2), L is stroke length of piston (m), k is number of
cylinders, n is N (rpm of driveshaft) and N/2 for 02 and 04 strokes engines respectively.

 Specific Fuel Consumption & Fuel Economy:

The fuel economy of an automobile relates distance traveled by a vehicle and the amount of fuel
consumed.

Consumption can be expressed in terms of volume of fuel to travel a distance, or the distance
travelled per unit volume of fuel consumed. For example, kilometers per liter (km / L). Fuel
consumption is also defined as

“the amount of fuel consumed per unit of time.”

Where,

416.66 cc or cm3 = 01 kg

0.0024 kg = 01 cc or cm3
  SPM vs N (RPM):

 Procedure

i. Measurement of fuel consumption is made through burette (fuel consumption meter).

ii. Fill the fuel gauges with gasoline to desired level.

iii. First close the knob C2 to stop the fuel flow through fuel tank. This will allow fuel
available in fuel consumption meter to flow into engine through knob C3.

iv. Now start the engine.

v. Maintain a desirable operating speed.

vi. Level of fuel comes down inside the fuel consumption meter and start measuring time by
using stop watch while consuming 5, 10 & 20 cc of fuel.

vii. Measure speed from tachometer in RPM.

viii. Take three readings / observation at five different speeds (RPM) as shown in table below.

ix. Setup / couple the dynamometer on the engine flywheel and check it serviceability.
 x. Start the engine after checking the following.

xi. Oil level in the engine.

xii. Fuel/ Petrol availability in the Fuel Tank.

xiii. Warm up engine for 5-7 minutes and maintain the speed.

xiv. Select the weight from dynamometer selector knob so that load can be applied to the
engine.

xv. Note down the reading from spring balance or load cell in term of weight (Kg) and
convert the same into Torque.

xvi. Now increase the weight gradually on engine.

xvii. Take attest three-five readings and observe the variation of N (rpm) with application of
load/ torque.

xviii. Take at least three-five readings and observe the variation of N (rpm) with application of
load/ torque.

FORMULAS:

Calculate values of Torque and BHP using following formula:

T = W*L (Nm)

BHP = 2πNT / 60 (Watt)

Conclusion: In this lab we determined torque and brake horse power

(BHP) of IC Engine and observed its variation with change of speed
and then constructed a graph between Torque vs. RPM and BHP vs.
RPM.
 LAB # 08

 Objective:
To identify the dwell angle and ignition timing of an IC Engine under observation and adjust it
(if required).

 Introduction:

Auto ignition system plays an important role in the functioning of gasoline vehicle. The
development of power in an engine will mainly depend upon the correct ignition spark in each
cylinder. The ignition system of a vehicle generates electric sparks to ignite the fuel-air mixture
in the engine's cylinder. The ignition system is an array of components that work together in the
process of starting the engine.

 Components of Conventional Automotive Ignition System:

i. Ignition key/ Switch

ii. Battery

iii. Ignition Coil

iv. Capacitor

v. Contact Breaker

vi. Distributor

1. Ignition Key:

In order to start a car's ignition system, you need to insert the ignition key and turn the key to run
position. When the key is turned on, it allows the low voltage electricity from the battery to flow
into the ignition coil.
The key ignition of an automobile serves two purposes: It ensures that only the person who
carries the keys can start the car and drive it away, and it not only starts the engine but activates
all the other electronic and mechanical systems in the vehicle.

2. Storage Battery:
 The storage battery is the primary source of power.
 It supplies the necessary current to the ignition system. It supplies 12 volts power to the
ignition coil.
3. Ignition Coil:

The ignition coil is a transformer that converts the battery's low voltage into high voltage. The
coil increases the voltage from 12 volts battery power to 25-30,000 volts. It consists of primary
and secondary winding circuits.

The primary winding gets the electricity from the battery to make a spark and the secondary
winding transports the increased electricity to the distributor.

4. Distributor:

The distributor sends a high voltage current from the coil to the respective spark plug at proper
time when spark is needed. It is also responsible for triggering the ignition coil to generate a
spark.

The distributor consists of a bowl made up of metal and is driven by the camshaft.

The distributor cap is made of a non-conductive material like plastic and it contains an electrode
inside. Inside the cap, there are more electrodes called segments. Each segment points to one
cylinder.

For example, if a vehicle has four cylinders, then it will have four segments. If it has six
cylinders, then six segments.

5. Spark Plug & Spark Plug Wires:

The spark plugs depend on spark plug wires to carry out their functions. The spark plug wires
pass electrical current from the distributor cap to the spark plugs, and then the spark plugs
produce spark.

This spark ignites the fuel-air mixture in the cylinder of the engine, which allows the vehicle to
start. The purpose of this lab is to give you a basic understanding of ignition system and how
each of its components works interdependently.

 Direct ignition system:

  A Direct Ignition system has coil for each spark plug. Usually, the coils are mounted directly on
top of the spark plugs with no HT leads. This ignition system is so far the best of all, as it has no
moving parts or high voltage HT leads or rotor, distributor and cap and so on. The ignition
timing can and is adjusted for each cylinder individually. On some models the coil and the
ignition module are together on top of the spark plug. The disadvantage is that in most instances
special HT adaptors are needed to diagnose those ignition systems.

 Dwell Angle:

Dwell angle is the angle of rotation of the distributor through which the primary circuit is closed
or it is the time where the breaker point is closed.

When the distributor shaft is rotating, the contact-breaker points open as the heel of the moving
point is pushed outwards by a lobe of the cam, and close while it is over the flat area between
two lobes.

If, for example, the angle of rotation between the centers of the lobes on the cam is 90 degrees,
the dwell angle - the period with the arm over the flats and the points closed - may be 52 degrees;
the remaining 38 degrees are taken up by the action of opening and closing. This would be a
typical dwell angle for a four-cylinder engine.

The term dwell angle is not used in today’s ignition system. Since, there is an electronic circuit
there is no angle instead the primary circuit time is changing and basically referred as “charging /
closed time”.
  Ignition Timing:

Ignition timing, in a spark ignition internal combustion engine (ICE), is the process of setting the
angle relative to piston position and crankshaft angular velocity that a spark will occur in the
combustion chamber near the end of the compression stroke.

The need for advancing the timing of the spark is because fuel does not completely burn the
instant the spark fires, the combustion gases take a period of time to expand (approximately 3ms
at stoichiometric A/F ratio of 14.7:1) and the angular or rotational speed of the engine can
lengthen or shorten the time frame in which the burning and expansion should occur.

 Procedure:
i. Connect the timing light according to the circuit diagram.
ii. Remove the rubber cover from the inspection hole on the flywheel cover.
iii. Point the timing light towards the flywheel and see the permanent mark on the flywheel
cover.
iv. There is always a mark on the rotating flywheel marked with paint at the specified angle
of advance so that it easily visible.
v. When the light is thrown through the inspection hole both the permanent mark and mark
on the flywheel would be visible.
vi. If these two marks coincide with each it means ignition timing is as per manufacturer’s
specification.
vii. If these two marks do not coincide with each it means ignition timing is not as per
manufacturer’s specification. In that case adjust it with the help of adjusting bolt fitted
with the distributor.
viii. Check the performance of an engine in terms of ease of starting and smoothness of
sound / vibration free engine.
ix. Repeat the practical to get the optimum angle.
Conclusion: In this lab we identified the dwell angle and ignition timing of an IC Engine
under observation and then adjusted it. We studied that Auto ignition system plays an
important role in the functioning of gasoline vehicle. The development of power in an
engine will mainly depend upon the correct ignition spark in each cylinder.
 LAB # 09

 Objective:
To demonstrate engine exhaust system and identify emissions of an IC Engine under
observation.

 Introduction:
 Components of Engine Exhaust System
i. Exhaust Manifold
ii. Catalytic Converter
iii. Oxygen Sensor
iv. Muffler (Helmholtz Tuning Chambers)

 Apparatus:
o Portable MultiGas Detector
o (Harwest E4000)
1. Exhaust Manifold:

The exhaust system starts at the front of your vehicle, right behind the engine. The exhaust
manifold is connected to the cylinder head and collects the exhaust gases of the engine.

The exhaust manifold reduces combustion noise and transfers heat downstream toward the rear
of the vehicle to promote the oxidation of unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. The
emissions control process is therefore initiated within the exhaust manifold.

2. Catalytic Converter:

Then the exhaust gases reach the catalytic converter located further down in the system.  This
device is designed to convert the toxic exhaust gases carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and
hydrocarbons into harmless carbon dioxide and water vapor through a chemical reaction
involving platinum and palladium catalysts.
Lead-free gasoline must be used in vehicles equipped with a catalytic converter to prevent lead
from coating the catalysts and rendering them ineffective.

1.Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and oxygen:

2NO2 → 2O2 + N2

2. Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide:

2CO + O2 → 2CO2

3. Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) to carbon dioxide and water:

CxH2x+ O2 → xCO2 + xH2O.

3. Oxygen Sensor:

The oxygen sensor detects the oxygen content within the exhaust stream which is in turn read by
the Electronic Control Unit (ECU) that constantly adjusts the air/fuel ratio to an optimal level.

As the values of several variables like RPM, engine temperature, air temperature, coolant
temperature, etc. are constantly changing; the oxygen sensor is an essential component that
optimizes your vehicle’s efficiency and performance.

4. Muffler:

Engine noise is a collection of firing frequencies combined to an extended range of noise caused
by the resonance of various components.

The muffler silences the exhaust by channeling it through compartments called Helmholtz tuning

chambers. These resonating chambers are specifically tuned to cause destructive interference,
meaning that opposite sound waves cancel each other out. From their passage through the entire
exhaust system, the temperature, pressure, toxicity and noise of the exhaust gases are
significantly reduced when they come out of the tail pipe.

 Signs of Troubles related to your Vehicle’s Exhaust System:

 i. The engine won’t run smoothly
ii. Low fuel efficiency
iii. Loud exhaust noise – rusted and pierced elements of the system
iv. Low engine power
 Procedure:
i. Press the power button so that Portable MultiGas Detector (E4000) is on display is start.
ii. Now the Portable MultiGas Detector (E4000) will check itself while one observes
warning lights and vibration beeps.
iii. Afterwards plug the exhaust gas input port to take sample when once self-check is
complete.
iv. Now keep the input port in the path of exhaust to take sample for a few seconds and take
live reading of the flue gases in ppm (parts per million) or % (percentage).
v. You can check max, min and standard sample reading by pressing next/previous button.
Take max reading in case of live sample.
vi. Note readings and reset/restart to take new sample.
vii. Switch off the Portable MultiGas Detector (E4000) by pressing power button for a few
seconds.
viii. Note: LEL stands for “Lower Explosive Limit”

Conclusion: In this lab we demonstrated engine exhaust system and identified emissions of an
IC Engine under observation. We further studied that the exhaust system starts at the front of
your vehicle, right behind the engine. The exhaust manifold is connected to the cylinder head
and collects the exhaust gases of the engine.
 LAB # 10

 Objective:
a. To demonstrate 4-Stroke Motorized Petrol Engine with respect to various systems / test
(which can be performed on it).
b. To determine the fuel consumption of 4-Stroke Motorized Petrol Engine and construct a
graph between fuel consumed and time in seconds with and without load
 Introduction:
 Necessity / Purpose of I.C. Engine Testing
To get information, that is not possible to be determine by calculations.
To confirm the validity of data used while designing the engine.
To verify and measure engine performance and how this performance changes when the test
conditions change.
To satisfy the customer as to rated power with guarantied fuel consumption.
To reduce the cost and to improve the power output and reliability of an engine.
To know & improve the performance of an engine (develop sensorial awareness to how a
running engine sounds, smells, vibrates, releases heat, exhaust gases etc.)

 Apparatus:

4-Stroke Motorized Petrol Engine Test Bench with DAS:

Engine type 4-Stroke Naturally Aspirated Petrol

Cylinders Single Cylinder inclined by 25 degrees
Carburetor Horizontal Type, Butterfly Valve
No. of Valves OHV, 02 (inlet & exhaust)
Compression Ratio 8:1
Capacity 198 cc (12.0 cu in)
Maximum power output 6.5 hp at 3600 rpm
Maximum torque 12.5 Nm
Dia. of bore 68 mm (2.7 cu in)
Stroke Length 54 mm (2.1 cu in)

 Test carried out on I.C. Engine:

Commercial Tests:

i. These tests are carried out in order to check following:

ii. Rated power out-put with guarantied fuel consumption in kg / kw-hr
iii. Quantity of lubricating oil per kw-hr
iv. Quantity of cooling water per kw-hr
v. Steadiness of engine under varied load conditions
vi. Overload carrying capacity of the engine

Thermodynamic Tests:
 i. These tests are carried out for the purpose of comparing actual results with theoretical
results by measuring following parameters and then drawing heat balance sheet.
ii. Indicated power (Morse Test applicable only to multi-cylinder engines)
iii. Brake power
iv. Frictional power
v. Rate of fuel consumption
vi. Rate of flow of cooling water and its temperature rise
vii. Heat carried by exhaust gas
 Indicated Horse Power (IHP)

Indicated Horse Power (IHP) is defined as

"the power developed in the cylinders of an engine”

IHP is calculated from the average pressure of the working fluid, the piston area, the stroke, and
the number of working strokes per minute. Device used for this purpose is perimeter.

IHP = (Pm* A*L*n*k) / 60 (Watt)

Where, Pm is Indicated mean effective pressure (N/m2), A is area of piston (m2), L is stroke
length of piston (m), k is number of cylinders, n is N (rpm of driveshaft) and N/2 for 02 and 04
strokes engines respectively.

 Brake Horsepower (BHP)

Brake Horsepower (BHP) was created to account for these losses and is the actual measured
output of the engine. There are standards in the automotive industry that determine what
accessories must be on the engine when measuring BHP.

The "brake" comes in as the machine used to measure the power is often a brake dynamometer.

The BHP can be measure with no alternator, water pump, or other accessories normally mounted
on the front of the engine along with a free-flowing exhaust to maximize the numbers.

 BHP < IHP (15% - 30% less than IHP)

 BHP = IHP – FHP
 BHP = 2πNT / 60 (Watt) or BHP = (BMEP* A*L*n*k) / 60 (Watt)
Where, T is torque (R*F; R is moment arm and F is brake load), BMEP is brake mean effective
pressure (N/m2), A is area of piston (m2), L is stroke length of piston (m), k is number of
cylinders, n is N (rpm of driveshaft) and N/2 for 02 and 04 strokes engines respectively.

 Friction Horsepower (FHP)

The power developed in the combustion chambers of the engine is greater than the delivered
power because of friction and other mechanical losses. Thereby called the friction horsepower
(FHP).

Frictional Losses /Mechanical Losses:

i. Friction between cylinder and piston rings.

ii. Friction between gears and other transmission components.
iii. Friction on actuating of valves.
iv. Power needed to drive fuel pump, lubrication oil pump, alternator, compressor and water
pump.
 Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption (ISFC)

Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption (ISFC) is defined as

"the ratio of mass of fuel supplied to indicated horse power.”

ISFC = ṁf / IHP (kg / kw-h)

 Brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC)

Brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is defined as

"the ratio of mass of fuel supplied to brake horse power.”

Brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is a measure of the fuel efficiency of any prime

mover that burns fuel and produces rotational, or shaft power. It is typically used for
comparing the efficiency of internal combustion engines with a shaft output. Simply, it is the
rate of fuel consumption divided by the power produced.

BSFC = ṁf / BHP (kg / kw-h)

  Procedure

i. Insert the fuel inside the fuel measurement tube up to desired level.

ii. Unload the dynamometer by using load control knob.

iii. Plug-in and switch on the main unit.

iv. Attach laptop to data acquisition cable, check USB plug-in port and run the software and
select the USB plug-in port accordingly.

v. Check and verify all the connections and joints also fuel in the fuel pipe.

vi. Adjust the fuel and air adjustment knob at certain level.

vii. Open fuel control valve.

viii. Note down engine speed (RPM), fuel level (ml) and time (sec) in Table-01.

ix. Take 3-5 reading on the same engine speed (RPM).

x. Apply load on the engine by using load control knob (if required).

xi. Note down torque values after applying load on the engine and tabulate (if required).

xii. Create graphs and save all the Values of the sensors in Software (if required).

xiii. Push Stop Button to Stop the Engine after the Experiment is performed.

xiv. Switch-Off Main Unit after the Experiment is performed.

Conclusion: In this lab we studied about 4-Stroke Motorized Petrol Engine with respect to
various systems / test (which can be performed on it). We determined the fuel consumption of 4-
Stroke Motorized Petrol Engine and constructed a graph between fuel consumed and time in
seconds with and without load.