Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics

Saverio D’Auria

Introduction
to Nuclear
and Particle
Physics
Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics
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Saverio D’Auria

Introduction to Nuclear
and Particle Physics

123
Saverio D’Auria
School of Physics and Astronomy
University of Glasgow
Glasgow, United Kingdom

ISSN 2192-4791 ISSN 2192-4805 (electronic)

Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics
ISBN 978-3-319-93854-7 ISBN 978-3-319-93855-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93855-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018956310

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To Anna, Filomena and Maria-Martina
Preface

This book originates from a short introductory course given at the University of
Glasgow on nuclear and particle physics. It is intended for a diverse public: students
who are interested in the subject will find here some introductory material, while
others may want to understand the main concepts of this branch of physics for
applications in other sciences. High school teachers, who wish to refresh this
subject, and, in general, the knowledgeable enthusiast may find this book useful.
Its introductory nature requires some simplification and approximation. Knowing
that it is much more difficult to modify wrong concepts than to acquire new ones
from tabula rasa, an effort has been made to avoid any simplification that would
require a complete change in a more advanced course. The level of this book is
certainly higher than what would be considered as public understanding of science:
a mathematical language is used, but at a level which should be understandable
after the first year of a scientific discipline. Some familiarity with chemical symbols
of elements is also assumed. For the benefit of readers with backgrounds other than
physics, it was important to include some key results, which have high scientific and
cultural relevance, such as Nöther’s theorem and group theory. Quantum physics
was not part of the course, but a dedicated chapter was included to make the book
more complete. It is treated only qualitatively, at an introductory level, and in a
very concise form. Nuclear and particle physics is far from being an axiomatic
subject. Learning is rather a circular process, where concepts need to be anticipated
to a certain extent, and they will become clearer later, because concepts may be
understood at different depths. The reader is encouraged not to be afraid of new
terms, which are introduced in italic. One or two more advanced subjects are also
included. They are intended both as a stimulus to further progress in the field and as
reference material in a simplified but still rigorous form. Problems are mostly case
studies on real laboratory problems, and their solutions are provided separately. A
final chapter with six case study problems and their solutions has been added.
In margin are some biographical notes of the physicists who have contributed
to the field with discoveries and explanations. Many more have contributed with
marginal, but maybe pivotal, work. Behind the discoveries are real people, from
many places in the world, each with his or her own life, which was often shaped by

vii
viii Preface

the historical events of the last century. The international character of the research,
even in a strongly divided world, is fascinating.
I would like to express my gratitude to the University of Glasgow and to Peter
Bussey, Craig Buttar, Aidan Robson and Ken Smith for discussion and suggestions.
Mario Spezziga, and Kate Shaw have also contributed with comments. I should
also credit my teaching inspiration models: Attilio Forino and the late Giampietro
Puppi, who have formed generations of students at the University of Bologna, Italy. I
thank my students for asking questions, and Ali Walker for reading the manuscript,
the publisher staff for their patience and my wife and daughters for patience and
support. I hope the reader will enjoy reading this book as much as I did while
writing it.

Glasgow, UK Saverio D’Auria

Geneva, Switzerland
January 2018
Contents

1 Introduction to Radiation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Special Relativity .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3 Essential Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4 Radioactive Decays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5 Passage of Radiation Through Matter .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6 Introduction to Particle Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7 Introduction to Nuclear Physics .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
8 Six Problems .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Name Index .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

ix
Math Coventions Used

Greek Letters Used in Physics

α A Alpha η H Eta ν N Nu τ T Tau

β B Beta θ, ϑ Theta ξ  Xi υ ϒ Upsilon
γ  Gamma ι I Iota o O Omicron φ, ϕ Phi
δ  Delta κ,  K Kappa π  Pi χ X Chi
 E Epsilon λ  Lambda ρ P Rho ψ # Psi
ζ Z Zeta μ M Mu σ  Sigma ω % Omega

Constants and Conversion Factors

Constant Symb. Value Error Units

Speed of light in c 299792458 None m/s
vacuum
Planck’s h 4.135667662 × 10−15 (25) eV s
constant1
Vacuum 0 8.854187817 – F/m
permittivity
Electron charge1 e 1.602176634 × 10−19 None C
Proton mass mp 938.272081 (6) MeV/c2
1.672621777 × 10−27 (74) kg
Electron mass me 0.5109989461 (31) MeV/c2
9.10938356 × 10−31 (11) kg
Bohr’s μB 5.7883818012 × 1011 (26) MeV T−1
magneton
(continued)

xi
xii Math Coventions Used

Constant Symb. Value Error Units

Nuclear μN 3.1524512550 × 1014 (15) MeV T−1
magneton
Atomic mass u 931.4940954 (57) MeV/c2
unit
Boltzmann’s k 8.6173303 × 10−5 (50) eV/K
constant1
Avogadro’s NA 6.02214076 × 1023 None mol−1
number1
Gravitational GN 6.67408 × 10−11 (31) m3 kg−1 s−1
constant
Fermi coupling GF /(h̄c)3 1.1663787 × 10−5 (6) GeV−2
constant
Strong αs (mZ ) 0.1185 (6)
coupling
constant
Fine structure α = e2 /(4π0 h̄c) 1/137.035999074 (44)
constant2
Electron Volt2 eV 1.602176565 × 10−19 (35) J
barn b 10−28 – m2
1 The General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) has decided that effective from May
2019 the electron charge, Planck’s constant, Boltzmann’s constant and Avogadro’s constant,
together with the speed of light, are the basis to define all other International System (SI) units,
and therefore are defined without any experimental error
2 Also the fine structure constant and the electron Volt are defined with no uncertainty with the

new definition of SI units

Chapter 1
Introduction to Radiation

This book is about radiation, radioactive decays and some elements of nuclear
and particle physics. Einstein’s theory of special relativity is needed for a correct
description of some of these phenomena. The word “special” is used to distinguish
this part from the theory of general relativity, that deals with non-inertial reference
frames and with gravity. Some textbooks follow a rather historical, or history-driven,
approach to radiation. While this approach would be quite educational, giving a view
of how ideas developed almost exactly one hundred years ago, it is probably not the
fastest way to explain the fundamental concepts.
Let’s try to define radiation first. In general, it is any form of energy that can
be emitted and sent over a distance. The word contains the root “radius”, which
suggests an emission of energy in all directions, like the light from the sun or a light
bulb. However, radiation can be emitted by a directional antenna, or concentrated in
a beam, like a laser.
Light is the form of electromagnetic radiation, which is best known by our
common experience. Heat can also be radiated by a body, in the form of infra-
red radiation. We are likewise familiar in radio waves, infrared (remote-control)
and visible light. They are all the same electromagnetic radiation, but at different
wavelengths.
The first experience of a new kind of electromagnetic radiation occurred in 1895,
when Wilhelm Röntgen, in Munich, observed some fluorescence, i.e. a dim light,
induced by operating vacuum tubes, which emitted what he called X-rays.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018 1

S. D’Auria, Introduction to Nuclear and Particle Physics,
Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93855-4_1
2 1 Introduction to Radiation

Fig. 1.1 Marie Sklodowska-Curie while measuring the activity of a Radium source. Courtesy
of Museé Curie, Paris. She was born in Poland in 1867 and naturalised French. She was the
first woman to become professor at the University of Paris, the first woman to be awarded
a Nobel prize, which she shared with her husband Pierre Curie and with Henry Becquerel;
she is the only woman to be awarded two Nobel prizes in two different disciplines (Physics
(1903) and Chemistry (1911))

The first radiography followed after a few weeks, and a few months later
Henry Becquerel, in Paris, discovered natural radioactivity in uranium minerals:
they produced a fluorescence similar to the one produced by the X-rays. Marie
Sklodowska (Fig. 1.1) and her husband Pierre Curie, also in Paris, made the
first quantitative measurements of radiation. Upon discovery that thorium is also
radioactive, they also discovered two new radioactive elements, which they named
polonium and radium. Radiation units were subsequently named after these four
pioneers. The Becquerel (Bq) is equivalent to “one disintegration per second”; its
physical dimensions are [T −1 ], and it measures the activity of a radioactive source,
meaning how much radiation it produces. Sometimes, in old documents, or on old
sources, another unit is used, known as the Curie (Ci) where 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010
disintegrations per second (Bq), 1 Ci= 37 GBq. Historically, it is roughly the
activity of 1 g of 226 Ra. This is a non-SI unit, no longer in use. The unit named
after Röntgen similarly became obsolete.
A little digression on the units: although we can always use SI units, it is more
convenient to use units that are suited to the quantity that we are going to measure.
In Astronomy, we can use light years and parsec for distances; for extremely small
systems, we use the electron Volt (eV) as the unit of energy. One eV is the kinetic
energy gained by an electron which is accelerated by an electric potential difference
of 1 V. One Joule is one Coulomb × Volt. The electron charge is 1.602176565(35)×
10−19 C, so 1 eV = 1.602176565(35) × 10−19 J. We should note at this point that
only the electron charge enters in this definition, not its mass. As the electron and
1 Introduction to Radiation 3

proton electrical charges, in absolute value, are experimentally equal to each other,
at most, one part in 1018 , the unit could as well have been called “proton-Volt”.
We can classify radiation based on its source: natural radiation from minerals in
the Earth’s crust is the most common. Radon gas is a common source of background
to many precision physics experiments and the main source of radiation dose to the
population in mainland Europe and the USA. The presence of Radon in the air,
especially in basements, can produce an activity up to 120 Bq per cubic metre
of air. Within Britain, Cornwall and Wales have the largest background activity
from Radon, up to 30 Bq/m3 . Cosmic rays, spanning from the so-called solar
wind, to high-energy cosmic rays, are also a large natural source of radiation. After
“showering” through the atmosphere, in the terrestrial magnetic field, cosmic rays
reach the ground and are a source of natural radioactivity. Cosmic rays also produce
radioactive elements (nuclides) in the atmosphere: for instance, 14 C.

Radon is a common noble gas, which is continually formed by decay of

radioactive elements. It is unstable and decays
222
Rn → α +218 Po → α +214 Pb → . . .

This formula will be explained later. In areas where Radon is an issue,

ventilating the basements of houses helps reducing the health risk associated.

Examples of man-made sources of radiation include radioactive nuclides, which

are produced intentionally for medical use, or as a side product in nuclear power
plants and nuclear explosions; X-ray diagnostic devices and particle accelerators,
which can also produce “synchrotron radiation”, a coherent high-energy X-ray
beam. The Cherenkov radiation is just light, which is emitted by charged particles
when traveling in a homogeneous medium at a speed which is larger than the speed
of light in that medium. Cosmic rays emit this radiation when propagating in the
atmosphere. A transition radiation is emitted when fast charged particles cross the
interface between different materials.
Radiation can be classified also according to its effects. Some types of radiation
ionise the medium they traverse: all the electrically charged particles, such as
alpha and beta particles, which we’ll be introduced to later, ionise the medium
they traverse and lose energy. Also, electromagnetic radiation, such as gamma and
X-rays, ionise materials. Neutron radiation does not directly ionise, but interacts
in a different way, by elastic and quasi-elastic scattering, or by inducing nuclear
reactions like fission. We’ll see all this later in this book. We assume in the following
that the reader is familiar with the atomic structure of matter and with the fact that
atomic nuclei are made of protons and neutrons. Protons are positively charged
particles; their charge is exactly the same as the charge of electrons, with opposite
sign, but their mass is 1860 times larger than the electron mass. Neutrons have no
electrical charge, and their mass is approximately equal to the proton mass, just
slightly larger.
4 1 Introduction to Radiation

The properties of a chemical element are defined by the structure of the electron
cloud surrounding the nucleus. Only the number of protons in the nucleus defines the
number of electrons surrounding it and, hence, the chemical properties of the atom.
When we generically refer to carbon, we specify an atom made with a nucleus with
six protons surrounded by six electrons. However, we do not specify how heavy the
nucleus can be (i.e. how many neutrons are in the nucleus). We know that the nucleus
is composed of neutrons and protons, which we collectively call nucleons. An atom
of a given element can have a nucleus with a different number of neutrons and have
the same chemical behaviour as the other atoms of the same element, to a very good
approximation. A nuclide is an atomic species defined by both its atomic number,
obtained by counting the number of protons, and the mass number, the total number
of protons and neutrons. The atomic number is indicated with Z, and the atomic
mass number with A. The atomic number is indicated by the chemical symbol of
the element, A is a pre-fixed superscript: for example, the Carbon-14 nuclide is
indicated with 14 C, indicating that it is made of six protons (hence Carbon) and
14 nucleons in total. A − Z is the number of neutrons. The word isotope, from
the Greek ίσος and τόπος, means “same place”. Two or more nuclides which have
the same Z are called isotopes because they occupy the same place in the periodic
table. Colloquially, isotopes and nuclides are used as synonyms, but to be correct the
term isotope implies a (Table 1.1) comparison between nuclides. The terms which
compare nuclides are:
– isotopes are nuclides with equal charge Z.
Example: 13 C and 14 C have both 6 protons in the nucleus.
– isobars are nuclides with same A. The word originates from Greek ίσος βαρος,
same weight
Example: 14 N and 14 C have both 14 nucleons, but nitrogen-14 has 7 protons,
while Carbon-14 has 6 protons.
– isotones are nuclides with the same number of neutrons (A-Z).
Example: 14 C and 16 O have both 8 neutrons.
We’ll see later that, just like atoms, nuclei can be in excited states, some of which
could be meta-stable. Nuclides with the same A and Z, but different excitation
states, are called isomers.
Isotopes of a given nuclide have the same number of protons and therefore the
same number of electrons, as atoms are electrically neutral. So, isotopes have the
same chemical properties. Not all isotopes are radioactive, i.e. decay and radiate
energy. An element can have two or more stable isotopes. Their chemical properties

Table 1.1 An example of Isotopes 14 C 13C

isotope, isobar and isotone 14 C 14 N
Isobars
nuclides 13 C 14 N
Isotones
Carbon has Z = 6 (number
of protons), and Nitrogen
has Z = 7
1 Introduction to Radiation 5

are mostly the same, but may be slightly different in terms of kinetics of the chemical
reactions. For instance, 12 C and 13 C are both stable isotopes, and they are naturally
found in the relative proportion 98.9% and 1.1%. However, their slightly different
mass changes slightly the vibrational frequency of the molecules, which makes
the chemical reaction speeds to be slightly different for the two isotopes. Living
organisms prefer to use 12 C rather than 13 C, so in living organisms, including their
fossil derivatives, like petroleum, we find a slightly lower concentration of 13 C,
1.0%. This lower concentration was also found in carbon impurities in apatite rocks
in Greenland, which were dated 3.85 × 109 years ago. Thanks to this tiny difference
in chemical properties of stable isotopes, we now know that life started 690 million
years after the formation of the Earth.
From early investigations, it was soon evident that radioactive materials emit
three kinds of radiation: positively charged, (mostly) negatively charged and
electrically neutral radiation. They were called α, β and γ (alpha, beta and gamma),
respectively (Fig. 1.2). The γ radiation is of the same electromagnetic nature as the
infrared, as light, and X-rays, but is emitted by nuclei, while X-rays are emitted
by atoms. An X-ray trajectory is not bent by the presence of electric and magnetic
fields.
The α particles were soon identified as 4 He nuclei, which are made by two
neutrons and two protons bound together by the nuclear force. β radiation is made
of electrons or their positively charged anti-particle, positrons , and are emitted by
the transmutation of atomic nuclei. As the γ radiations are electrically neutral, their
trajectories are unaffected by the presence of electric or magnetic fields, while the
α and β particle trajectories are deflected in opposite directions when immersed in
the same magnetic or electric field. By measuring the radius of a charge particle

Fig. 1.2 Alpha α, beta (β)

and Gamma (γ ) radiation.
From Marie Curie’s Thesis
6 1 Introduction to Radiation

Fig. 1.3 A simulated

Intensity [a.u.]
Spectrum of a source with
three α-emitting
nuclides:238 U, 209 Po and
241 Am. Each nuclide emits α

particles with a characteristic

kinetic energy

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Kinetic Energy [MeV]

trajectory in a magnetic field, we measure the ratio between the electric charge q
and the mass m. Conversely, if we know q/m, we can measure the kinetic energy,
and its distribution. In a constant magnetic field, the bending radius is inversely
proportional to the momentum of the particle. A distribution of kinetic energies of
the emitted particles, for a given source of radiation, is called an energy spectrum;
a distribution of momenta is a momentum spectrum. The α radiation gives rise to
spectral “lines”, which are characteristic of the emitting nuclide. This means that a
given nuclide emits all α particles with a kinetic energy and a momentum in a very
narrow range, as shown in Fig. 1.3.
This is not the case for the β particles Fig. 1.4: they are emitted with a continuous
and broad spectrum of energies, ranging from zero to a maximum energy, which is
called the end-point. The value of the maximum energy depends on the nuclide.
The distributions of intensities as a function of kinetic energy, or as a function of
momentum, have a similar shape for all β-emitting nuclides. The continuous energy
spectrum of β particles led W. Pauli1 to make the hypothesis of the emission of
a neutral particle at the same time as the electron. This neutral particle escapes
detection and was named neutrino by E. Fermi. It was experimentally detected in
1956, about 40 years after the hypothesis was formulated, by Cowan and Reines
using a nuclear power plant as a neutrino source. The different behaviour in alpha
and beta emission is summarized in Fig. 1.5.
Alpha particles are stopped by a sheet of paper, or a few centimetres of air
at standard pressure. Beta particles are stopped by about 2 m of air or a 4-mm
thick aluminium plate, while gamma radiation is blocked by lead plates or bricks,
depending on their energy (Fig. 1.6). We’ll try later to get some introductory insight
into the passage of radiation through matter.

1 Wolfgang Pauli, (1900–1958) from Austria. He was awarded the Nobel prize in 1945 for his

exclusion principle.
1 Introduction to Radiation 7

Fig. 1.4 Spectrum of a β source 210 Bi, from Neary, M.A. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A (1940). At the
time, 210 Bi used to be called Radium-E

Fig. 1.5 The α particle from a nuclide all have about the same kinetic energy, which is a
characteristic of the nuclide. The β particles have a continuous distribution of energies, from
zero to a maximum which depends on the nuclide. The momentum spectrum of particles can
be measured using a magnetic field which is perpendicular to the plane of the figure. This
equipment is called a spectrometer
8 1 Introduction to Radiation

Fig. 1.6 A qualitative sketch

of some examples of stopping
nuclear radiation by paper,
aluminium and lead

β ± decays: A = A and Z  = Z ∓ 1
isobaric transitions
α decays: A = A − 4 and Z  = Z − 2

It was found experimentally, soon after their discovery, that beta-emitting decays
transform nuclides into their isobars with Z  = Z ± 1, while the emission of an
alpha particle transforms the nuclide into another with A = A − 4 and Z  = Z − 2.
Like α radiation, γ -radiation, from a given unstable nuclide, is characterised by
a narrow energy range of the emitted particle. They are quanta of electromagnetic
radiation, which are called photons, independently of their energy. Typically, γ -
emitting decays follow α- or β-emitting decays, which produce daughter nuclei
in an excited state, which are called isomers of the more stable nuclides. Just like
atoms, excited nuclei produce electromagnetic radiation when transitioning to their
ground state. In general, photons emitted by nuclei or by sub-nuclear particles are
called γ rays or γ particles, while photons emitted by atoms or by low-energy
electrons are X-rays.
The early classification of α, β and γ radiation still holds after 120 years, with
the addition of neutron radiation. Some materials, alone or in a mixture, emit
radiation that is electrically neutral, extremely penetrating and very dangerous to
living organisms, which was recognised as being due to neutron emission. The
neutron was discovered in 1932, quite some time after the proton and the electron.
It is the neutral equivalent of the proton. Neutron radiation was discovered in the
reaction:

α +9 Be →12 C + n (1.1)

where α particles impinge onto a Beryllium target. The α particles originate from a
Polonium source, and the neutron source is named after the radioactive nuclide and
the target material, Polonium–Beryllium in this case.
Nuclear reactors are intense sources of neutron radiation. Its main effects are
nuclear transmutations and activation of materials which were not radioactive before
exposure.
1.1 Problems 9

At this point, we could start immediately with radioactive decays, the interaction
of radiation with matter, a description of the atomic nucleus, the nuclear energy
from fission and fusion and some elements of particle physics. However, we do not
yet have all the tools to treat the subject. If we use classical physics laws, we can
easily get unphysical results. What follows is a quick example.
The radioactive isotope (well, we just agreed to call it nuclide instead) 90 Sr
produces β particles with a kinetic energy (E) distribution which extends up to
546 √keV. Classically, E = 1/2me v 2 , so the velocity v of the beta particle is
v = 2E/me , where me is the mass of the electron, me = 9.109 × 10−31 kg.

2 × 546 × 103 × 1.60 × 10−19 
v= m/s = 1.918 × 1017 = 4.38 × 108 m/s.
9.109 × 10−31
(1.2)
The speed of light in vacuum is c = 299,792,458 ≈ 3.00 × 108 m/s. Some
electrons from that radioactive source would be superluminal, according to classical
mechanics. We know that no particle or wave can exceed the speed of light in
vacuum. Clearly, we are in the domain of very high velocities and that is why we
need to introduce special relativity. Nuclear and subnuclear particles are “small” on
an absolute scale, have small masses and move fast.

1.1 Problems

For these problems, rounding to the second decimal digit is more than enough. Their
purpose is to make the reader familiar with the system of units which are used in
particle and nuclear physics.

α particle mass value: mα = 6.4424 × 10−27 kg.

Positron mass value: me = 9.109382 × 10−31 kg.
Electron electrical charge: e = 1.6021765 × 10−19 C
α particle mass value: mα = 3.7273 × 109 eV/c2 = 3.7273 GeV/c2

1.1 An alpha particle (4 He nucleus, with charge q = +2e) is initially at rest,

close to an electrically grounded metal plate. At time t = 0, we turn on the
electric field between the plate and another metal plate, parallel to it, located at
a distance of 0.1 m. They are all in vacuum. The electric potential difference
between the plates is −1 kV. What is the kinetic energy of the alpha particle
when it reaches the second plate? What is the α particle momentum when it
reaches the plate? Compare it with the result obtained when a positron (positive
electron) is in the same situation as the alpha particle. Express the momenta in
SI units.
10 1 Introduction to Radiation

1.2 The nuclide 241Am emits α particles with a kinetic energy of 3.5 MeV.
Calculate the speed of these 4 He nuclei using classical physics formulas;
express the result as a ratio to the speed of light (β = v/c).
1.3 The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster has a mass of about 0.2 mg and can reach
a speed of about 0.5 m/s. At this speed, what is its kinetic energy, expressed in
eV?
1.4 At the Large Hadron Collider, the particle beam energy is 6.5 TeV. The
accelerator stores 2000 bunches of particles, each containing 1.1×1011 protons.
What is the stored energy of a single beam, in Joules.
1.5 A car weighs 1000 kg and runs at 100 km/h. Calculate its kinetic energy in
Joule and compare it with the result of problem 1.4.

1.2 Solutions

Solution to 1.1 The kinetic energy is equal to the electric potential difference
multiplied by the charge. Therefore, the kinetic energy is
– α particle: Qα = 2e and its kinetic energy is

(α)
Ek = QV = 2 keV.

– electron: it has a charge Qe = e and its kinetic energy is

(e)
Ek = QV = 1 keV.

To convert these values into SI units, we remember that 1 J = 1 CV. In addition,

in classical
√ physics the momentum of a particle of mass m is
p = 2mEk .
– For the α particle: mα = 6.64 × 10−27 kg;

Ek = 2 keV = 2 × 103 × 1.60 × 10−19 = 3.20 × 10−16 J

 
pα = 2 × 3.20 × 6.64 × 10−27 × 10−16 = 4.25 × 10−42

pα = 2.06 × 10−21 kg m/s

– For the positron: its mass is me = 9.11 × 10−31 kg;

Ek = 1 keV = 1.60 × 10−16 J

 
pe = 2 × 1.60 × 9.11 × 10−31 × 10−16 = 2.915 × 10−46

pe = 1.71 × 10−23 kg m/s

1.2 Solutions 11

The α particle and the positron end up with having similar kinetic energy, but
very different momenta, due to the large difference in mass. Calculating in SI
units requires using large exponents.
Solution to 1.2

 2 × 3.5 × 106 (eV)
v = 2Ek /mα = = 0.043 c
3.7273 × 109 (eV/c2 )

The speed of the α particle is 4.3% of the speed of light. This value is high, but
classical physics formulas are still a valid approximation, in this case.
Solution to 1.3

Ek = 1/2mv 2 = 0.5 ∗ 2 × 10−7 × 0.52 [ kg m2 s−2 ] = 0.25 × 10−7 J = 25 nJ

We know that

1 J = 1 CV = 1/Qe eV = 1/(1.6021765 × 10−19 ) eV

0.25 × 10−7
Ek = = 1.56 × 1011 eV = 156 GeV
1.6021765 × 10−19

A fruit fly has the same energy of a particle accelerated by a large accelerator.
However, its kinetic energy is distributed to all its molecules, while in an
accelerator it is concentrated in one particle.
Solution to 1.4 Recalling that 1 TeV = 1012 eV and 1 eV = 1.602 × 10−19 J, we
have:

E(beam) = 6.5 × 1012 × 2. × 103 × 1.1 × 1011 × 1.602 × 10−19 = 2.29 × 108 J

E(beam) = 229 MJ

Solution to 1.5 Recalling that 1 km/h = 1000/3600 = 0.2778 m/s

Ek = 1/2mv 2 = 0.5 × 103 × (102 × 0.2778)2 = 3.85 × 105 J

The car’s energy is 385 kJ, about three orders of magnitude less than the energy
stored in a single LHC beam. The LHC beam energy is comparable to the kinetic
energy of a train.
Chapter 2
Special Relativity

2.1 Introduction

This chapter is included mostly for completeness, because many textbooks already
explain special relativity in a deeper and more elegant way Galileo.1
The principle of relativity is present in classical physics since its very beginning.
Galileo, in his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632), states
that the laws of physics are the same in all reference frames that are in relative
uniform motion. More precisely, Galileo realised that passengers in a ship have no
way to tell if the ship is moving or standing.
Shut yourself up with some friend in the main cabin below decks on some large
ship, and have with you there some flies, butterflies, and other small flying animals.
Have a large bowl of water with some fish in it; hang up a bottle that empties drop
by drop into a wide vessel beneath it. With the ship standing still, observe carefully
how the little animals fly with equal speed to all sides of the cabin. . . . When you
have observed all these things carefully (though doubtless when the ship is standing
still everything must happen in this way), have the ship proceed with any speed you
like, so long as the motion is uniform and not fluctuating this way and that. You will
discover not the least change in all the effects named, nor could you tell from any of
them whether the ship was moving or standing still.

1 GalileoGalilei, 1564–1642, is considered the father of modern scientific method. He taught in

Pisa and Padua, Italy.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018 13

S. D’Auria, Introduction to Nuclear and Particle Physics,
Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93855-4_2
14 2 Special Relativity

Rinserratevi con qualche amico nella maggiore stanza che sia sotto coverta
di alcun gran navilio, e quivi fate d’aver mosche, farfalle e simili animaletti
volanti: siavi anco un gran vaso d’acqua, e dentrovi de’ pescetti; sospendasi
anco in alto qualche secchiello, che a goccia a goccia vada versando dell’acqua
in un altro vaso di angusta bocca che sia posto a basso; e stando ferma la nave,
osservate diligentemente come quelli animaletti volanti con pari velocità vanno
verso tutte le parti della stanza. [..][Osservate che avrete diligentemente tutte
queste cose, benché niun dubbio ci sia mentre il vascello sta fermo non debbano
succedere così: fate muovere la nave con quanta si voglia velocità; ché (pur di
moto uniforme e non fluttuante in qua e in là) voi non riconoscerete una minima
mutazione in tutti li nominati effetti; né da alcuno di quelli potrete comprendere
se la nave cammina, o pure sta ferma.

What is new in Einstein’s relativity is that, in order to make electrodynamics

invariant in passing from one inertial frame to another, an additional ingredient is
required: that there is one special speed, which is the speed of light in vacuum. This
speed is required to be exactly the same in all inertial frames and cannot be surpassed
by any particle carrying energy. This hypothesis has been proved experimentally by
a famous experiment by Michelson and Morley. The Earth orbits around the sun
at a variable speed of about 30 km/s with respect to the sun. This is still 0.01%
of the speed of light in vacuum. In addition, the solar system orbits in one arm
of our spiral galaxy, the Milky Way, at about 220 km/s with respect to the black
hole at the centre of our galaxy. We also know that the galaxies next to ours are
moving towards the “Great Attractor”, a structure in the intergalactic space, at about
1000 km/s. This is 0.3% of the speed of light. If the speed of light changed in our
reference frame on the Earth, we would notice an effect which changes daily in
our laboratory, due to the Earth’s rotation around its axis. Now, an effect of 0.01%
may seem extremely difficult to measure directly. The light covers distance of 3 km
in just 10 μs, in vacuum, so an effect of 0.01% corresponds to a time of 1 ns,
which is well within the range of modern measurements of time. The experiment
could be repeated nowadays with a laser as a direct measurement, but this is not
what Michelson and Morley did, back in 1887. Rather they measured a distance,
on an optical bench. In terms of distance, on an optical path of only 1 m 0.01%
is 10−4 m, or 0.1 mm. Compared to the wavelengths of Sodium light, 589.0 and
589.6 nm, this distance is about a 1000 times larger. Thanks to the short wavelength
of visible light, it was possible to measure precisely that there was no variation
of the speed of light in the 24-h period, or even when rotating the optical bench,
which was floating on a mercury bath (this would not be allowed today). Hendrik
2.1 Introduction 15

Fig. 2.1 The map of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (NASA)

Lorentz2 had already found and published3 the mathematical formulas to allow the
speed of light to be constant; Henri Poincaré refined the formulae, which he called
“Lorentz transformations”, but it was Albert Einstein, in 1905, who clarified the
subject and gave the exact explanation in his article “On the electrodynamics of
moving bodies”.4 The two principles of special relativity are:
1. The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames. There is
no inertial reference frame which is better than others to describe the laws of
physics.
2. The speed of light is the same in all reference frames.
We’ll see that there are other effects which allow us to measure relative speeds:
relative motion does not change the speed of light but changes its frequency, which
corresponds to its colour, as will be shown later. This is known as red or blue
shift effect: specific feature of light from distant stars appears to us at a different
frequency owing to the relative speed. Nowadays, we can find one reference frame
which is somehow special: the frame where the Cosmic Microwave Background
Radiation (CMBR (Fig. 2.1)) is uniform and isotropic, to a first approximation;
however, it is not better than others to describe the laws of physics.

2 Hendrik Lorentz, 1853–1928, was professor in Leiden, the Netherlands. He was awarded the

Nobel prize in 1902 for the explanation of the Zeeman effect.

Henry Poincaré, France (1854–1912) was a mathematician and theoretical physicist.
3 H.A. Lorentz, Simplified Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Systems, in:

KNAW, Proceedings, 1, 1898–1899, Amsterdam, 1899, pp. 427–442;

“Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light”,
Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, 6: 809–831 (1904).
4 “Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper”, Annalen der Physik 17: 891 (1905).
16 2 Special Relativity

By measuring the frequency shift in opposite directions, we can measure the

velocity of the Earth with respect to this background radiation. The result is that the
Earth is moving at about 390 km/s towards the Leo constellation, which is located
not far from Ursa Major. If you are in the northern hemisphere, you can start from
the Ursa’s two stars which form the outer bowl of the Big Dipper, or Plough, and
draw a straight line; to the north, you’ll find Polaris, while Leo is about the same
distance from Ursa Major, but at the opposite side.

2.2 The Lorentz Transformations

We’ll now derive the correct way to change variables from one inertial reference
frame S to another inertial reference frame S  , which is moving at constant velocity
u with respect to S, based on the principles of special relativity. We assume that each
reference frame uses Cartesian coordinates, which for the system S are (x, y, z); the
time is measured in each frame, with clocks which are at rest in that frame. In the
frame S, we’ll measure time t. The reference frame S  has coordinates (x  , y  , z , t  ),
where with t  (Fig. 2.2a) we mean that the time is measured with clocks which
are at rest in the frame S  (Fig. 2.2a). The clocks are synchronised between the
two frames: assuming that normal synchronisation occurs within each reference
frame, synchronisation occurs between clocks at the same spatial position: say, a
synchronisation signal is exchanged between the two clocks at the origin at the time
when the origins of the two reference frames are in the same position.
The rules to correctly transform the mathematical description of a physics
“event” in the frame S to a description in the frame S  are called the Lorentz
transformations, after the Dutch physicist Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, who wrote these
transformations well before Einstein correctly explained them.

Fig. 2.2 (a) Reference frame S  is moving with constant velocity u with respect to the
reference frame S. Each reference frame has its own synchronised clocks. (b) The wavefront
of a light pulse must be a sphere in all reference frames
2.2 The Lorentz Transformations 17

Let’s state some desirable features of these transformations. They must only
depend on the relative velocity of the two frames u. When this velocity is small,
compared to the speed of light, c, the Lorentz transformations must be approximated
by the Galileo–Newton transformations. Without lack of generality, we can rotate
the reference frames S and S  in such a way that u , x̂ and x̂  are parallel to each
other. The Galileo–Newton transformations are

x  = x − ut (2.1)

t =t (2.2)

The Lorentz transformations must be linear, otherwise they would distort the space–
time. We cannot use higher powers of x, t, or other functions, like exponentials
or logarithms. A straight line in one frame must be a straight line in the other
frame. A uniform motion in one reference frame must be a uniform motion in
the other reference frame. So, the transformations must depend on x, y, z, t, but
not on any product like xy or x 2 . Also, for u → 0, the transformation must be
the identity transformation. The transformations must be symmetrical by exchange
x ↔ x  , y ↔ y  , z ↔ z , u ↔ −
u: the two reference systems are interchangeable.
It is reasonable to expect that the directions perpendicular to the relative motion
are unaffected, just like in Galileo transformations: y  = y and z = z. Combining
all requirements from above, we can write a generic transformation for space
coordinate:

x  = γ (x − ut) (2.3)

and

x = γ (x  + ut) (2.4)

where we need to determine the factor γ . If we require that the speed of light is
the same in both reference frames (we’ll call it c), the time coordinate cannot be the
same in the two frames: it must transform. The same arguments as above are applied
to the time coordinate: we can write a generic linear transformation which reads as
t  = b1 x + b2 t. We have three parameters to determine: γ , b1 , b2 . All together, we
have

t  = b1 x + b2 t (2.5)
x  = γ (x − ut) (2.6)

y =y (2.7)
z = z (2.8)

From the second postulate, we must now require that a light pulse that radiates in all
directions should be described exactly in the same way in both frames. Let’s assume
18 2 Special Relativity

that at a given time t = t  = 0 the two reference frames overlap, and a light bulb is
turned on at the origin of both frames. The wavefront of the light must be described
by a sphere in both reference frames (Fig. 2.2b): observing from the frame S, we
have

x 2 + y 2 + z2 = c 2 t 2 (2.9)

while in the frame S  :

x 2 + y 2 + z2 = c2 t 2 (2.10)

We substitute (2.5)–(2.8) into (2.10), and we get

γ 2 (x − ut)2 + y 2 + z2 = c2 (b1 x + b2 t)2 (2.11)

which becomes

(γ 2 − c2 b12 )x 2 + y 2 + z2 = (c2 b22 − γ 2 u2 )t 2 + (2γ 2 u + 2c2 b1 b2 )tx (2.12)

The formula above is the equation of a sphere with radius ct only if:

2γ 2 u + 2c2 b1 b2 = 0; (2.13)
γ 2 − c2 b12 = 1; (2.14)
c2 b22 − γ 2 u2 = c2 (2.15)

Rearranging the last two equations:

γ2 − 1
b12 = (2.16)
c2
u2
b22 = 1 + γ 2 (2.17)
c2
and rearranging and squaring Eq. (2.13), we have

γ 4 u2 = c4 b12b22 (2.18)

Substituting the values of b12 and b22 , we obtain

 2
γ2 − 1 2u
γ 4 u2 − c 4 1 + γ = 0; (2.19)
c2 c2

From (2.19), we derive

γ 4 u2 − c 2 γ 2 − γ 4 u2 + c 2 + γ 2 u2 = 0

γ 2 (u2 − c2 ) + c2 = 0
2.2 The Lorentz Transformations 19

c2 1
γ2 = =
c −u
2 2 2
1 − uc2

1
γ =  (2.20)
u2
1− c2

Substituting into (2.17), we have b22 = γ 2 , and we must choose b2 = +γ for

continuity. This means that for very small values of u the Lorentz transformations
must be well approximated by the Galileo–Newton transformations. From (2.16),
we have
 
γ2 − 1 u2 1
b1 =
2
= 4 (2.21)
c2 c 1 − u2
2
c

This time (for the same reason as above), we have to choose b1 = − cu2 γ so that the
Lorentz transformations are

x  = γ (x − ut); (2.22)

y = y; (2.23)
z = z; (2.24)
u

t = γ t − 2 x (2.25)
c
where
1
γ =  (2.26)
u2
1− c2

It is evident from the transformations that in the case where the velocity u
c
we have γ ≈ 1, u/c2 ≈ 0 and we find the Galileo–Newton transformations. This
allows us to keep the speed of light in vacuum constant in all reference frames. The
speed of light is nowadays defined to be exactly 299792458 m/s. The price to pay to
have a constant value for c in all reference frames is that time is not the same in all
reference frames. Events which are seen as contemporary in one reference frame are
no longer happening at the same time in another frame. However, what is preserved
is causality: if one event is causing another, there is no reference frame where it may
occur after its effect.
Suppose we turn on a light bulb in the middle of a train carriage at local time
t0 = 0. In the reference frame of the carriage where the bulb is at rest, the light will
reach both ends of the carriage at the same time t1 = l/(2c) , where l is the length
of the carriage. If the carriage is moving at speed u with respect to the station, the
light pulse will be seen to reach the rear end at time t1 = (l − ut  )/c and the
forward end of the carriage at time t2 = (l + ut  )/c. Actually, with this example,
20 2 Special Relativity

Fig. 2.3 Time intervals are different when observed in reference frames which are in motion one
with respect to the other. This figure illustrates the example of the light bulb in a train carriage

we can derive the time contraction formula: suppose the bulb is on the ceiling of the
carriage, at a height h from the floor. When observed within the carriage, the time
needed by the light to reach the floor is simply t = h/c.
When observed from the station, while the light is in flight, the floor has moved
by a distance d = ut  (Fig. 2.3), so √ that the light had to go on a straight line,
diagonal this time, with a length h = h2 + u2 t 2 . The time to reach the floor, as
seen from the station, is t  = h /c. By squaring, we have
1 2
t 2 = (h + u2 t 2 );
c2
using h2 = c2 t 2 , we have
t
t  =  = γ t; (2.27)
u2
1− c2

The formula above is very important for practical uses: it describes the time dilation
when observing a phenomenon in a reference frame where the source of the
phenomenon is not at rest.
As γ ≥ 1, times are dilated: moving clocks are running slower than clocks at
rest. In this case, the moving clock is the one in the station: we consider at rest
the clock which is in the frame where the light bulb is at rest. The relativistic γ
factor is very close to one for velocities up to about 30–40% of the speed of light,
(Fig. 2.4) and this explains why we do not observe relativistic effects in everyday
life. However, nuclear particles have speed comparable to the speed of light and
special relativity must be used. The relativity formulas are verified in thousands of
applications, including those involving particle accelerators. It is sometime useful
to picture a motion in a space-time graphics, which is also called a Minkowski
diagram, as shown in Fig. 2.5.
2.3 Velocity, Momentum and Energy, 4-Vectors 21

25
γ = 1/(1-β2)
20

15

10

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
β = v/c

Fig. 2.4 The relativistic γ factor is very close to one for velocities up to about 30–40% of
the speed of light, but increases rapidly above β = 0.9; this plot is truncated, it is clear from
its definition that γ → ∞ for β → 1

(a) (b)
x-coordinate
x-coordinate

Time Time

Fig. 2.5 (a) A particle at rest in the space–time plot. (b) A graphical representation in the space–
time plane of two particles moving in opposite direction on the same straight line and then
remaining at rest as one particle, in a completely inelastic collision

2.3 Velocity, Momentum and Energy, 4-Vectors

We have seen that the time duration of a phenomenon is larger when observed from a
moving reference frame, with respect to the reference frame where the phenomenon
(or its origin) is at rest. Let’s consider two events recorded in the reference frame S:
one with coordinate (t1 , x1 , y1 , z1 ) and another with coordinates (t2 , x2 , y2 , z2 ). We
can define the space–time interval as:

s 2 = c2 t 2 − x 2 − y 2 − z2 (2.28)
22 2 Special Relativity

Table 2.1 Naming of the ds 2 value Interval

intervals in space–time
ds 2 =0 Light-like
ds 2 >0 Time-like
ds 2 <0 Space-like

where x = x2 − x1 etc. For two events extremely close to each other, we can
define the infinitesimal space–time interval:

ds 2 = c2 dt 2 − dx 2 − dy 2 − dz2 (2.29)

This interval is invariant by Lorentz transformations: given two events, the interval
between them is the same no matter what reference frame is used to measure it.
If c2 dt 2 > dx 2 + dy 2 + dz2 , the event separation is said to be light-like
(Table 2.1). There is an ideal light ray which joins the two events.
If c2 dt 2 > dx 2 + dy 2 + dz2 (in this definition ds 2 > 0), the space–time interval
is time-like.
If c2 dt 2 < dx 2 + dy 2 + dz2 (in this definition ds 2 < 0), the space–time interval
is space-like. No cause–effect relationship can exist between the two events, they
can happen at the same time in some reference frame.
The space–time interval is left invariant by Lorentz transformations, it is “Lorentz-
invariant”. We can introduce the 4-vectors as sets of 4 quantities, or components,
of which 3 are space-related and one is time-related. These mathematical objects
transform according to the Lorentz transformations when changing the reference
frame. As an example space–time coordinates can be expressed in the form of a 4-
vector, which is indicated in boldface x. We have to make sure to have homogeneous
quantities: all four components must have the same physical dimensions. This is
obtained by multiplying the time component by the speed of light, c.

x = (ct, x) = (ct, x, y, z) (2.30)

Let’s look at velocities now, to see if they form a 4-vector. For a particle of mass m:
dx
vx = ;
dt
dx  γ (dx − udt) dx/dt − u
vx = 
= )=
dt γ (dt − c2 dx
v
1 − cu2 dx
dt

vx − u
vx = (2.31)
1 − cu2 vx
2.3 Velocity, Momentum and Energy, 4-Vectors 23

The other components of the velocity are also affected by the Lorentz transforma-
tions, via the dt term:
vy vz
vy = vz = (2.32)
γ (1 − cu2 vx ) γ (1 − cu2 vx )

The velocity (as defined above) does not transform according to the Lorentz
transformations and is not part of a 4-vector. However, we do have a 4-vector if
we define the velocity as a derivative with respect to the proper time τ dτ = γ1 dt.
The proper time is the time as measured in the reference frame where the particle
is at rest. In this case, the 4-velocity has simply c as the “time” component. The
momentum is more interesting. We define the relativistic 3-momentum (p)  of a
particle as:

d x
p = m = γv m
v (2.33)
dτ
The γ factor in the above formula is one of the reference frames where the particle
is at rest. We can add a time-like component, which we call relativistic energy p0 =
E = γ mc2 and show that (p0 , p)  = (E/c, px , py , pz ) transforms in the same
way as the space and time coordinates, i.e. is a 4-vector. We call it 4-momentum.
4-vectors can be added, can be multiplied by a numeric factor and we can define a
scalar product:

(x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 )(y0 , y1 , y2 , y3 ) = x0 y0 − x1 y1 − x2 y2 − x3 y3 . (2.34)

The scalar product between 4-vectors can be considered as a standard scalar

product when we multiply one of the two vectors by a matrix g:
⎛ ⎞
1 0 0 0
⎜0 −1 0 0⎟
g=⎜
⎝0 0 −1
⎟
0⎠
0 0 0 −1

which is called metric matrix and changes sign to the space coordinates.

The scalar products of 4-vectors are relativistic invariants, so we can define

a relativistically invariant 4-vector modulus. In particular, the modulus of the
4-momentum is a relativistic invariant, and its value is left invariant by any
process, like a radioactive decay. The modulus of the 4-momentum of the parent
nucleus/particle is the same as the modulus of the sum of the 4-momenta of the
decay products. This is the invariant mass of a system of particles. Let’s consider
a scattering process A + B → C + D + E or a α decay A → B + α, where
A, B, C, D, E are particles or nuclei. We are used to 3-momentum conservation,
24 2 Special Relativity

where the sum of the momentum of the right-hand side is equal to the sum of the
momentum of the left-hand side.

pA + pB = pC + pD + pE (2.35)

and

pA = pB + pα (2.36)

We write the conservation of the 4-vector energy–momentum in exactly the same

way:

pA + pB = pC + pD + pE (2.37)

and for a decay

pA = pB + pα (2.38)

This is a compact way to state the energy and momentum conservation. The equation
above is valid in all inertial reference frames, provided that we transform the 4-
momenta according to the Lorentz transformations. The modulus of the sum of 4-
vectors has to be the same in both sides of the reaction, and it is the same in all
inertial reference frames, so we say it is invariant.

|pB + pα |2 = |pA |2 = m2A c2 (2.39)

From Eq. (2.39) above, we see that this modulus, in case of a decay, is the square of
the mass of the initial particle, and therefore it is called invariant mass. In particle
physics, a method to detect short-lived particles, like the Z 0 or the Higgs boson,
is to calculate the invariant mass of the decay products: the obtained values cluster
around the mass of the particle which decays (see Fig. 6.10). In case of a decay of a
particle “A” into N particles, the sum has to be extended to all the decay products:

A → particle1 + · · · + particleN (2.40)

N 2
 
 
|(EA/c, pxA , pyA , pzA )|2 =  (Ei /c, pxi , pyi , pzi ) = m2A c2 . (2.41)
 
i=1

2.4 Relativistic Energy

We have defined the relativistic energy of a particle of mass m moving at velocity v

as p0 ≡ E ≡ γv mc2 . We need to show that it has something to do with the standard
2.4 Relativistic Energy 25

definition of energy in classical physics. Taking the limit v

c:

E = mc2 γ = mc2 (1 − v 2 /c2 )−1/2 (2.42)

1 v2

≈ mc2 1 + (2.43)
2 c2
1
= mc2 + mv 2 (2.44)
2
we find that it correctly corresponds to the particle kinetic energy plus a constant
term, which is fine because only energy differences are important. In the case when
v = 0, we have that the energy at rest of a particle is its mass:

E = mc2 (2.45)

This quantity is also the modulus of the energy–momentum 4-vector p = (E/c, p), 
and therefore it is a relativistic invariant. It is the invariant mass. From the equation
above, we can measure the mass in terms of energy. A process that normally
occurs in high-energy physics experiments is the transformation of kinetic energy
of particles into mass of new particles and their kinetic energy. This process also
occurs naturally when cosmic rays hit the atmosphere. Another example is given by
high-energy photons: they have no mass, but they carry energy. In the electric field
of a nucleus, they can convert into a pair of charged particles, which have mass.
We’ll see later the fusion and fission processes, which convert the mass of atomic
nuclei into kinetic energy, and ultimately thermal energy.
The masses of subnuclear particles are typically measured in MeV/c2 or in
GeV/c2 . A self-consistent unit system, which is used in theoretical physics, chooses
c = 1, a dimensionless constant (and also h̄ = 1, but this constant will be introduced
later). In many text books, this convention is used, and both masses and momenta
are measured in units of eV.
It is also evident that the relativistic 3-momentum p = γ m v → m v becomes the
non-relativistic 3-momentum when v
c and γv ≈ 1.
For free particles, it is fair to assume that the energy and momentum are
conserved. Suppose now that we also deal with forces which conserve energy and
momentum. Then, from the conservation of our 4-momentum we can show that our
new definition of energy is really what we need in terms of Newton’s law in some
of its various forms.

d d E2

pp = 0 = − p · 
p = (2.46)
dt dt c2
2E dE d p
= 2 − 2p · = (2.47)
c dt dt
26 2 Special Relativity

dE d p
= 2mγ − 2mγ v · because E = mγ c2 and p = γ m
v
dt dt
(2.48)
dE d p

= 2mγ − v (2.49)
dt dt
So, we have demonstrated that for conservative forces, with our relativistic defini-
tion of energy we indeed have

dE d p
= v · (2.50)
dt dt
The relativistic kinetic energy for our free particle is obtained from the relativistic
total energy by subtracting the energy of the particle at rest:

Ek = γv mc2 − mc2 = (γv − 1)mc2 (2.51)

The modulus of the energy–momentum 4-vector is Lorentz invariant. Calculating

it in the particle rest frame, it is

E 2 − ppc
 2 = m2 c 4 (2.52)

For massless particles (i.e. the photon, the only5 massless particle we know of),
E2 = p2 c2 . It will be shown later that the energy of a photon is given by its
frequency: Eγ = hν. The photon carries a momentum which is pγ = hνc . Massless
particles in vacuum can only travel at the speed of light. While the photon is the only
particle with exactly zero mass, other particles, the neutrinos, are massless with a
good approximation. Neutrinos are produced in beta decays, we do not know exactly
their mass, but we know it is very low.

2.5 Doppler Effect

At this point, we need to know what happens to photons when observed from
different reference frames. An electromagnetic plane wave can be described by:

x , t) = A0 sin (kx − ωt) .

A( (2.53)

5 The other particle which we believe to be massless

is the gluon, the messenger of the strong force,
which is confined within mesons and baryons and cannot travel freely, because of the “colour
confinement”.
2.5 Doppler Effect 27

We rename k0 = ω/c the quantity (k0 , k)  must be a 4-vector if we require that

the phase must be the same in all moving frames: kx − k0 ct = k x − k0 ct  . This
is a light-like 4-vector. Suppose we have a plane wave along the x-axis, the same
direction as the relative velocity of the two reference frames u.
u

kx = γu kx ± k0 ; we can call β = u/c, k = k0 = 2πcν (2.54)

c

 1±β 1±β
ν = γ ν(1 ± β) = ν  =ν (2.55)
1−β 2 1∓β

When we observe the light from a star, we can measure its speed relative to the
Earth by measuring the frequency of characteristic emission lines. In general, this
is shifted towards lower frequencies, indicating that stars are moving away from us.
As the red colour is located at the lower end of the colour frequency spectrum, this
is called red shift. The relativistic Doppler effect is completely symmetrical if we
exchange source and observer, as it should be. In the acoustic Doppler effect, the
motion is relative to the medium, so it does make a difference whether the source is
moving or the observer (listener) is moving (Fig. 2.6(a)).
In addition to the longitudinal Doppler effect, there is also the relativistic
transverse Doppler effect: the frequency changes also when the observer is moving
parallel to the optical wavefront (Fig. 2.6(b)).

Fig. 2.6 Doppler effect: (a) longitudinal and (b) transverse

28 2 Special Relativity

2.6 Group Theory in a Nutshell

The 4-vectors are mathematical objects “living” in a vector space, which is called
Minkowski space.6 We can add them, multiply by a scalar number and/or make
scalar numbers out of them. Then, we have several mappings of 4-vectors onto 4-
vectors: we can rotate them in space, with normal rotations, we can translate in
space and in time, we can “boost” them with velocity u, i.e. we can observe them
from a reference frame with velocity u with respect to the previous one. In general,
all these operations on 4-vectors can be parametrised by one or more parameters:
rotations are parametrised by the angle θ or φ, Lorentz boosts by a velocity u and
so on. We indicate with T (m) such generic transformations. The sets G of these
transformations become some mathematical objects, and they can start living their
own mathematical life, independently of the vector space where we initially defined
them. It is reasonable to require that all these transformation must be invertible,
meaning that we can always return to the initial coordinate system; that we can
combine these transformation one after the other and still obtain a transformation;
and that when combining several transformations, we can associate two or more
of them, while keeping the same order. The fact that exists a transformation that
leaves the system unchanged is almost trivial, but required. If the above conditions
are satisfied, the set of transformations is said to form a group. More formally:

Even more formally, let G be a set of transformations and ◦ a composition

operation

1)∀S, T ∈ G, (S ◦ T ) ∈ G
2)∀R, S, T ∈ G, (R ◦ S) ◦ T = R ◦ (S ◦ T )
3)∃I ∈ G  ∀T ∈ G, I ◦ T = T
4)∀T ∈ G∃T −1  T ◦ T −1 = I

we say that (G; ◦) is a group.

1) We can define a composition of transformations (“◦”) to combine any two of

them: we can apply them one after the other, and the result is still the result of a
transformation of the set;
2) The composition of transformations is associative;
3) There is an identity transformation, which, when composed, with any of the
others, leaves them invariant;
4) For all transformations, there is an inverse transformation, which is still part of
the set;

6 Afterthe mathematician Hermann Minkowski, 1864–1909. He taught at Königsberg, Bonn,

Göttingen and Zürich, where Einstein was one of his students.
2.6 Group Theory in a Nutshell 29

If, in addition, the composition of transformations commute, i.e. S ◦ T = T ◦ S,

the group is said to be commutative or Abelian.7 If the transformations, which are
the elements of the group, depend on some continuous parameters, for instance the
rotation angles, the group is called a Lie group.8 Transformations can be represented
by matrices. In case of Lorentz transformations, we have 4 × 4 matrices of Real
numbers. Rotations in the three-dimensional space are represented by 3×3 matrices.

Lorentz transformations for boosts along the x coordinate have the following
matrix form:
⎛ ⎞
γ −βγ 0 0
⎜−βγ γ 0 0⎟
bx = ⎜
⎝ 0
⎟ ,
0 1 0⎠
0 0 01

where β = u/c.

The set made of the Lorentz transformations and the rotations form a group,
which is called the Lorentz group L. While rotations form a subgroup of L, generic
Lorentz transformations don’t. However, Lorentz transformations along each of the
three axes do form, each in its own, a subgroup of L. A mathematical digression:
given a square matrix M its transposed matrix is obtained by swapping its rows with
its columns: M = (Mij ), M T = Mj i . A matrix O is called orthogonal if O T O = 1
is the diagonal unit matrix. A matrix is said to be special if its determinant is equal
to 1. The orthogonal matrices in three dimensions with determinant 1 represent
the rotation group, which is called SO(3). The Lorentz group is also indicated as
SO+ (1, 3). Rotations depend on three parameters, and Lorentz transformations also
depend on three parameters, so an element of the Lorentz group is specified by six
real parameters.
Analogously to real matrices, complex matrices N × N can be transposed and
conjugated (M † )ij = M̄j i . Here,¯indicates complex conjugation: z = (a +ib); z̄ =
(a − ib). A matrix U is said to be unitary if UU† = U† U = 1. If, in addition, the
determinant is equal to 1, the group they form is called SU(N), indicating special
unitary matrices N × N. Groups can be defined in an abstract way, independently
of the vector space and the transformations where we started from. They can act on
several vector spaces. Given a vector space, a group G has a certain representation in
that space: a set of invertible matrices represent all the transformations of that group.
A representation of a transformation is completely reducible if all matrices are
the form of block matrices, which are zero in the off-diagonal blocks. In this case,

7 After Niels Henrik Abel, 1802–1829 Norwegian mathematician. Also, the Abel prize for

mathematics is named after him.

8 After M. Sophus Lie, (pron. as Lee) 1842–1899, Norwegian mathematician, who taught in Oslo

and Leipzig.
30 2 Special Relativity

the vector space, originally of dimension N0 , is divided into invariant subspaces

each of dimension N1 and N2 , with N0 = N1 + N2 . The representation R0 is said
to be the direct sum of two representations R1 and R2 , and we write

R0 = R1 ⊕ R2 e.g. 4 = 3 ⊕ 1 (2.56)

where the boldface number indicate the dimension of the representation. The
number of parameters is still the same as in the original group which is represented.
We can form the direct product of two or more groups, which is a group depending
on a number of parameters given by the sum of the parameters of each group.
A representation of this group is also a block matrix, in which each block is a
representation of the corresponding sub-group. We write in this case

R = R1 ⊗ R2 (2.57)

We have introduced an empty space, some free particles at rest or in uniform motion
and mathematical objects like 4-vectors and their transformations, which form
groups. In these ideal conditions, many quantities are conserved. The interesting
part comes when we introduce the fundamental interactions.

2.7 Symmetries and Conserved Quantities

In 1915, Emmy Nöther (Fig. 2.7) proved a fundamental theorem. In general, a

physical system with interacting particles can be described by equations in the
Lagrangian or Hamiltonian formulation. It is beyond the scope of this book to
introduce these, but some of the readers may be familiar with them. The important
issue is that given a system, its Lagrangian (or Hamiltonian) equation fully describes
its evolution. If these equations don’t change when we perform any of the coordinate
transformations which are elements of a continuous group with N parameters, then
our physical system has N independent conserved quantities. These are also called
“first integrals”.
This theorem applies equally well to spining tops and elementary particles. Its
derivation is beyond the scope of this course, but beautiful proofs of it can be
found in several textbooks. Some notable examples are: if the Lagrangian of our
system is independent of time, then the energy is conserved. If the Lagrangian
equation remains invariant under translations in space, then the momentum is
conserved; if it does not depend on the particular orientation, then the angular
momentum is conserved. This theorem is very important and has inspired the
theories of fundamental interactions: the interactions can be introduced starting
from the relativistic quantum mechanical Lagrangian equation of non-interacting
particles and requiring its invariance with respect to groups of local transformations.
A transformation is local when the parameters of the transformation are a smooth
2.7 Symmetries and Conserved Quantities 31

Fig. 2.7 Amalie Emmy Nöther in 1930, in Koenigsberg. She was born in Germany in 1885
to a Jewish family, and she taught in Goettingen and for a short period in Moscow. In 1933,
she had to move to the USA to continue her activity as a mathematician. She prematurely
died 2 years later

An example, a representation of the group SO(2) in four dimensions, which is a direct sum
has the following matrix form:
⎛ ⎞
cos θ − sin θ 0 0
⎜ sin θ cos θ 0 0 ⎟
R(θ) = ⎜
⎝ 0
⎟
0 cos θ − sin θ ⎠
0 0 sin θ cos θ

Note that there is only one parameter, θ.

4 = 2 ⊕ 2 SO(2)

An example, a representation of SO(2) ⊗ SO(2), which is a direct product of representations

has the following matrix form:
⎛ ⎞
cos θ − sin θ 0 0
⎜ sin θ cos θ 0 0 ⎟
R(θ, φ) = ⎜
⎝ 0
⎟
0 cos φ − sin φ ⎠
0 0 sin φ cos φ

Note that there are two parameters, θ and φ.

4 = 2 ⊗ 2 SO(2) ⊗ SO(2)

function of the space coordinates, rather than constant quantities. In the simple
example of Fig. 2.8, this means φ = φ(x). To make the Lagrangian equation
invariant, we need to introduce new terms to it, and these terms correspond to
interactions. These theories are called gauge theories.
32 2 Special Relativity

Fig. 2.8 Phase transformations depend on one Real parameter, φ. They act on complex
functions ψ(x) → ψ  (x) = eiφ ψ(x) multiplying them by eiφ . They form a unitary and
abelian group called U(1). If the parameter φ is a constant, we have a global transformation

2.8 Problems

2.1 A heavy-flavoured B-meson is a particle with a mass of approximately

5 GeV/c2 . For what values of momentum is its γ factor γ ≥ 3.
2.2 Three spaceships fly in triangular formation at 100 km from each other at a
constant speed of 0.8 c with respect to the space station Alpha, which can be
considered to be an inertial system with good approximation. How is the radio
communication among the three spaceships affected?
2.3 In the example in Chap. 2, a 90 Sr source produces β rays, which are electrons,
with a kinetic energy distribution which extends up to 546 keV. This is called
the end-point of the spectrum. What is the corresponding relativistic electron
velocity?
2.4 A particle with mass of 125 GeV/c2 decays into two γ ’s. Calculate the energy
of the two gammas and their relative direction in the reference frame where the
initial particle is at rest.
2.5 Prove that the space–time interval ds 2 = c2 t 2 − dx 2 − dy 2 − dz2 is invariant
by Lorentz transformations.
2.6 A photon can be described as a plane wave A( x , t) = A0 sin(kx − ωt) with
phase velocity  = c. The angular frequency is related to the frequency
ω
|k|
by ω = 2πν. The photon can also be treated as a massless particle, with 4-
momentum (Eγ /c, Eγ , 0, 0). The relation between energy and frequency is
given to be Eγ = hν, where h is Planck’s constant, which will be introduced
2.9 Solutions 33

in the next chapter. Show that the Doppler effect formulas (Eq. (2.55)) can be
obtained by Lorentz-transforming the photon 4-momentum, and using Eγ =
hν.

2.9 Solutions

Solution 2.1 We can use more than one formula as a starting point: the definition
of momentum p = γβmc but we see that this depends on β as well. The modulus
of the energy–momentum 4-vector is a good alternative: E 2 − p2 c2 = m2 c4 ; but,
we also know that E = γ mc2 , and the formula only depends on p and m:

E 2 = m2 c 4 + p 2 c 2 = γ 2 m2 c 4

m2 c 4 + p 2 c 2 p2
γ2 = 2 4
=1+ 2 2
m c m c

p2 = (γ 2 − 1)m2 c2
√
Setting γ = 3, we have p ≥ 2 2mc = 2 × 1.414 × 5 GeV/c2 × c = 14.1 GeV/c.
Solution to 2.2 The spaceships are flying in formation so we can find a reference
frame where the three spaceships are at a constant separation distance from
each other. This frame is moving at a constant speed with respect to an inertial
reference frame, and therefore it is in turn an inertial reference frame. The radio
communications among these ships occur at the speed of light in vacuum, which
is the same in all inertial reference frames. As the relative distance does not
change, no Doppler effect is present.
Solution to 2.3 From Eq. (2.51):

Ek 546
Ek = (γ − 1)mc2 ⇒ γ = 1 + 2
=1+ = 2.068
me c 511

From Eq. (2.26):

 

1 1
γ = ⇒β = 1 − 1/γ 2 = 1− = 0.48
1 − β2 4.28

With a proper relativistic calculation, the electrons from 90 Sr have a maximum

speed which is about half of the speed of light.
Solution to 2.4 In the reference frame where the initial particle is at rest, its total
energy is E = mc2 . The initial momentum is zero, so also in the final state the
total momentum must be zero. Therefore, the two photons must be emitted along
the same straight line, but in opposite directions and with the same modulus of
34 2 Special Relativity

3-momentum. For massless particles, E = |p| c so the two photons have also the
same energy:

pγ 1 = pγ 2 ; Eγ 1 = Eγ 2 = pγ c

The invariant mass of the initial state is E = 125 GeV. In the final state:

E  = |(Eγ , pγ , 0, 0) + (Eγ , −pγ , 0, 0)| = 2 Eγ

E  = E and therefore Eγ = 1/2 · 125 = 62.5 GeV.

Solution to 2.5 It is important to state the problem correctly. In this case, we
cannot use trivially the time dilation and length contraction formulae, because
they have implicitly built-in the hypothesis that the time interval is measured
at the same place and the length is measured at the same time. Here, we have
two independent events: A = (cta , xa , ya , za ) and B = (ctb , xb , yb , zb ). We can
safely assume ya = yb and za = zb .

s 2 = c2 (tb − ta )2 − (xb − xa )2

(s 2 ) = c2 (tb − ta )2 − (xb − xa )2

and we use the Lorentz transformations equation to express the primed quantities
as a function of the coordinates in the non-primed reference frame. We can set
c(tb − ta ) = a and (xb − xa ) = b. The expression we obtain is

(s  )2 = γ 2 [a − (u/c)b]2 − γ 2 [b − (u/c)a]2

Developing the squares, we obtain

 
(s  )2 = γ 2 a 2 − (u/c)2 a 2 − b 2 + (u/c)2 b2
 
= γ 2 a 2 (1 − (u/c)2 ) − b 2 (1 − (u/c)2 )

u2
Recalling that 1 − c2
= 1
γ2
, we obtain:

(s  )2 = a 2 − b 2 = c2 (tb − ta )2 − (xb − xa )2 = (s)2

and therefore the interval is a Lorentz-invariant quantity.

Solution to 2.6 We assume that the reference frame is moving with velocity u =
(u, 0, 0) in the same direction as the photon, which we assume along the x̂ axis.
Bibliography and Further Reading 35

The photon 4-momentum is

pγ = (Eγ /c, Eγ , 0, 0) = (pc, p, 0, 0);

u

px = γ px − 2 E ; E = c p
c
u
1 − u/c
px = γ px − px = px 
c 1 − (u/c)2

Renaming β = u/c, we have

  
(1 − β)2 (1 − β)(1 − β) (1 − β)
px = px = px = px
1 − β2 (1 + β)(1 − β) (1 + β)

The photon described in the initial frame has a frequency ν such that p = hν/c;
in the primed reference frame, the photon has a frequency ν  = cp / h. So,
replacing momentum with frequency we have

(1 − β)
ν = ν , which is the Doppler effect formula, Eq. (2.55).
(1 + β)

Bibliography and Further Reading

W.G. Dixon, Special Relativity (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1978)

V. Faraoni, Special Relativity (Springer, Berlin, 2013)
H. Goldstein, Classical Mechanics (Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1980)
S.P. Puri, Special Theory of Relativity (Pearson, New Delhi/Dorling Kindersley, London, 2013)
W. Rindler, Introduction to Special Relativity, 2nd edn. (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1991)
W.G.B. Rosser, Introductory Special Relativity (Taylor & Francis, New York, 1991)
J. Rosen, Symmetry Rules (Springer, Berlin, 2008)
Chapter 3
Essential Quantum Mechanics

3.1 Introduction

Before we continue, we must explain one other feature of radioactive decays: they
produce α and γ particles of a well-defined energy, which are known as spectral
lines (Fig. 3.1). This is very similar to what is observed in atomic physics: the light
emitted by atoms, e.g. by a neon tube, has a sharply defined set of colour lines,
which correspond to precise wavelengths of the light (Figs. 3.2).
The wavelength is a measure of the energy of the light, and the lines in the light
spectrum emitted by a sample are the “fingerprints” of the elements contained in
the sample. The analysis of light emission is effectively used to detect the presence
of that element. The same holds true for γ -emitting nuclides: the set of spectral
lines identifies uniquely the nuclide. In classical physics, the energy emitted by
an atom is not constrained to a single value, or to a discrete set of values. An
orbiting electron would quickly lose all its energy and fall into the nucleus. So, a
different mathematical and physical framework is needed to describe the behaviour
of small objects, like atoms and nuclei. In our daily routine, we are used to dealing
with extended objects, which are mostly defined by their average values. We can
define, e.g. the temperature, or the centre of mass of an extended body, or its inertial
tensor. From these quantities, which are based on averages, we have extrapolated the
properties of idealised point particles. This extrapolation was not always correct.
When comparing with the real “small size particles”, it was realised that they are
not described by the same formulae and a new theory, Quantum Mechanics, has to
be used instead of classical physics. There are many books on Quantum Mechanics
which cover the topic extensively; a very small selection is reported in this chapter’s

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018 37

S. D’Auria, Introduction to Nuclear and Particle Physics,
Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93855-4_3
38 3 Essential Quantum Mechanics

Fig. 3.1 Distribution of the gamma ray energy emitted by a 57 Co source and detected with a
CdTe solid-state detector. Gamma rays are emitted in nuclear transitions (Courtesy Amptek,
Inc., www.Amptek.com. The Full width at half maximum (FWHM) measures the detector
resolution)
Intensity

0.1

400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750

Wavelength [nm]

Fig. 3.2 A mercury vapour discharge lamp emits light with a spectrum which is not a
continuum, as for incandescent lamps, but has a characteristic distribution of discrete lines.
These lines correspond to the difference between energy levels in the atoms

bibliography. In order to make this book more self-consistent, the main ideas of
quantum mechanics are included in this journey. Once again, we’ll avoid a historical
approach, which would start from the black body radiation. We can simply state the
3.2 Principles of Quantum Physics 39

rules of quantum mechanics as coming from first principle, or a different kind of

mathematical framework.

3.2 Principles of Quantum Physics

In quantum mechanics, we assume that all possible states of a given a physical

system correspond to “vectors” of modulus one in some vector space. This space
can be finite dimensional, or infinite dimensional and is called a Hilbert space.1
An example of the first is the set of all numbers in the plane xy which lie on the
edge of the unit circle x 2 + y 2 = 1; a base of this linear space is the set of the two
vectors (0, 1) and (1, 0). An example of an infinite-dimensional vector space is the
set of all functions of the coordinates which have the property that the square of the
function, when integrated over its domain, results to a finite number. This function,
which is called a wave function ψ( x ), can be expanded in a (infinite) Fourier series,
i.e. it can be expanded in a base of this vector space. One representation does
not exclude the other: we can have cases when a system is described by a two-
component wave function: ψ( x )(a(0, 1)+b(1, 0)), with a 2 +b2 = 1 to preserve the
unimodular property. This two-component function describes a spin 1/2 particle, as
will be clearer later. In quantum mechanics, there is, in general, less freedom than in
classical mechanics: the possible states are often discrete and the really observable
quantity, which can be measured and calculated, is the probability that a transition
between two states takes place.
The evolution of a system is always represented by a linear operator acting
in the appropriate Hilbert space. The transition probability between two states
is given by the square of an amplitude value, and the result of a measurement
is given by the mean value of the corresponding linear operator. The existence
of discrete set of possible states, e.g. the energy levels of an atom, explains the
discrete set of electromagnetic quanta, or photons, that are emitted. The spectral
lines correspond to energy difference between allowed energy levels, as shown in
Fig. 3.3.
The most important quantity in quantum mechanics is Planck’s constant2 :

h = 4.135667662(25) × 10−15 eV × s, or 4.13 eV × fs (3.1)

The number in parenthesis indicates the experimental error on the neighbouring two
digits. This quantity has dimensions of an action = energy × time and is extremely
small, even in our special units of electron Volt. This explains why we are not

1 After David Hilbert (1862–1943), mathematician, was born in Konigsberg, Prussia (now Russia).

He was professor in Göttingen, Germany.

2 After Max Planck, 1858–1947, from Germany, who was awarded the Nobel prize in 1918 for his

discovery of energy quanta.

40 3 Essential Quantum Mechanics

3p
3s 3d
M
Energy
2p
2s
L
Level labels

K
1s

0 1 2
Angular momentum [h/2 ]

Fig. 3.3 In an atom, electrons can occupy only discrete energy levels. Electromagnetic
radiation, which can be light or X-rays, is emitted when electrons make a transition from
a level of higher-energy to a lower-energy level. The radiation is emitted with a single-energy
value, corresponding to the energy difference between the two levels. Some rules select the
permitted transition (selection rules). The transition probability and the energy difference can
be exactly calculated with quantum mechanics

familiar with the quantum mechanical world: in most of the physics in everyday
life, we can assume that this constant is zero. In this case, we obtain the laws of
classical physics. The experimental value of h sets the scale, in terms of energy
and time characteristics of a system, when Quantum Mechanics has to be used. In
other words, for macroscopic quantities entering everyday experience we make an
approximation, which no longer holds true for some systems, like atoms nuclei and
elementary particles, which are intrinsically small. The quantum scale is set by the
experimental value of the Planck’s constant h. A first example of use of Planck’s
constant is to link the particle and wave description of intrinsically small objects:
the energy of monochromatic light, of a single frequency ν, is an integer multiple of
hν, or in other terms, a beam of monochromatic light is a flux of photons γ , each of
energy

hc
λν = c; E = hν = . (3.2)
λ
3.2 Principles of Quantum Physics 41

Conversely, a beam of electrons of momentum pe is described by a wave function

ψe with wavelength λe and frequency νe which are given by the De Broglie formula:

λe = h/pe ; νe = Ee / h . (3.3)

A direct consequence of the wave description of a quantum particle is the un-

certainty relations: we cannot measure both momentum and position with infinite
precision, simply because they are related to each other by a Fourier trans-
form.
When we observe the motion of a ball, or any extended object, our observation
typically involves light to illuminate the object. Light does not interfere with
the motion in any visible way. For small or fundamental objects, like electrons
and protons, light or other fundamental objects is our only available probe; any
light which is used to observe them, by definition of observation, interacts with
the electron or the proton and changes their motion, because the energy of the
photons is comparable with the energy of the object that they “observe” or interact
with. We can no longer separate in a clear way the object under study from the
observer.
Quantum Mechanics can be used with or without special relativity, and thus
we have Q.M. or Relativistic Quantum Mechanics (RQM). In addition, a second
quantisation formalism, also known as canonical quantisation in quantum field
theory, describes systems of many quantum particles.
For the purposes of this book, we need to use just a few concepts from Q.M.:
• The state of a system is represented by a unitary vector in an abstract space.
Sometimes, this is represented by a so-called ket vector |p, s, l, m according to
Dirac’s notation |. Linear operators transform a vector of this space into another
vector of the same space. An eigenvector of a linear operator is a vector that is left
unchanged by the operator, up to a multiplication factor. As an example, rotations
around an axis leave unchanged all the vectors which are parallel to the rotation
axis. Some of these operators correspond to physically measurable quantities.
The theory can predict the set of available states, or vectors, as eigenstates of
physical operators in this space. The corresponding eigenvalues are the quantum
numbers, and they are used to label a state, e.g. p, l, m, s in the ket notation
above.

Paul A.M. Dirac (1902–1984) Nobel prize 1933, “for the discovery of new
productive forms of atomic theory”. He wrote the equation that reconciled
quantum theory with special relativity, predicting the existence of anti-
matter and explaining the electron spin.

Louis De Broglie, France 1892–1987, was awarded the Nobel prize in 1929
for the wave theory of the matter, which he formulated in his Ph.D. thesis.
42 3 Essential Quantum Mechanics

• The transition from a state to another can be predicted only in terms of probability
of such transition to occur.
• If a transition between the same initial and final states can occur with dif-
ferent intermediate processes, the total probability is given by the square
of the sum of the amplitudes of individual processes: all superpositions are
linear.
• There are physical quantities, which are mathematically represented by conjugate
variables and cannot be measured precisely at the same time, not only
experimentally, but also from a theoretical point of view. This is Heisenberg’s
uncertainty principle3 :

x px ≥ h/(4π) = h̄/2; (3.4)

y py ≥ h/(4π) = h̄/2; (3.5)
z pz ≥ h/(4π) = h̄/2; (3.6)
E t ≥ h/(4π) = h̄/2 (3.7)

where x and p indicate position and momentum, while E and t indicate energy
and time, respectively.
• Planck’s (3.2) and De Broglie’s (3.3) relations, which link energy and momen-
tum to frequency and wavelength, for photons and massive particles, respec-
tively:

hc hνγ
λγ νγ = c; Eγ = hνγ = ; pγ =
λγ c
Ee h
νe = ; λe =
h pe

The reduced Planck’s constant h/(2π) is indicated with h̄ = 0.658 eV fs (electron

Volt femtosecond).

3.3 Spin

Spin is peculiar to quantum theory and has no analogy in classical physics. It was
introduced by Uhlenbeck and Goudsmith in 1926 to explain the emission lines of
the hydrogen atom. It helps clarifying if we first mention the quantum behaviour
of angular momentum, then introduce spin as an intrinsic angular momentum of
particles. Experiments where atoms are deflected with a magnetic field have shown

3 After Werner Heisenberg, 1901–1976, who was awarded the Nobel prize in 1932 for the creation

of quantum mechanics.
3.3 Spin 43

beam of silver atoms

Oven
Slit
N
Non uniform
magnetic field
S

No magnetic field
Screen Classical physics
Quantum physics

Fig. 3.4 The Stern and Gerlach apparatus demonstrates the quantum behaviour of the
magnetic moment of atoms. In a non-uniform magnetic field, the beam of silver atoms is
split into two lines, it is not just broadened, as classical physics predicted. The experiment
was performed in 1922 in Frankfurt, Germany, by Walter Gerlach (1889–1979) and Otto
Stern (1888–1969), who later was awarded the Nobel prize for physics in 1943. Gerlach was
not mentioned, because of his leading role in nuclear research in Nazi Germany. Gerlach
performed the conclusive experiment, and sent the result as a postcard to Niels Bohr. It
should be noted that the S-G experiment did not discover the spin, but the quantum behaviour
of magnetic moments of atomic particles. The original Stern–Gerlach experiment actually
measured the intrinsic magnetic moment of the outer electrons of the Ag atoms, but it was
not until later that this correct interpretation was found

that these particles have a magnetic moment, which behaves very differently from
what expected from classical physics. The discrete states or energy values, which
are typical of quantum systems, appear also when describing systems with angular
momentum. Let’s choose a direction in space: typically, this is the direction of an
external magnetic field. If a quantum object, like particle or an atom, has a magnetic
moment, its component along the chosen direction can only have a finite number of
discrete values.
This was confirmed by Stern and Gerlach, in a famous experiment using a
beam of silver atoms in a non-uniform magnetic field (Fig. 3.4). Classical physics
linearly connects the magnetic moment μ of a macroscopic object to its angular
momentum L:
q
μ = γ L; γ = (classical) (3.8)
2m
The factor γ is the gyromagnetic ratio, q the electric charge of the object and m
its mass. A quantised magnetic moment implies that also the angular momentum
L can only have discrete values. Planck’s constant has exactly the correct physical
dimensions for an angular momentum, and therefore a natural unit for measuring
44 3 Essential Quantum Mechanics

Fig. 3.5 Schematics of a Penning trap. The charged particle is trapped in the middle of this
cavity, where a quadrupole electric field and a magnetic field are present. The Penning trap
was first built by Hans G. Dehmelt (1922–2017) (Germany and the USA) who was awarded
the Nobel prize in 1989 for the precise measurement of the electron magnetic moment. It is
named after the Dutch physicist Frans Penning (1894–1953)

quantum angular momenta is h̄ = h/2π. In atoms, it comes as a natural extension

of our macroscopic world to imagine the angular momentum of an electron as due
to its orbit around the nucleus. When dealing with fundamental, point-like charged
particles traveling in a straight line, we would expect no magnetic moment, and
no angular momentum. In a Stern-Gerlach experiment using an electron beam, the
Lorentz force would be much larger than the force on the magnetic moment due to
the inhomogeneous magnetic field. However, in a Penning trap (Fig. 3.5).
It is possible to confine single electrons by means of electric and magnetic
fields, and it is possible to measure very precisely that they have a magnetic
moment. Single electrons carry an angular momentum, just like rotating objects.
A required condition to rotate is to have a non-zero extension, while electrons, in all
experiments so far, have demonstrated their point-like nature, with no measurable
extension. These two pictures, a rotating, but point-like object, are difficult to
reconcile. In order to overcome the difficulty, we need to discard the picture of a
rotating object and recall that angular momentum is the quantity which is conserved
when the mathematical description of the system, the Lagrangian equation, is
invariant under rotations in space. A perfectly spherical object is invariant under
rotations around its centre, and so is a mathematical point. They carry no “intrinsic”
angular momentum, and they can be described by the position of the centre of mass.
A rotating spherical extended object, just like a mathematical vector, is not invariant
under rotations of the reference frame and has an intrinsic angular momentum. This
is the key point to understand spin: the wave function description of most particles
is not invariant under rotations of the reference frame. We should be careful now to
specify that we have introduced two types of invariance: one is the invariance of the
description of the system, which is called the Lagrangian function. Normally, for all
3.3 Spin 45

systems this is the case: the Lagrangian is invariant under rotations, and the angular
momentum is conserved. The second invariance is one of the wave functions: in
order to conserve the angular momentum, the wave function has to transform under
rotations, just like two vectors change their coordinates under rotation, but their
scalar product remains invariant.
Let’s now look at how to transform the wave functions, which will bring us to the
explanation of the various discrete values of the spin. The experiments, e.g. electrons
in a Penning trap, not only show that free electrons carry angular momentum but also
that given any direction, the projection of the intrinsic angular momentum along this
direction has only two possible values ±h̄/2. This behaviour can be described by
a two-component wave function. We can be more familiar with a three-component
wave function, e.g. the one which is needed to describe the electromagnetic field in
classical physics: the magnetic field B has three components, and each of them is
defined by a function of the coordinates:

B = B(
 x ) = (Bx (x, y, z), By (x, y, z), Bz (x, y, z)) (3.9)

Relativistic notation requires a four-component vector, the electromagnetic vector

potential, which is normally indicated with A(x) and describes photons. We
know how rotations of the coordinate frame rotate these three-component or four-
component fields, as rotations are a subgroup of the Lorentz group L. However, we
don’t know, so far, how to rotate two-component fields. To do so, we need to take
a step in group theory and recall that rotations form a group, SO(3). This group
has representation in odd number of dimensions, so it is not trivial to use it in 2-D.
However, there is a group which is “very similar” to it and has a representation in
both even and odd dimensions.
This group is the set of complex unitary matrices 2 × 2 with unit determinant:
SU(2). For any rotation matrix in our familiar three-dimensional space, we can find
two corresponding 2 × 2 rotation matrices in SU(2), but for each rotation in SU(2)
we can find only one rotation in SO(3); we use this matrix to “rotate” the two-
component wave function. This category of wave functions correctly describes the
quantum behaviour of particles which have intrinsic angular momentum S = 1/2h̄.
Wave functions with three components are called vector wave functions. They
describe particles which have three possible values of angular momentum along any
given direction: Sz = 1h̄ or Sz = 0 or Sz = −1h̄. Two-component wave functions
are called spinors (Table 3.1). Quantum objects with no angular momentum are

Table 3.1 Relation between the value of the spin and the number of components of the wave
function in non-relativistic quantum mechanics
Spin (h̄) Name Components
0 Scalar 1
1/2 Spinor 2
1 Vector 3
46 3 Essential Quantum Mechanics

described by a one-component wave function, which is a scalar. In relativistic

quantum mechanics, the picture is more complicated, and it is outside the scope
of this book. It can be understood in terms of representations of the Lorentz group:
relativistic spinors have four components, but rotate differently from vectors, which
also have four components. The two additional spinorial components describe the
corresponding anti-particle. The existence of the positron was predicted by the
Dirac’s equation requiring a four-component rather than two-component spinor.
Electrons, protons and neutrons have spin 1/2, photons have spin 1 and alpha
particles have spin zero.
As it is more a “geometrical property”, spin is conserved in all interactions and
is linearly added when two or more particles form a bound state: an electron and
a positron can combine and form two different bound states, called positronium:
a spin zero (para-) or a spin one (ortho-positronium), with different behaviours; a
proton and a neutron only form a spin-1 bound state, the deuteron, the α particles
are bound states of two protons and two neutrons and have spin zero.

3.4 Spin and Magnetic Moment

Correlation between angular moment L and magnetic moment is straightforward in

classical physics, by definition of the magnetic moment. For the spin S, Eq. (3.8)
has to be modified with a numerical factor, which is normally indicated with g.
q
μ = γS = g S. (3.10)
2m
This number g is predicted to be g = 2 for spin 1/2h̄ particles, with some cor-
rections, which can be calculated with quantum electrodynamics. All the ordinary
stable or long-lived particles, electrons, protons, neutrons and muons, particles
which we shall meet later, have spin = 1/2h̄. The g-value is one of the best
measured quantities:

ge = 2.0023193043618 (5) (3.11)

gμ = 2.0023318418 (13) (3.12)
gp = 5.585694702 (17) (3.13)

where the number in parenthesis are the experimental errors on the last digits.
Penning traps and particle accelerators are used for these measurements. It is
important to notice that protons have a g-factor which is considerably different from
the predicted value of two. The reason for this is their composite nature: protons
and neutrons are made of more fundamental particles, partons or quarks, so they
are a system of particles. For the same reason, also neutrons, which are electrically
neutral, have a non-zero magnetic moment:

gn = 3.82608545 (90) (3.14)

3.5 Problems 47

Any deviation of the g-factor from the calculated value, for electrons or muons,
would be an indication of compositeness and substructure.
Magnetic moments are measured in terms of magnetons:

e eh̄ μB
μe = ge S = ge S = ge S (3.15)
2me 2me h̄ h̄

where μB is called Bohr’s magneton, while for protons and nuclei the nuclear
magneton μN is used, where the electron mass is replaced with the proton mass:

eh̄ eh̄
μB = ; μN = (3.16)
2me 2mp

Alpha particles have spin zero and also have zero magnetic moment.

Numerical values of the Bohr and Nuclear magnetons:

μB = 5.7883818012(26) × 1011 MeV T−1

μN = 3.1524512550(15) × 1014 MeV T−1

3.5 Problems

3.1 A discharge lamp operated with sodium vapour emits a characteristic yellow
light, and is typically used in street lights. The wavelength of the two yellow
lines is λ1 = 589.0 nm and λ2 = 589.6 nm. Calculate the energy in eV of
these photons emitted by sodium, taking into account that the required precision
is 10−3 .
3.2 The cathode ray tube, which was used in TV sets (Fig. 3.6), accelerates the
electrons emitted by a filament with a voltage of about 2 kV. Are these electrons
relativistic? Calculate the wavelength of these electrons when they reach the
screen and compare it with the wavelength of visible light. The electron mass
is me = 511 keV/c2 .
3.3 We have a photoelectric effect when electrons are extracted from a metal surface
to the vacuum, when the surface is illuminated by light.
We know from other measurements that to extract an electron from a metal
surface a minimum energy Ew is required. This energy is called work function.
Using Planck’s formulas linking the energy of a photon to its wavelength,
48 3 Essential Quantum Mechanics

Fig. 3.6 Schematics of a cathode ray tube. The glass tube keeps all components in vacuum.
Electrons are emitted by a filament (f ) and accelerated by the electrodes e1 and e2 . Other electrodes
(d1 , d2 ) or magnetic fields are used to bend the electron beam and to focus it on the screen (s),
which is covered with an electro luminescent material

Fig. 3.7 Schematics of an apparatus to measure the photoelectric effect in metals. Light is selected
with a prism (p) and directed towards a glass vacuum tube with metal electrodes inside. The
electrode (m) emits electrons if conditions on the wavelength (λ) are satisfied. An accelerating
potential between (m) and the electrode (n) attracts the photo electrons towards (n), and a current
is measured by the nano-amperometre (A)

The explanation of the photoelectric effect was due to Albert Einstein

(1879–1955). He was awarded the Nobel prize in 1921 for this, rather than
for the relativity.

describe what is expected when a copper or a lithium electrode in vacuum is

illuminated with monochromatic light, as a function of the wavelength, and at
constant light intensity. We assume that there is another electrode at relatively
positive voltage in the same vacuum tube, as in Fig. 3.7. For copper Ew =
4.53 eV, for lithium Ew = 2.9 eV.
3.6 Solutions 49

3.6 Solutions

Solution to 3.1 Using Planck’s equations:

hc 4.135667 × 10−15 eV s · 2.99792 × 108 m/s

Eγ 1 = = = 2.1050 eV
λ 589.0 × 10−9 m

hc 4.135667 × 10−15 eV s · 2.99792 × 108 m/s

Eγ 2 = = = 2.1029 eV
λ 589.6 × 10−9 m

The difference between these two energy levels of the sodium atoms is only
2.1 meV. It is due to the spin–orbit coupling of the electron, which is the
interaction between the magnetic moment due to the electron orbital angular
momentum L and the magnetic moment due to the electron spin S.
Solution to 3.2
Ek 2 keV
γv = 1 + 2
= 1+ = 1.00391 ≈ 1
mc 511 keV
So, we can use in first approximation non-relativistic formulae.
  √
pe = 2me Ek = 2 · 511 · 2 keV2 /c2 = 2 511 = 45.2 keV/c

Using De Broglie’s equation (3.3),

h 4.13 × 10−18 keV · s · 3 × 108 m/s

λ= = = 27.4 pm
pe 45.2 keV
This wavelength is four orders of magnitude smaller than the wavelength of the
visible light. The advantage of electron microscopes is in this small wavelength
compared to light. They are not limited by diffraction in most cases.
Solution to 3.3 Photons of monochromatic light have all the same energy, whose
value is given by Eγ = hc/λ. If this energy is lower than the work function Ew ,
electrons cannot be emitted and, therefore, no current circulates in the device.
In case of copper cathode, for energies larger than 4.53 eV, corresponding to a
wavelength

hc 4.136 × 10−15 eV s · 2.998 × 108 m/s

λ= = = 273 nm
Ew 4.53 eV
the current starts circulating in the device, with a constant intensity. For lithium,
λ = 427 nm. This effect only occurs for light with a wavelength smaller than
a threshold value, which depends on the metal. For copper this wavelength is in
the ultraviolet range, for lithium it corresponds to the indigo colour. The effect is
used in photomultipliers and other devices, to detect photons.
50 3 Essential Quantum Mechanics

Bibliography and Further Reading

This chapter was added for consistency, because quantum mechanics is taught in
other courses. Many readers and students may already be familiar with it and many
high-quality books explain it in much more detail. A very partial and incomplete list
is given below, where introductory books and innovative presentations are preceding
more classical approaches to the topic.
B.H. Brandsen, C.J. Joachain Quantum Mechanics (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 2000)
W. Greiner, Quantum Mechanics – An Introduction (Springer, Berlin, 2001)
P. Pereira, Fundamentals of Quantum Physics (Springer, Berlin, 2012)
L.E. Picasso, Lectures in Quantum Mechanics (Springer, Berlin, 2017)
J.J. Sakurai, J. Napolitano, Modern Quantum Mechanics (Pearson Education, New Delhi, 2013)
L. Susskind, A. Friedman, Quantum Mechanics: The Theoretical Minimum (Basic Books, New
York, 2014)
K. Sundermeyer, Symmetries in Fundamental Physics (Springer, Berlin, 2014)
Chapter 4
Radioactive Decays

4.1 Introduction

Decays are a category of reaction where a particle, or a nucleus, transforms into two
or more particles or nuclei. We have already introduced the α-, β- and γ -emitting
decays. In the α decay (Fig. 4.1), the parent nucleus emits an α particle, which is
a nucleus of 42 He, and the resulting daughter nucleus has an atomic number which
is two units lower and a mass number which is four units lower. In the β decay
(Fig. 4.2), an electron or a positron is emitted, and the resulting daughter nucleus
has an atomic number lower by one unit, while the mass number remains unchanged
(Table 4.1).
The γ radiation is emitted by nuclei which are in an excited state and no change
in their composition occurs. Typically, nuclei are in an excited state after α or β
decays, so the γ radiation is associated with the other two.
In all decays, the 4-momentum is conserved. We recall that we indicate with A
the total number of nucleons and with Z the number of protons, so the pair (A, Z)
uniquely identifies a nuclide. For α decays, we have (Fig. 4.3)

(A, Z) → (A − 4, Z − 2) + α. (4.1)

In the rest frame of the parent nucleus, the α particle and the daughter nucleus
recoil back to back, with the same momentum. The energy states of nuclei have
discrete values, and these two conditions explain why, for a given nuclide and a
given daughter, the α particles emitted have all the same energy.
With the same conditions, the continuous spectrum of the β ± decay seems to
defy the conservation of 4-momentum:

β ± decay (A, Z) → (A, Z ∓ 1) + β ± (missing a term) (4.2)

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018 51

S. D’Auria, Introduction to Nuclear and Particle Physics,
Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93855-4_4
52 4 Radioactive Decays

Fig. 4.1 Schematic

representation of the emission
of an alpha particle, which is
a nucleus of helium, or a
bound state of two protons
and two neutrons

Fig. 4.2 Representation of a

beta decay. Note the emission
of a (anti)-neutrino: it is a
3-body decay

Table 4.1 Table of the Decay Parent Daughter

nuclear transmutation due to
α and β decays α (A, Z) (A − 4, Z − 2)
β− (A, Z) (A, Z + 1)
β+ (A, Z) (A, Z − 1)
γ (A, Z) (A, Z)

Also in this case, we would expect the electron or positron to recoil against
the nucleus and have only one value of momentum, or just a restricted range of
momenta, to account for a natural “width”, of quantum origin. This puzzle led
Wolfgang Pauli to make the hypothesis that another neutral particle is emitted and
is not detected experimentally. He called the particle neutron, but the discovery of
what we now call a neutron led Enrico Fermi to call this particle neutrino, for “the
little neutral” particle. It is indicated with νe ; the subscript e will be clearer later.
4.2 The Laws of Radioactive Decay 53

Fig. 4.3 This diagram in the

x − t plane illustrates the α
decay of a nucleus: (4,2)

space
(A, Z) → (A − 4, Z − 2) + α (A,Z)

(A-4,Z-2)

time

Only 30 years later, the neutrino was detected experimentally. The correct decay
reaction is

β ± decay (A, Z) → (A, Z ∓ 1) + β ± + νe (4.3)

In order for a decay to occur, the final state must be energetically allowed. The
energy must be conserved, so the sum of total energy of the final state, including the
kinetic energy, must be equal to the total energy of the initial particle or nucleus, but
this will be the topic in the last chapter of this book.

4.2 The Laws of Radioactive Decay

Independently of the mechanism and type of decay, we’ll introduce now some
general considerations that apply to all types of decays and derive the law of the
time evolution of radioactive decays.
The physics of decays is the same in every reference frame. There is one frame
which makes calculations easy, and it is the frame where the initial particle is at rest.
We can have two pictures: one is the one-particle picture of the decay; we pick up
one particle and after a time, which is random, we observe it to decay. We also have
the opportunity to repeat the experiment N times, with N particle of identical type
and nature; we see that the decay times are distributed according to a mathematical
function.
In the single particle picture, the basic assumption we can make is that the
probability of the decay to occur within the small time interval t is constant in
time; it does not depend on time at all. Of course, the larger is the small time interval
in which we observe, the larger is the probability dP to decay. It is natural to assume
that, for small, but finite, intervals t, the probability to decay is just proportional
to the time.

1
dP = λdt = dt . (4.4)
τ0
54 4 Radioactive Decays

The constant λ must have physical dimensions [T −1 ], and it is called decay rate,
while 1/λ = τ0 is the mean lifetime or simply lifetime. Suppose we have N0
radioactive nuclei at rest at time t0 . Then, Eq. (4.4) applies to each of them. We
can recall the frequentist definition of probability, as the relative frequency of an
event, i.e. the ratio between the number of times a certain event occurred and the
number of times that it was possible that the event occurred, in the limit of a large
number of tries. We observe for a small time t a very large number N0 of initial
nuclei; this is our number of tries, because each of them could decay. Out of those,
we observe a small number Nd decay:

Nd t
dP = = (4.5)
N0 τ0

for the number of decays Nd . We now want to know the variation of the number N
of initial nuclei or particles: N = −Nd . Substituting in Eq. (4.5), we have

N N
=− (4.6)
t τ0

(note the minus sign) which is valid at any time. At the limit of infinitesimal time
interval t → dt, we obtain

dN N
=− , (4.7)
dt τ0

which we can consider as a differential equation for the number of nuclei, or

particles, which are still undecayed at the time t, i.e. the function N(t). The solution
is

N(t) = N0 e−t /τ0 (4.8)

This formula fits extremely well the experimental measurements. An example is

shown in Fig. 4.4
We can verify that

d 1 N(t)
N(t) = − N0 e−t /τ0 = −
dt τ0 τ0

Suppose we have a radiation detector next to our radiation source (Fig. 4.5). In
general, it will detect and count only a fraction  of the radiation emitted due to
an intrinsic detection efficiency and to geometrical acceptance. The counting rate R
will be proportional to the activity A of the source:

R = A = (−dN/dt) = λN(t)
4.2 The Laws of Radioactive Decay 55

Fig. 4.4 Experimental decay curve of the nuclide 229 Rn, a beta emitter discovered in 2009. From
D. Neidherr et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 102 (2009)

Fig. 4.5 A particle detector is used to measure the activity of a radioactive source. In this case,
only about 50% of the emitted radiation can reach the detector. In addition, especially in case of γ
radiation, some radiation may escape detection, contributing to inefficiency, which must be taken
into account to calculate the real activity of the source

So, the activity of the source at time t is

1 1
A(t) = λN(t) = N(t) = R(t) (4.9)
τ τ
The activity of a radioactive source (or material) is measured in Becquerel (Bq),
which corresponds to one decay per second. Its physical dimensions are [T −1 ]. A
radioactive source of 1 Bq, if measured with a perfect detector, will give a count
rate of 1 Hz. Of course, the normal multiple and sub-multiples of this unit are also
used. Another unit for the activity, which is not an SI unit, is the Curie (Ci), a
practical unit which is defined from the activity of one gram of 226 Ra : 37 MBq=
1 mCi. From Eq. (4.8), it is evident that the activity of a radioactive source decreases
56 4 Radioactive Decays

Fig. 4.6 Cosmic rays are

high-energy particles coming
from the space. They start
interacting with the outer
layers of the atmosphere,
generating cosmic-ray
showers

exponentially with time. The average lifetime of a nuclide or particle is the time
occurring to reduce to a fraction 1/e = 0.368 of the initial sample. Often, it is given
the half-life, which is the time occurring to a sample to half its initial radioactivity.
The two values are related by log(2).
So far, we have considered that the nuclei are always at rest with respect to the
laboratory. This is not always the case for elementary particles, or exotic nuclei.
An elementary particle which we call muon (μ± ) has a mean lifetime of 2.197 μs
when it is at rest in the lab. It is produced copiously by cosmic rays at the top of
the atmosphere, say at 30 to 15 km from the Earth surface (Fig. 4.6). At the speed
of light, it would take 100 μs to reach the Earth’s surface, and this time is much
larger than the muon lifetime. However, as time is dilated by relativistic effects,
the muon lifetime, as measured in the laboratory reference frame, is increased by a
factor γ (v). So, we are constantly bombarded by muons from cosmic rays.

4.3 More on Radioactive Decays

The radioactive decay is a particular kind of nuclear reaction, where a species “A”
decays into two or more decay products (B, C, D). Some typical examples are the
alpha decay:
241
Am →237 Np + α(5.49 MeV) (4.10)

a beta decay:
90
Sr →90 Y + β − + νe (4.11)

and a gamma decay:

99m
Tc∗ →99 Tc + γ (140 keV) (4.12)
4.3 More on Radioactive Decays 57

The gamma decay is rather a transition between two isomers of the same nuclide,
with emission of energy. We have also mentioned an elementary particle, the muon
μ± , it decays

μ− → e− + νμ + νe (4.13)

with a mean lifetime of 2.197 μs.

There is one reference frame, where the initial particle, which is also called the
“parent”, is at rest. In this frame, the decay mean lifetime is minimum and is a
characteristic of the decay.
For some nuclides, or elementary particles, two or more decay channels may be
open: for example, a nucleus can undergo both α and β decay. We say that there is
a branching, and we can write the probability for a nucleus to undergo α decay in
the time dt as:

dPα = λα dt (4.14)

and we can write something similar for the β decay:

dPβ = λβ dt (4.15)

then the total probability to decay in either mode is

Ptot = (λα + λβ )dt (4.16)

and therefore
dN
= −(λα + λβ )N (4.17)
dt
The average lifetime of the given nuclide has only one value:

1
τ= (4.18)
λα + λβ

The α Branching Ratio (BR) is the ratio of the number of alpha decays to the
total number of decays in a given time:

λα
BR(α) = (4.19)
λα + λβ

An example in nuclear physics is

213
Bi →213 Po + β − + ν e 1.423 MeV(97.8%) (4.20)
213
Bi →209 Tl + α 5.87 MeV(2.20%) (4.21)
58 4 Radioactive Decays

Table 4.2 The main decay Decay Mode Fraction (%)

modes of the particle Z 0 ,
with the corresponding 1 e+ e− (3.363 ± 0.004)
branching fractions 2 μ+ μ− (3.366 ± 0.007)
3 τ+ τ− (3.367 ± 0.008)
4 &+ &− (3.3658 ± 0.0023)
5 Invisible (20.00 ± 0.06)
6 Hadrons (69.91 ± 0.06)
9 cc (12.03 ± 0.21)
10 bb (15.12 ± 0.05)
As an example: the decay Z 0 → e+ e−
occurs with a branching fraction of
3.36%. The branching fractions above
add up to more than 100% because they
are not exclusive: & indicates any of
the e, μ, τ particles, and c c and b b are
also included in the decay to “hadrons”.
All these particles will be more familiar
in Chap. 6. Data from the Particle Data
Group

An example in particle physics is the decay of the particle Z 0 , as shown in Table 4.2.
In a simple decay A → B + C, the products B and C are stable. However, a
decay product B can itself be a radioactive nuclide, or an unstable particle. In this
case, we have a chain of decays: B can decay into products, which are themselves
unstable, and so on. An example is the decay of radon, a naturally occurring gas
which can be found in basements of some buildings.
222
Rn → α +218 Po → α +214 P b → . . . (4.22)

which in turn is produced by decay of thorium, which is produced by Uranium

decays:
230
Th → α +226 Ra → α +222 Rn (4.23)

For α decays, there are only 4 possible chains of nuclides (Table 4.3): those
whose mass number A is exactly divisible by 4 (A = 4n) and those whose number
of nucleons is A = 4n + 1 or A = 4n + 24, or A = 4n + 3, where n is a positive
integer. The corresponding series are called: thorium series (A = 4n), neptunium
series, uranium series (Fig. 4.7) and actinium series (A = 4n + 3). The Neptunium
series (A = 4n + 1) contains no nuclide with extremely large lifetime. The majority
of the radioactive elements of the neptunium series are already extinct since their
formation in a supernova, about five billion years ago.
4.3 More on Radioactive Decays 59

Table 4.3 Table of the four Series A Final

possible series of α decay
chains Thorium A = 4n 208 Pb

Neptunium A = 4n + 1 205 Tl

Uranium A = 4n + 2 206 Pb

Actinium A = 4n + 3 207 Pb

The decay chains stop when they

reach a stable nuclide, an isotope of
lead or thallium

Decay chain of 238U (Uranium-238) 234 238

Z
92 U U
25ky 109y

91 230 Pa
1m

90 Th Th
10ky 24d

89 226
Stable nuclide Ra
88 2ky

87 222
β
86 218 Rn
4d
At α
85 210 214 1d

84 Po Po Po
138d 1s 2m

83 206 Bi Bi
5d 2m

82 Pb Pb Pb
22m 27m

81 TI TI
4m 1m

124 126 128 130 132 134 136 138 140 142 144 146 N

Fig. 4.7 The decay chain of 238 U is represented in the N −Z plane. This representation of nuclides
is called Segrè chart, from Emilio Segrè (1905–1989), who was awarded the Nobel prize in 1959
for the discovery of the anti-proton. N indicates the number of neutrons, N + Z = A. The α and
β − transitions are represented in an intuitive way. Figure from E. Segrè, “Nuclei and particles”,
W. Benjamin, Inc., 1965

Suppose to have the following reactions, where Rj indicates radioactive nuclides

and Nj (t) its corresponding number of nuclei present, or concentration at time t:

R1 →R2 + A (4.24)
R2 → R3 + B (4.25)
R3 → R4 + C (4.26)

The grand-parent radioactive nuclide R1 follows a simple decay law N1 =

N1 (0)e−λ1 t , while the radioactive nuclide R2 decays, but is also produced by the
decay of R1 , so we can write

dN2
= +λ1 N1 − λ2 N2 (4.27)
dt
60 4 Radioactive Decays

and for nuclide R3

dN3
= +λ2 N2 − λ3 N3 (4.28)
dt
We have a chain of differential equations, which can be solved recursively. The
general solution is reported below as a reference. It can be written in terms of sum
of exponential decays, each term depends on the decay rate of all nuclides “above”
in its genealogy tree.

N1 (t) = a11e−λ1 t (4.29)

−λ1 t −λ2 t
N2 (t) = a21e + a22e (4.30)
−λ1 t −λ2 t −λ3 t
N3 (t) = a31e + a32e + a33 e (4.31)
... (4.32)
Nk (t) = ak1 e−λ1 t + ak2 e−λ2 t + · · · + akk e−λk t (4.33)

The coefficients akj with k = j can be determined recursively:

λk−1
ak,j = ak−1,j (4.34)
λk − λj
and the “diagonal” coefficients must be determined by the initial conditions Nk (0):

Nk (0) = ak1 + ak2 + · · · + akk (4.35)

A notable case is when only the radionuclide R1 is initially present: Nk (0) = 0 for
k > 1:

N1 (t) = N1 (0)e−λ1 t (4.36)

λ1
N2 (t) = N1 (0) (e−λ1 t − e−λ2 t ) (4.37)
λ2 − λ1

e−λ1 t e−λ2 t
N3 (t) = N1 (0)λ1 λ2 +
(λ2 − λ1 )(λ2 − λ1 ) (λ3 − λ2 )(λ1 − λ2 )
−λ3 t 
e
+ (4.38)
(λ1 − λ3 )(λ2 − λ3 )

If, at a certain point of the decay chain, one nuclide, say Rs , has a lifetime
much larger than the others (Figs. 4.8 and 4.9), we can have a notable case of
equilibrium, which is called transient equilibrium, and it occurs when all “younger
generations” decay with substantially the same decay constant as the nuclide with
long lifetime Rs above them in the chain. The term “secular equilibrium” indicates
that, in addition, we observe the decay on a timescale where we can approximate
4.3 More on Radioactive Decays 61

Activity [a.u.]
3

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time [days]
Fig. 4.8 An example of transient equilibrium, as it shows in the activity of a sample, which is
initially composed of 100% Ba. The decay chain is: 140 Ba →140 La →140 Ce. The activity due
to the parent is shown with a dashed line, and the activity of the daughter is represented by a solid
line. The daughter nuclide 140 La has a lifetime 8 times smaller than the parent 140 Ba, and after a
maximum the two curves follow each other. The activity of the daughter nuclide is larger than the
activity of the parent

e−λs t = 1. In this case for any Rt with t > s, we have

Nt λs
= (4.39)
Ns λt

Uranium ores, for instance, are in secular equilibrium.

Another important case is when a nuclide is continuously formed, not by decay
but with a nuclear reaction. Examples of such cases are the formation 14 C in the
atmosphere and the activation of material in a particle accelerator. The differential
equation is

dN
= Q − λN(t) . (4.40)
dt
When the initial state is N(0) = 0, we have this solution:

Q
N(t) = (1 − e−λt ) . (4.41)
λ

The nuclide 14 C is continuously produced in the atmosphere by cosmic rays, with

a reaction reported in Eq. (7.36). We can consider the concentration of 14 C in the
62 4 Radioactive Decays

Fig. 4.9 The same decay as

in Fig. 4.8
140 Ba →140 La →140 Ce is 100
used to illustrate the transient
equilibrium, as in Eqs. (4.36)
and (4.37). The fraction
number of nuclides
N(t)/N0 (Ba) existing at time
t for Ba (dashed line) and La

N [%]
(solid line) is plotted as a 10
function of time. After a
transient, the two curves are
almost parallel

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time [days]

atmospheric CO2 to be constant in time: Eq. (4.41) for t → ∞ gives N(t) = Q/λ.
Corrections to the above equilibrium are due to human activities, like the 2055
nuclear explosions, which have increased the 14 C concentration; a peak of about
twice the original value was reached in the mid of 1960s. Also, nuclear plants
produce a negligible amount of 14 C, according to the reaction in Eq. (7.35). The use
of fossil fuels, which are naturally depleted of 14 C by decay, dilutes its concentration
in the atmosphere. The nuclear-test peak of [14 C] concentration in air has an
exponential decay, with a mean lifetime of about 23 years, which is much shorter
than the decay time. This is due to its gradual absorption, mainly by vegetation. The
present concentration level is about the same as before the nuclear tests.

4.4 Age Determination with Radioactive Nuclides

When living organisms die, they stop exchanging CO2 with the atmosphere. If we
assume that 14 C concentration was constant in the past, knowing the decay time of
14 C and measuring the concentration of 14 C in the sample, we can measure the time

since the sample has stopped exchanging carbon with the atmosphere (Fig. 4.10).
We can solve the simple decay formula for the time interval t:

N(t) N0
t = −τ ln = τ ln , (4.42)
N0 Nsample
4.4 Age Determination with Radioactive Nuclides 63

100

80

0
[14C] / [14C]
60

40

20

0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000
Age of the sample [years]
Fig. 4.10 Decay curve of 14 C, which is used for dating organic material. We measure the
fraction of the radionuclide concentration with respect to the stable isotope [14 C]/[12 C] in the
sample. We then divide this value by the same fraction, measured in present living material,
or by the reference value. This value is reported on the y-axis, as a function of time before
present. This method was invented and published in 1946 by Willard F. Libby (1908–1980),
from the USA, who taught at the University of Chicago and was awarded the Nobel prize in
chemistry in 1960

where N0 in this case is the concentration of 14 C in a sample exchanging CO2 and

N(t) is the concentration of 14 C in our “historical” sample. 14 C decays β − with
a mean lifetime of 8267 years and an end-point energy of 156 keV. Precise dating
with radiocarbon is sensitive to the natural variations of 14 C concentration in the
atmosphere. Because of the peak due to nuclear tests, the standard concentration of
14 C is assumed as the value measured in 1950 and corresponds to a concentration of

1.30 × 10−12 with respect to all atoms of carbon. Radiocarbon dating is calibrated
with increasing precision using information from tree rings and from analysing the
air samples trapped in the ice layers in Greenland and Antarctica. Recent studies
suggest that a considerable modulation in 14 C concentration occurred in a time
interval of 30,000–45,000 years ago.
Other nuclides are used for longer time constants. In particular, the ratio between
the concentrations of parent and daughter nuclides gives information on the time
when a particular rock became solid. The principle is that since the solidification
occurred, the daughter atoms stayed in place in the sample. The potassium–argon
method uses 40 K, which has a half-life of 1.28 × 109 years; this is about 1.3 billion
years, to be compared to the age of the Earth, which is 4.54 billion years. Therefore,
this nuclide is useful for geological dating. It decays by electron capture to 40 Ar,
which is chemically inert and escapes from the fluid magma, but remains trapped in
solid rock.
64 4 Radioactive Decays

Fig. 4.11 Sketch of a mass spectrometer: (S) Sample, which is vaporised in vacuum, (I) ionisation,
(A) accelerator, (B) magnetic field perpendicular to the drawing and (D) detector

4.5 Technical Aspects: The Mass Spectrometer

It would be intuitive to measure the concentration of a radionuclide for age deter-

mination by measuring the activity of the sample. However, a simple calculation
reveals that in most cases it is impractical or impossible to detect this radiation. A
very powerful tool comes to our help: the mass spectrometer (Fig. 4.11). The sample
is first pulverised, or purified with chemical methods. When heated in vacuum, its
vaporised atoms are first ionised, then accelerated. The ion beam traverses an area
with a magnetic field, and ions are deflected differently according to their different
mass over charge ratio m/q. A detector at the end of the vacuum pipe is spatially
segmented, to count the signals from single ions in different positions corresponding
to different m/q values. This method allows us to measure the relative abundance of
isotopes of the same chemical element present in the sample. It is also clear that this
technique of dating with radioactive nuclides is destructive for the sample. It is clear
that both the precision and the maximum age determination depend on the weight
of the sample and on its chemical composition. Modern radiocarbon techniques can
reach dating up to 70,000 years ago, while other nuclides are used for dating older
samples.

4.6 Radioactive Iodine for Thyroid Cancer

This is a case study, to attract the reader’s interest to a practical case. The numerical
values used are representative of a real case, although in practice there are many
other factors to be considered.
Thyroid cancer is cured with radioactive iodine-131, which accumulates in the
thyroid much more than in other organs. The nuclide 131I decays β − , with an
end-point electron energy of 606 keV. These β − particles ionize the fluid, and the
resulting ions damage the surrounding cancer cells. The daughter nuclide is formed
4.6 Radioactive Iodine for Thyroid Cancer 65

in an excited state and emits a γ ray of energy Eγ = 364 keV. The atomic weight
of iodine is A = 131 and its half-life is 8.02 days.
1. What particles and nuclides are produced in this decay? (use the periodic table)
2. How many grams of iodine are needed to prepare a drink with initial activity
1.85 GBq? What would you use to precisely measure this quantity?
3. What would block this β radiation?
4. What type of radiation can be detected outside the patient’s body?
5. Neglecting any disposal of iodine, how long the patient must be in isolation to
see its thyroid radioactivity decreased to an acceptable level of 500 Bq?
6. 90% of the iodine is eliminated by the body in 3 days. Compare this time with
the decay time above, and suggest the appropriate measures to the hospital.
Discussion
1. What particles and nuclides are produced in the β − decay of 131I?
The β − decay produces an electron with a continuum spectrum (as opposed
to a single spectral line of monoenergetic particles). To conserve energy, another
neutral particle, which escapes detection, must be emitted. This is the electron
anti-neutrino νe . A neutron in the nucleus becomes a proton, thus the nuclide
keeps the same mass number A and adds one to its atomic number, moving by
one place to the right in the periodic table. To the right of iodine, we find Xenon,
so the reaction is
131
I →131 Xe + e− + ν e

2. How many grams of 131 I are needed to prepare a drink with initial activity 1.8
GBq?

t1/2 (131I) = 8.82 days = 8.02 × 24 × 3600 = 6.93 × 105s.

τ = t1/2 / ln 2 ≈ 1.44 × t1/2 = 9.95 × 105 s

N0 e− τ
t
N(t)
activity A = λN(t) = =
τ τ
We are interested to the number of nuclei for a given initial activity, i.e. at t = 0.

N0 = τ A = 9.98 × 105 × 1.8 × 109 = 1.8 × 1014

We know that 6.022 × 1023 atoms (Avogadro’s number) have a mass of A (mass
number) grams. Therefore, in terms of mass: 1.8 × 1014 atoms of Iodine have a
mass w:

1.8 × 1014
w= × 131 g = 39.1 × 10−9 g = 39.1 ng
6.022 × 1023
66 4 Radioactive Decays

Modern analytical balances typically need samples of 1 mg or more, and have a

sensitivity of about 100 ng. To measure this small quantity of 40 ng, we cannot
use a balance; the mass is measured indirectly by measuring the activity, with
using a radiation detector and a rate metre.
3. What would block this β radiation?
The β radiation of iodine-131 has an end-point of 606 keV and is blocked by
a few millimetres of living tissue, which is mostly water. Incidentally, this is
the very reason why this kind of radiation destroys cancer cells: beta radiation
delivers energy to the cancer cells or to their surrounding fluid and the resulting
ions damage the cells. The thyroid is under a few millimetres of neck skin.
As a result, the beta radiation is blocked primarily by the cancer cells and by
the surrounding tissue. The range of 606 keV beta particles in air is of the order
of 30–50 cm.
4. What type of radiation can be detected outside the patient’s body?
To a first approximation, only the γ radiation emitted by the daughter nucleus
can be detected from outside the patient body. What follows is a more detailed
explanation. The xenon nucleus, which is formed by the beta decay of the Iodine,
finds itself surrounded by the electron cloud of the iodine, which has one electron
less. An electron fills the lowest energy level of Xe, which is lower than the
corresponding lowest level of Iodine. The atom emits X-rays with energies up to
the κβ energy of Xe, which is 33.6 keV. The γ radiation from the electromagnetic
decay of the excited Xe nucleus has an energy of 364 keV. The passage of X-rays
through the matter will be introduced in the next chapter. An important parameter
for calculating the attenuation at low energies is the highest X-ray energy which
can be emitted by the atom. This value is normally referred to as the kα and κβ
spectral lines (Fig. 4.12). The energy values of both the X and the γ ray are above
any kα line of light elements which make living tissue. As a comparison, the kα
line of Calcium in the bones is at 3.7 keV. Therefore, the gamma ray attenuation
in the body is very small. Most of the γ and X radiation escapes the patient
body and can be detected outside. For each β − particle emitted by the Iodine-
131, there is a γ ray of a specific energy emitted by the Xe nucleus and an X-ray
emitted by the Xe atom. By measuring the γ activity outside the patient body, we
also measure the β activity of the administered dose. The X-ray activity for one
particular energy transition can be calculated with atomic transition probabilities
and selection rules and its calculation is outside the scope of this book.
5. How long the patient must be in isolation to see its activity to decay to 500 Bq,
neglecting any disposal by fluid exchanges?

A(t) = (1/τ )N(t) = (1/τ )N0 e− τ = A0 e− τ

t t

A(t)
= e− τ
t

A0

A0 1.8 × 109
t = τ ln = 9.95 × 105 × ln = 15.2 × 106 s = 174 days
A(t) 500
4.7 Problems 67

Fig. 4.12 The most intense 3p

sources of X-rays are atomic 3s 3d
transitions to the lowest M
electron energy level. The

Energy
energy levels are named as
K, L, M or 1, 2, 3, according 2p
to the main energy level and
2s
“s, p, d” are states of angular L
momentum 0, 1, 2,

Level labels
respectively. Transitions from
states, or orbitals 2p to 1s, For Xe
originate what are called kα line at 29.5 keV
spectral lines, which are
line at 33.6 keV
typically in the X-ray range.
Transitions from 3p to 1s
originate the kβ lines, which K
have higher energy than the 1s
kα lines, but often have a
lower intensity
0 1 2
Angular momentum [h/2 ]

6. 90% of the iodine is eliminated by the body in 3 days. Compare this time with the
decay time above and suggest the appropriate measures to the hospital. In reality,
patients have to stay in isolation only a few days, because iodine is eliminated
by the body much faster. However, patient’s fluids have to be considered as
radioactive waste for a few months.

4.7 Problems

4.1 One of the products of the decay chain of 241 Am is 213 Bi (Bismuth), which
undergoes both α and β decay (see text). We have to measure the activity of a
sample of pure 213 Bi. Our particle detector is wrapped in a thin aluminium
foil and is only sensitive to beta particles, with an efficiency of 80%; our
experimental set-up has a geometrical acceptance of 50%. At a given time, we
measure a counting rate of 100 Hz. What is the total activity of the source? We
measure the activity for 20 s, at regular intervals of 10 min, we plot the data, and
we fit with an exponential curve, obtaining a mean decay time of 45.6 min. Is
any correction needed to this measurement due to the fact that we only observe
one decay mode? What value of the lifetime would we have measured if the
detector were sensitive to α particles only?
4.2 Radioactive humans: an average human body of 70 kg contains 18% of carbon.
With the data present in the text, calculate the “human activity” due to 14 C.
68 4 Radioactive Decays

4.3 The material from a corner of a papyrus is analysed with mass spectrometer
techniques. The ratio [14 C]/[12 C] = 0.79 × 10−12 . What is the age of the
papyrus?
4.4 Some alcohol from a wine bottle is extracted and analysed with a mass
spectrometer, showing a ratio [14 C]/[12 C] = 1.95×10−12. Explain the anomaly
and give an approximate age of the bottle, using the data which is given in the
text.
4.5 A parent nucleus decays with probability λ1 per unit time. Its daughter decays
with probability λ2 per unit time. Starting from a pure sample of the parent,
show that the time at which the number of daughter nuclei is a maximum:

1 λ

2
tmax = ln .
λ2 − λ1 λ1

4.8 Solutions

Solution to 4.1 The total activity includes all decays, in this case both α and β,
and is counted over the whole solid angle. Therefore, we have to correct by
the detector efficiency and by the solid angle acceptance and by the branching
fraction:
rate 100
A= = = 255.6 Bq
acceptance × efficiency × BR 0.978 × 0.8 × 0.5
In general, efficiency and acceptance have an experimental systematic error,
which is added to the statistical error of the counting rate. No correction is
needed to the measurement: the lifetime is a characteristic of the nuclide. When
measuring the lifetime with a detector which is sensitive only to α particles, we
would observe exactly the same value.
Solution to 4.2 The amount of carbon in a 67-kg human body is 12.05 kg, which
is about 103 moles. We know that the concentration of [14 C] = 1.30 × 10−12 , so
the number of atoms of radiocarbon is
 
N14 = 103 × NA × 14 C = 103 × 6.02 × 1023 × 1.30 × 10−12 = 7.82 × 1014

Now, the average lifetime is

τ = 8627 years × 31.536 × 106 s/year = 2.721 × 1011 s

The activity is

7.82 × 1014
A = 1/τ N14 = = 2.87 × 103 Bq = 2.87 kBq
2.721 × 1011
4.8 Solutions 69

In addition to a constant bombardment by cosmic rays, the human body is subject

to radiation from inside. Also, radioactive K is a source of radiation.
Solution to 4.3 From Eq. (4.42):

N(t) 0.79 × 10−12

t = −τ ln = −8627 years ln = 4300 years before present
N0 1.30 × 10−12

The papyrus can be dated to 2300 BC.

Solution to 4.4 The radiocarbon concentration of the sample has a value
[14 C]/[12 C] = 1.95 × 10−12 , which is higher than the standard concentration,
1.30 × 10−12. This means that the sample can be dated in a period during the so-
called bomb-peak of 14 C. Neglecting the radioactive decay, which has a lifetime
of 8627 years, we can use the exponential decay of the excess of radiocarbon,
which has a lifetime τ = 23 years, to find the year when the radiocarbon
concentration was the same as the one found in the sample. We can use the same
formulas, but for the excess of [14 C], which reached its maximum value of twice
the normal value in 1965.

N(t) − N0 = (Nmax − N0 )e−t /τ ⇒ t = −τ ln((N(t) − N0 )/N0 ) =

= 23 × ln((1.95 − 1.30)/1.30) = 16 years after the peak ≈ 1981

Solution to 4.5 The problem is simply solved by finding the maximum of the
function in Eq. (4.36):

λ1  −λ t 
N2 (t) = N1 (0) e 1 − e−λ2 t
λ2 − λ1

dN2 λ1  
=0= −λ1 e−λ1 t + λ2 e−λ2 t
dt λ2 − λ1

for λ1 = 0

λ1 e−λ1 t = λ2 e−λ2 t and taking logs on both sides:

λ2
−λ1 t = ln (−λ2 t)
λ1
 
λ2
(λ1 − λ2 ) tmax = ln
λ1
70 4 Radioactive Decays

Bibliography and Further Reading

H.D. Graven, Impact of fossil fuel emissions on atmospheric radiocarbon and various applications
of radiocarbon over this century. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 112(31), 9542–9545 (2015)
B.R. Martin, Nuclear and Particle Physics: An Introduction (Wiley, Chichester, 2011)
E. Segré, Nuclear and Particle Physics (W. A. Benjamin, Reading, 1977)
Chapter 5
Passage of Radiation Through Matter

5.1 Introduction

In this chapter a more practical aspect of radiation is described: its interaction with
matter. It has importance both for shielding and for detecting radiation. We’ll limit
the scope to X and γ rays for the electromagnetic radiation, to charged particles
like α, β ± and cosmic rays and, very schematically to neutrinos, leaving neutron
interactions to the nuclear physics chapter.
Radiation interacts with matter by means of scattering processes: the initial
radiation can be absorbed, deviated or can be transmitted (Fig. 5.1). In the first case
all the initial energy is released in the medium, in the second case only a fraction of
it. Initially we’ll consider the common aspects of scattering, then the peculiarities
of each type of radiation will be described. In the initial sections we focus on what
happens to the radiation, while the effects on the material will be covered in the last
two sections of this chapter: radiation detectors and biological effects.

5.2 The Effective Cross Section

We consider the case where we have a flux of incident radiation, which is measured
in terms of number Ni of incident photons or charged particles per unit surface per
second:
Ni
J = , (5.1)
St
where S is the surface and t the time duration of the process. We assume that
within that surface S the density is constant, or in other words J is constant in
the considered time interval. We define the intensity I as the number of incident

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018 71

S. D’Auria, Introduction to Nuclear and Particle Physics,
Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93855-4_5
72 5 Passage of Radiation Through Matter

Fig. 5.1 Schematics of passage of radiation through a thin layer of material. Part of the radiation
is transmitted, part is scattered or absorbed

particles per unit of time:

Ni
I= ; (5.2)
t
In case the incoming radiation beam is not uniformly distributed, the intensity is the
integral of the flux over the surface:

I = J (x, y)dx dy (5.3)
S

The material is characterised by its density and by its chemical composition. It

is reasonable to expect that a layer of liquid nitrogen absorbs more radiation
than a layer of air, which is mostly nitrogen, of the same thickness, just because
there are more scattering centres per unit of volume. Each scattering centre
can be more or less efficient in scattering, depending on its apparent “size”.
This is parametrised by another quantity, which depends both on the impinging
radiation and on the material: it is the effective cross section, it is indicated
with σ and is a characteristic property of all scattering processes. It depends
on the nature and kinetic energy of the incoming particle, on the process that
takes place and, of course, on the material composition. The concept of cross
section can be extended to other situations, like colliding particle beams. From a
qualitative point of view it is reasonable to expect that a radiation with a small
wavelength or high energy (Eq. (3.3)) is less attenuated than a radiation with
larger wavelength, for a given material. For a given wavelength it is reasonable to
expect that atoms with larger numbers of electrons each have a larger probability
to interact with radiation compared with a material with lower Z. The term
cross section derives from experiments on fixed targets, like the scattering of α
particles on a gold foil, as first done by E. Rutherford, H. Geiger and E. Marsden
5.2 The Effective Cross Section 73

Fig. 5.2 Scattering of particles from a target. The scattering probability is larger for a larger
density of the target and depends on the quantum probability of interacting with a single scattering
centre. This quantity is the cross section σ , the apparent size of a scattering centre, which depends
on the type and energy of the incident radiation. Figure adapted from Povh et al. (2015)

Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937) from New Zealand was awarded the Nobel
prize in chemistry in 1908 for having demonstrated that radioactive decays
induce a transmutation of elements, but he is most famous for the experiment
that demonstrated that majority of atomic mass is concentrated in the nucleus.

in 1909, which demonstrated the existence of a relatively massive nucleus inside

Au atoms. The radiation may interact with atoms, single electrons or nuclei in the
target, which appear to have an effective size, which changes as a function of the
energy and the type of the incoming particle. The probability of hitting a target is
proportional to the target area perpendicular to the direction of the projectiles, as
sketched in Fig. 5.2. When there are many targets, the probability also depends on
their density, in terms of targets per unit of surface. In general, we know the density
ρ of a material in terms of kg/m3 or g/cm3; we obtain the atomic density N by
dividing ρ by the mass of a single atom. Equivalently, if M indicates the atomic
mass of the material, which we assume is made by a pure element, like gold or lead,
and NA represents Avogadro’s number,

ρ NA
N = (5.4)
M
The number of scattering centres “seen” by an incoming particle depends on this
density and on the thickness δx of the absorber. In the following we assume that the
thickness is small so that we have no shadowing effect, and that the material is not a
74 5 Passage of Radiation Through Matter

crystal, so that there is no special direction of propagation. The number of scattered

or absorbed particles, Ns , is proportional to the number of incident particles Ni ,
to the cross section σp (E) for that particular process and for that particular energy
range, to the density of scattering centres and to the thickness of the target:

ρ NA ρ NA
Ns = Ni δx σp (E) and Rs = Ii δx σp (E) , (5.5)
M M
where the scattering rate Rs is the number of scattering interactions per unit of time
and Ii is the incident intensity.
Conversely, we can read from the formulas above that the effective cross section
of a scattering process is the number of interactions per unit time per target particle
per unit of incident flux. So, the effective cross section is the expression of the
quantum-mechanical probability that a scattering occurs. As the scattering process
is the same for any boost along the direction of the incoming particles, its description
is relativistically invariant.
Given a type of radiation and a material, more than one process may be possible.
In this case, the total cross section is the sum of the cross sections of the single
processes. As an example, looking at Fig. 5.6, for photons of 1.5 MeV all three
processes are possible: Compton scattering, photoelectric effect and pair creation.
The total cross section, which we use to calculate the attenuation coefficient of the
radiation, is the sum of these three cross sections:

σtot = ZσC + σpe + σee (5.6)

If the target material is a chemical compound or a mixture, the individual

scattering rates of each element are added.
The total cross section has physical dimensions of [L2 ]; in nuclear and particle
physics the unit is the barn:

1 barn = 10−28 m2 = 100 fm2 (5.7)

and its sub-multiples millibarn (mb), nanobarn (nb), picobarn (pb) and femtobarn
(fb).
For a given scattering process it may be relevant to calculate also the probability
that the scattering occurs to a particular final state, e.g. the probability (or rate) to
scatter a photon to a given solid angle interval around a direction, or in a given
energy or momentum interval. The formulas are the same as in Eq. (5.5) but we use
the differential cross section, which are indicated as (Fig. 5.3):

dσ dσ dσ
; ; (5.8)
d% dp dE

for solid angle, momentum and energy, respectively. These distribution functions
give the scattering probability to a given interval of final states. Double differential
5.3 Scattering of Electromagnetic Radiation 75

Fig. 5.3 d% is the solid

angle. The total cross section z
for a process is proportional
to the interaction probability.
The differential cross section
dσ/d% gives the probability d
that a given outgoing particle
is scattered at a certain solid
angle. Another example is
dσ/dE for the probability of incident particle
an outgoing particle to have
an energy between E and x
target particle
E + dE
y

cross sections are two-dimensional distributions of scattering probability:

d 2σ
(5.9)
d% dp

Integrating over the whole solid angle and over the momentum, we recover the cross
section.

5.3 Scattering of Electromagnetic Radiation

Electromagnetic waves with short wavelength, like X- and γ -rays, interact with
matter in four principal processes:
• Rayleigh scattering occurs when light interacts with an atom and is scattered at a
different angle, without ionising or exciting it.
• The photoelectric effect occurs when light interacts with an atom and expels an
electron (Fig. 5.4).
• Compton scattering occurs when a photon interacts with a single electron of an
atom (Fig. 5.5).
• The photon can “split” into an electron and positron pair if it has enough energy
and interacts with the electric field of a nucleus. This process is called electron–
positron pair creation.
For a given photon energy, each of the processes above has a different probability
of occurring. The probability of each process depends on the photon energy in a
different way. The total cross section is the sum of the cross section, or Q-M. prob-
ability, of each process, as shown in Fig. 5.6. In the Rayleigh scattering process the
electromagnetic radiation interacts with the atom or molecule as a whole and is just
deviated, not absorbed. For a given atom or molecule, the cross section varies with
the wavelength as 1/λ4 , it is larger for short wavelength, like those corresponding
to the blue colour; this qualitatively explains the blue colour of the sky.
76 5 Passage of Radiation Through Matter

Fig. 5.4 Photoelectric effect. Note that the photon is absorbed by the atom, which expels an
electron

Fig. 5.5 Compton scattering. The photon interacts with the electron, transferring momentum. The
electron is emitted and also a photon is emitted at an angle with respect to the impinging photon

Fig. 5.6 Cross section of lead atoms Pb, as “seen” by photons in a large energy range. The
calculated cross sections of single processes are also shown. The absorption and scattering of
photons in the matter is the sum of several fundamental processes. Reprinted with permission from
M. Tanabashi et al. (Review of Particle Physics), Phys. Rev. D, vol. 98-1, p. 454 (2018). Copyright
(2018) by the American Physical Society. The unit used in the cross section is the barn, (b), defined
as 1 b = 100 fm2 = 10−28 m2
5.4 Attenuation of Electromagnetic Radiation 77

5.4 Attenuation of Electromagnetic Radiation

If the energy of the light is larger than the minimum ionisation energy of the target
atoms the photoelectric effect may occur. In this case the atom absorbs a photon and
expels an electron. With higher photon energies electrons from inner shells can be
excited. Qualitatively, inner electron shells are also closer to the nucleus, making a
smaller target for the photon; also the wavelength of the photon is smaller, so both
effects contribute to a decrease of the cross section when increasing the photon
energy.
The practical limits in terms of photon energy for the photoelectric effect to occur
for a given element are given by the lowest ionisation energy and by the energy
corresponding to the kβ X-ray emission line of the atom, which is close to the
maximum energy transition in an atom, as shown in Fig. 4.12. For photon energies
above the K-edge the photoelectric effect still occurs, but at a lower rate.
The photoelectric process completely removes photons from the initial beam.
Starting from Eq. (5.5), the scattering rate Rs is the amount of intensity removed
from the beam:
NA
Rs = Iincident − Itransmitted = −δI = ρσ Ii δx . (5.10)
M
Using

NA δI
μ=ρ σ = N σ we have: δI = −μ Ii δx; = −I0 μ (5.11)
M δx
Replacing small quantities with infinitesimal quantities, we have a differential
equation

dI (x)
= −μ I (x) , whose solution is: I (x) = Ii e−μx (5.12)
dx

This function is shown in Fig. 5.7. The parameter μ has physical dimensions [L−1 ]
and is called the attenuation coefficient. It depends on the density of the absorber
and on the cross section, which is a function of the energy of the radiation. In
general a given material may have different densities, so the density is factored
out in most tables and calculations which report μ/ρ in cm2 /g. This means that we
need to multiply this value by the density of the material to obtain the value to use
in Eq. (5.12).
The cross section for the photoelectric effect, in a given material, varies with the
photon energy as

1
σp.e. ∝ (5.13)
Eγ3
78 5 Passage of Radiation Through Matter

Fig. 5.7 The absorption of 100

X-rays is an exponential
function of the thickness of

Transmitted intensity [%]

the absorber. The fraction of
80
intensity of a 40 keV X-ray
beam that is transmitted is
plotted as a function of the
thickness of the concrete 60
wall. For a given material the
absorption coefficient
depends on the energy of the 40
X-rays

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Concrete thickness [cm]

a b
100
/g]

5000 Photoelectric cross section at 40 keV

2

10
4000
Cross section [barn]

1 Rayleigh
3000

0.1
Compton Ph. e.
2000

0.01
1000

0.001
10 20 30 100 0
Photon Energy [keV] 10 20 30 40 50
Atomic Number Z

Fig. 5.8 (a) Left: attenuation coefficient of calcium as a function of the photon energy. The
contributions from three processes (Rayleigh, Compton scattering and photoelectric) are shown
separately, and as a sum.
(b) Right: cross section per atom for the photoelectric process for 40 keV X-ray photons, as a
function of the atomic number of the absorber. The best fit to these data gives a power law with
exponent 4.2 at this energy. Data from National Institute of Standards and Technology Standard
Reference Data Program
5.5 Compton Scattering 79

but the curve presents several discontinuities at values corresponding to the energy
levels of the atoms, as shown in Fig. 5.6. For a given photon energy, the photoelectric
cross section increases with the fourth power of the atomic number Z, as shown in
Fig. 5.8b:

σp.e. ∝ Z n ; with 4 ≤ n ≤ 4.6 , at fixed Eγ (5.14)

Below a threshold energy, which depends on the material, photons are unable to
ionise and can only be diffused by the material. Above a material-dependent energy
value, photons interact predominantly with electrons rather than with the atom as a
whole.

5.5 Compton Scattering

Compton1 scattering occurs when photons interact with single electrons in the cloud
of an atom. The cross section is a function of the photon energy and increases
linearly with the electron density, which is proportional to Z. From the practical
point of view it becomes the dominant scattering mechanism for photons in an
energy range around 0.1–1 MeV, the limits depending on the material Z.
The kinematics are simple: a massless particle hits a massive particle, an electron,
which is considered to be at rest. With the help of special relativity we can calculate
the energy of the scattered photon as a function of the scattering angle and of the
initial photon energy.
2
For a particle with m = 0 and 4-momentum p = ( γ mc c , px , py , pz ) we calculate
√
the invariant mass pp in the reference frame where the particle is at rest and p = 0
and γ = 1. As it is a 4-vector, this quantity, the invariant mass, remains invariant,
√
and is pp = mc, or in a general form

E2
pp = − p 2 = m2 c 2 or (5.15)
c2
E 2 − p 2 c 2 = m2 c 4 (5.16)

It is invariant because if we consider the entire system, before and after a decay or
any reaction, it does not change.
The scattering process we are going to describe is:

γ + e− → γ + e− (5.17)

We neglect the binding energy of the electron to the atom, because this is typically
of the order of few eV, and solve the kinematic in the reference frame where

1 After Arthur H. Compton (1892–1962) from USA. He was awarded the Nobel prize in 1927 “for

the discovery of the effect named after him”.

80 5 Passage of Radiation Through Matter

Fig. 5.9 Compton scattering

y outgoing photon

incoming photon
x

electron

the electron is initially at rest. It is clear that the scattering process occurs in a
geometrical plane containing the momenta of all particles involved. We assume
this is the x − y plane, and we neglect the z coordinate. In general, the incoming
and outgoing photons will not have the same energy. Let E0 be the energy of the
incoming photon and E1 the energy of the outgoing photon, as shown in Fig. 5.9.
We apply momentum and energy conservation independently, and use the relativistic
formulae:

px : E0 /c = (E1 /c) cos θ + p cos φ; (5.18)

py : (E1 /c) sin θ − p sin φ = 0; (5.19)
E: E0 + mc2 = E1 + Ee (5.20)

where p = |p| is the electron momentum, m is the electron mass and the angles φ
and θ are measured between outgoing particles and the direction of the incoming
photon. Ee is the electron energy.
From momentum conservation we have:

E1 sin θ = pc sin φ; (5.21)

E0 − E1 cos θ = pc cos φ; (5.22)

We square and sum:

E12 sin2 θ + (E0 − E1 cos θ )2 = p2 c2 (sin2 φ + cos2 φ); (5.23)

E12 sin2 θ + E02 + E12 cos2 θ − 2E0 E1 cos θ = p2 c2 ; (5.24)
E12 + E02 − 2E0 E1 cos θ = p2 c2 ; (5.25)

now p2 c2 = Ee2 − m2 c4 from the electron 4-momentum. Using energy conservation

we have

Ee2 = ((E0 − E1 ) + mc2 )2 ; subst. in 4-momentum (5.26)

p2 c2 = (E0 − E1 )2 + m2 c4 + 2mc2(E0 − E1 ) − m2 c4 ; (5.27)
5.6 The Cross Section for Compton Scattering 81

p2 c2 = (E0 − E1 )2 + 2mc2 (E0 − E1 ) = E02 + E12 − 2E0 E1 cos θ ; (5.28)

E02 + E12 − 2E0 E1 + 2mc2(E0 − E1 ) = E02 + E12 − 2E0 E1 cos θ ; (5.29)
E0 E1
E0 − E1 = (1 − cos θ ) (5.30)
mc2
Passing from energies to wavelengths: Ej = hνj = hc/λj
1 1
λ − λ

1 0
E0 − E1 = hc − = hc (5.31)
λ0 λ1 λ1 λ0
hc
λ1 − λ0 = (1 − cos θ ); (5.32)
mc2
The constant quantity

hc
λe = = 2.4263102367(11) × 1012 m (5.33)
me c 2

is called the Compton wavelength of the electron, where me is the electron mass
and h is Planck’s constant. The two digits in parenthesis represent the experimental
error on the previous two digits. So far we have only used relativistic kinematics:
nothing is said about the interaction between the photon and the electron: the above
discussion is valid no matter what interaction is involved. The interaction enters
into play when we calculate the cross section, i.e. the probability of the Compton
scattering. This was done by Klein and Nishina in 1928.

5.6 The Cross Section for Compton Scattering

Klein2 and Nishina3 in 1928 calculated for the first time the Compton cross section
using quantum mechanics.
 
dσ 1 1
= α 2 rc2 P 2 (Eγ , θ ) P (Eγ , θ ) + − 1 + cos2 θ (5.34)
d% 2 P (Eγ , θ )

where d% = sin θ dθ dφ and

1
P (Eγ , θ ) = and (5.35)
1 + (Eγ /me c2 )(1 − cos θ )

2 Oskar Klein (1894–1977), from Sweden. He’s also known for the Kaluza–Klein theories, which

speculate the existence of additional space dimensions.

3 Yoshio Nishina (1890–1951) from Japan. He also discovered the isotope 237 U.
82 5 Passage of Radiation Through Matter

h̄c
rc = (5.36)
(2me c2 )

is the “reduced” Compton wavelength of the electron, (h̄ = h/2π) is the “reduced”
Planck’s constant and

e2
α= ≈ 1/137 = 7.297 × 10−3 , (5.37)
4π0 h̄c

We call α = αEM the fine structure constant for the electromagnetic interaction. It
depends on the electron charge e, it is a dimension-less number, which gives the
“strength” of the electromagnetic interaction, and its value is totally independent of
the unit system we use.
0 = 8.854 × 10−12 F/m is the permittivity of vacuum.

Note how the Klein and Nishina formula for the differential cross section of
the Compton scattering depends on the fourth power of the electric charge,
while the electric charge does not appear in the kinematic formulas of Compton
scattering.

The K-N formula gives the angular dependence of the cross section: it gives the
probability that a photon is scattered at a given angle. As we have seen already for
the kinematic of the scattering, the process only depends on one angle: the one
between the initial and the final direction of the photon. We say that there is a
cylindrical symmetry around the axis of the initial photon direction. In other words,
the probability of scattering along the azimuth angle φ is uniform. Note also that the
cross section decreases when the photon energy Eγ increases. The cross section is
referred to each scattering centre, i.e. electrons; so we need to multiply it by Z to
obtain the Compton cross section for a material, as in Eq. (5.6).

5.7 Heavy Charged Particles

In this case the mass of the “projectile” particle is much larger than the mass of
the “target” particle in the material, which is mostly electrons. This means we are
dealing with protons, alpha particles or muons, or other particles which we’ll meet
later.
The incoming charged particle loses part of its kinetic energy in a series of many
interactions. In each of them the projectile transmits a small part of its kinetic energy
to the electrons in the target. The incoming particle is also deviated slightly from its
initial direction. The term multiple scattering is used to indicate this effect. The
Bethe-Bloch formula, below, describes the energy loss per unit of length of a heavy
5.7 Heavy Charged Particles 83

charged particle when colliding with the electrons in a medium:

   4  2  
dE e z 2me v 2
− = (ZN ) ln (5.38)
dx 4π02 me v 2 I

This is the non-relativistic version of the formula, which is valid for a kinetic energy
of the particle in the interval from 0.5 to 500 MeV, when dealing with protons,
alpha particles or mesons. This formula is calculated in many, and more advanced,
textbooks (Cerrito 2017; Fernow 1986; Segré 1977). We can use it as a starting point
to highlight the features of the passage of electrically charged particles.
The electron electric charge e is present in the formula, because the energy loss
is due to electromagnetic interaction and, once again, it enters to the fourth power,
just like in Compton scattering cross section. The electric charge of the projectile z
(in units of e) enters the formula quadratically, so an alpha particle loses 4 times its
energy with respect to a proton of the same velocity v; this also enters the formula
quadratically and is measured with respect to the target, which is at rest. Z indicates
the atomic number of the target, or the number of electrons per atom and enters
linearly in the formula, like the atomic density of the material (Eq. (5.4)), which is
indicated with N . In other words the term (ZN ) is the average electron density. The
parameter I is the average ionisation energy of the target, and is shown in Fig. 5.10

Felix Bloch (1905–1983) from Switzerland was awarded the Nobel prize in 1952 for his
work on precision measurements of nuclear magnetic moments. He was the first director
general of the European laboratory CERN.

as a function of Z. These collisions occur between the charged particle and the
electrons in the target atoms and therefore the electron mass me is the only mass

900
Ionization Energy [eV]

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Atomic Number Z

Fig. 5.10 Average ionisation energy as a function of the atomic number. The line represents a fit
to the data: I ≈ 22.8 + 9.7Z
84 5 Passage of Radiation Through Matter

appearing explicitly in the formula. In general also in this case the density of the
material is factored out and 1/ρ dE/dx is called the stopping power. The mass of
the projectile particles, mp , appears if we re-write Eq. (5.38) in terms of the kinetic
energy E = 1/2mp v 2 of the incoming particle:
   
1 dE mp 1 z 2 Z 4me E
− =K ln (5.39)
ρ dx me E M mp I

where

K = 2π α 2 h̄2 c2 NA = 0.078 MeV2 cm2

It is clear that at constant density, materials with higher Z have a higher stop-
ping power. For higher energies, the Bethe-Bloch formula has to be corrected
by a relativistic factor γ 2 inside the logarithmic term, which gives rise to an
increase of energy loss with the particle energy. The energy loss is minimum for
charged particles in the interval 0.1–1 GeV, which are called minimum ionising
particles.
At even higher energies radiative losses become important, with a mechanism
which is very important for electrons. Another clear limitation of Eq. (5.39) is
evident in the low kinetic energy limit, where the logarithmic term would become
zero and then negative, which is unphysical. Therefore, there is an intrinsic cut-off,
which depends on the ionisation energy. Equation (5.39) which is plotted in Fig. 5.11
for muons in copper and Eq. (5.38) have to be used with care. The stopping power
of copper for muons is shown in Fig. 5.12, for a large energy range. In this figure all
effects and corrections are taken into account.

Fig. 5.11 The simplified

form of the Bethe-Bloch
formula, Eq. (5.39), can be
102
Stopping power [MeV cm2/g]

used to calculate the energy

loss of muons in copper,
within its interval of validity:
as long as the particle is
non-relativistic and its kinetic
energy is not too low. The
results of the calculation of 10
the muon stopping power for
copper is shown as a function
of the muon kinetic energy

10-1 1 10 102
Ek [MeV]
5.7 Heavy Charged Particles 85

Mass stopping power [MeV cm2/g]

μ+ on Cu
100 μ−
Bethe Radiative
Anderson-
Ziegler
Lindhard-

Radiative
Scharff

effects Eμc
10 reach 1% Radiative
Minimum losses
ionization
Nuclear
losses Without δ
1
4 5
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10 10
βγ

0.1 1 10 100 1 10 100 1 10 100

[MeV/c] [GeV/c] [TeV/c]
Muon momentum

Fig. 5.12 Specific energy loss in copper for muons as a function of their initial momentum.
Reprinted with permission from M. Tanabashi et al. (Review of Particle Physics), Phys. Rev. D,
vol. 98-1, p. 447 (2018). Copyright (2018) by the American Physical Society. Muons have a mass
about 200 times larger than electrons and are electrically charged. To obtain the energy loss per
unit of length the values on the y axis have to be multiplied by the copper density

In case of charged particles traversing a material, their flux remains constant, but
the kinetic energy of each particle decreases. This is very different from the case
of photons, whose number decreases exponentially inside the material. In case of
thick absorbers, particles can lose all their energy inside the material and come to
a rest after a well-defined range R which depends on their initial kinetic energy
Ek . To calculate the range we need to integrate Eq. (5.38) from Ek to zero kinetic
energy. The logarithmic term makes the analytic integration difficult, but above a
certain initial energy it just adds a constant. If we consider the logarithmic term as
a constant we have:
 0  0
1
R= dE ≈ Const E dE = 1/2 Const Ek2 (5.40)
Ek −dE/dx Ek

In the energy range where the average energy loss varies with the kinetic energy
as 1/E, the range of the particle increases quadratically with its energy. Writing
explicitly the entire formula, and using the log of the average energy, from Eq. (5.39)
we obtain:
  
1 me M 1 2me Ek −1 2
R≈ ln Ek ; (5.41)
2 K mp Zρ z2 mp I
86 5 Passage of Radiation Through Matter

Energy deposited in 2 μm [keV]

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Position along the trajectory [μm]
Fig. 5.13 Energy deposition as a function of the position along the trajectory for 5 MeV
α-particles in copper. Most of the kinetic energy is deposited in a narrow layer near the end
of the particle trajectory. This feature is used in hadron therapy, where the peak is much more
pronounced, and in medical applications of α-emitting radionuclides. The curve is named
after William Henry Bragg (1862–1942), from England, he taught physics in Adelaide,
Australia, for 20 years, then in Leeds and London. He was awarded the Nobel prize in 1915
with his son Lawrence for their research on X-ray diffraction in crystals

the range is inversely proportional to the density of the material, as expected. This
formula has its own limitations: for instance, it calculates the path length, but the
trajectory is not a straight line, so we don’t obtain the depth in the material where
the particle would stop. However, it can be used to calculate the upper limit of
the range of α particles in air or β particles in Al. For practical applications, like
doping of semiconductor materials by ion implantation, more refined calculations
are implemented in computer-based simulations.
The energy loss per length of the path is larger as particles progressively lose
their energy, as is evident from the 1/E term in Eq. (5.39). Therefore, most of
their energy is lost at the end of the path, where their kinetic energy is lowest.
Plotting the specific energy loss as a function of the penetration depth we obtain the
characteristic Bragg curve, which has a peak of energy deposition near the end of the
particle trajectories, as shown in Fig. 5.13. This feature is used in hadron therapy,
where a beam of protons is aimed at a cancer and its energy is tuned to have the
protons stop inside the cancer volume, where most of its energy is delivered. For
the same reason α-emitting radionuclides for medical treatment are more effective
in delivering high dose to cancer cells than the γ -emitting nuclides.
5.8 Charged Particles Traversing Thin Layers 87

Fig. 5.14 Multiple scattering of charged particles traversing a material: they are deviated from
their initial direction by an angle θ which depends on the material and on its thickness x

5.8 Charged Particles Traversing Thin Layers

Electrically charged particles lose kinetic energy by a large number of electron

scattering events. After traversing a thin section of material the charged particles
emerge with an angle θ with respect to the original direction (Fig. 5.14). The
distribution of these angles is approximated by a Gaussian, and its standard
deviation is inversely proportional to the particle momentum and proportional to
the square root of the material thickness.
The energy loss distribution in thin layers, however, does not follow a Gaussian
distribution. The reason is that occasionally scattering events occur with a large
energy loss. The resulting distribution is skewed, with the average energy loss
being considerably larger than the most probable energy loss. The average energy
loss is still what calculated with Eq. (5.38), but the most probable energy loss is a
more significant parameter. The distribution is described by the following integral
function:

1 ∞
φ(x) = dt exp(−t log(t) − xt) sin(πt) (5.42)
π 0
This is the so-called Landau distribution; it is a slightly complicated function: the
variable x representing the energy loss is inside the integral and the function has no
free parameter. The shape of the distribution is shown in Fig. 5.15. It reproduces well
the energy loss in thin materials, as long as they are not extremely thin. In these cases
the Landau distribution is considerably wider than the experimental distribution and
better distributions have width and most probable value as parameters. The energy
loss distribution is also called straggling distribution.
88 5 Passage of Radiation Through Matter

The distribution is named after Lev Davidovich Landau (1908–1968) from Russia. He was
awarded the Nobel prize in 1962 for his work on superconductivity. He is also known for his
textbook on theoretical physics, in ten volumes, written with Evgeny Lifshitz.

0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Energy Loss [a.u.]

Fig. 5.15 The Landau distribution describes the energy loss of charged particles in thin
absorbers, where they lose only a small fraction of their kinetic energy. Its analytical form is
shown in Eq. (5.42). For very thin absorbers this formula slightly underestimates the width

5.9 Electron Energy Loss

Electrons have the peculiarity that are identical to the main target they interact with
in the matter: other electrons.
Because of their small mass, electrons are subject to a large deceleration and emit
a considerable electromagnetic radiation, which is called bremsstrahlung, German
for “braking radiation”. When they interact with other electrons both particles
emit braking radiation, which interferes destructively at large distances. However,
when they scatter off the electric field of atomic nuclei their acceleration emits
electromagnetic radiation. The energy loss per unit of length, by radiation only,
is given by the following formula:
 
dE  4N Z 2 α 3 (h̄c)2 183
− ≈ E ln 1/3 (5.43)
dx rad m2e c4 Z

where N = ρNA /M and NA is the Avogadro’s number, α ≈ 1/137, A and Z

are the mass and atomic number of the target, E is the energy of the electron and
h̄ = h/2π and me is the electron mass. As above, we can just note some features, e.g.
that this cross section increases linearly with the electron kinetic energy E.
We define the critical energy of an absorber Ec as the electron energy above
which the energy loss by radiation is larger than the energy loss by ionisation. It
5.9 Electron Energy Loss 89

0.8
Intensity I(λ) [a.u.]
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
x-ray wavelength [nm]

Fig. 5.16 The wavelength λ of the X-rays emitted by bremsstrahlung has a continuous
distribution. The wavelength distribution of X-rays emitted by 40 keV electrons is calculated
with Eq. (5.45) and shown here

varies as Ec ∝ Z −1 : for solid material an approximate function is

610
Ec ≈ MeV (5.44)
Z + 1.24
and its values are in the range 5–350 MeV. Low-energy electrons, such as those
produced by radioactive sources or used in cathode ray devices, lose most of their
energy by ionisation; however, braking radiation is never completely negligible.
The braking radiation is emitted in the X-ray range: energetic electrons, when
interacting with the matter, transform part of their kinetic energy into electromag-
netic radiation. This mechanism occurs in X-ray tube generators. The emitted X-ray
spectrum depends on the electron initial energy E0 , but has a universal shape, which
is given by the Kramers’ law:
 
iZ λ hc
I (λ) dλ = k −1 dλ; where λmin = (5.45)
λ2 λmin E0

and I (λ) dλ is the X-ray intensity at wavelength λ, i is the electron intensity. The
shape of the wavelength spectrum is shown in Fig. 5.16.
At high wavelengths, the emission of X-rays is collinear with the electrons,
and is absorbed by the same material and by any other material which may be
present. This changes dramatically the spectrum shape at high wavelengths. At low
electron energy (E0 < me c2 ) the emission of X-rays is maximum in the direction
perpendicular to the electron beam and is polarised with the electric field oscillating
along the electron direction. At higher energies (E0  me c2 ) the radiation is
emitted mostly along the initial direction of the electrons. As X-ray detectors are
90 5 Passage of Radiation Through Matter

normally calibrated according to the energy, rather than wavelength, we can change
variables in Eq. (5.45) and obtain the energy spectrum

hc hc
λ= ; dλ = 2 dE
E E
 
iZ E0
I (E)dE = k − 1 dE (5.46)
hc E

It should be noted at this point that the bremsstrahlung cross section has a so-called
infrared divergence, meaning that an infinite number of photons with infinitesimal
energy are emitted. As the total energy loss is finite, we need to introduce, from a
theoretical point of view, a photon cut-off energy below which the interaction can be
ignored. This process is not the only one to require such a mathematical treatment.
In addition to generating braking radiation, electrons also ionise the atoms, just
like other charged particles. Electrons from the outer shells make a transition and
occupy the inner shells or energy levels which have been left empty by the ionisation
process, emitting electromagnetic energy, i.e. photons. The photon energy depends
on the difference between the energy levels of the atoms. Therefore the material
emits also a characteristic X-ray radiation, which depends on the material which is
irradiated. The resulting spectrum is shown in Fig. 5.17, where the following effects
are calculated:
Counts [a.u.]

10 20 30 40 50
x-ray energy [keV]

Fig. 5.17 Calculated energy spectrum of X-rays emitted by an X-ray tube with silver anode
operated with 40 keV electrons. The bremsstrahlung spectrum is calculated with Eq. (5.46).
The low-energy X-rays are absorbed by the anode itself and by the glass window; the
absorption cross section is assumed as σpe ∝ 1/Eγ3 . The shape of the un-filtered spectrum
is shown as a dashed curve. The silver Kα and Kβ lines are added as narrow Gaussian
distributions. Compare it with the experimental spectrum shown in Fig. 5.23
5.10 Neutrino Interactions with Matter 91

– Bremsstrahlung emission, as in Eq. (5.46),

– Absorption of low-energy X-rays by the material itself and by the glass window,
– Emission of K lines by the material, which we assume to be silver.

5.10 Neutrino Interactions with Matter

Neutrinos will be introduced more formally in the next chapter, but we have already
encountered them in describing the β decay. They are electrically neutral particles
and their mass is not precisely measured, it is extremely small, but not zero. The
present limit for all three types of neutrinos is at about mν < 1 eV. They only interact
with matter with the weak interaction. A feature of this interaction is that the cross
section increases with the neutrino energy, up to very high energies. Nevertheless,
the cross sections for various processes involving neutrinos range from 10−28 to
10−17 barn for energies in the range from 100 eV to 1 GeV. As a comparison, the
Compton cross section in lead (Z = 82) is of the order of 10 barn (Fig. 5.6), which
makes the cross section per electron 16 orders of magnitude larger. The energy
loss mechanisms of neutrinos would be similar, in principle, to the energy loss of
charged particles, but the multiple scattering occurs on a much larger scale, due to
the extremely small cross section.
We can look back at the equation describing the photon attenuation, Eq. (5.11).
Independently from the fate of the impinging particle, it describes the distribution
of the depth of its first interaction with the matter; the parameter 1/μ is the mean
path before interaction. Using the largest value of neutrino scattering cross section,
for a kinetic energy in the ≈ 1 GeV range (10−17 barn), in Eq. (5.11) the neutrino
mean free path in iron is:

NA
μν = ρ σ ;
M

g 6.022 × 1023 mol−1

μν (Fe) ≈ 7.87 × × 10−17 × 10−24 cm2
cm 3
55.84 g mol−1

μν (Fe) ≈ 8.5 × 10−19 cm−1 ; 1/μv = 1.2 × 1018 cm = 1.2 light years

The actual cross section can be slightly larger than that, if other processes are taken
into account, but it does not change the fact that neutrinos with a kinetic energy
up to about a GeV can pass through about one light-year of dense matter without
interacting at all. The very small cross section makes it very difficult to study
neutrinos, requiring a large mass of active detectors and a large intensity of neutrinos
to record a small number of neutrino interactions. On the other hand, it makes it
possible to study neutrino oscillations with neutrinos produced in an accelerator
and traveling long distances, of the order of thousands kilometers, without needing
any kind of vacuum pipe or tunnel.
92 5 Passage of Radiation Through Matter

The first observation of anti-neutrinos occurred with the reaction:

ν e + p → n + e+ (5.47)

which is sometimes called “inverse beta decay”; the measured cross section4 was

σ (ν e p → ne+ ) = (11.0 ± 2.6) × 10−44 cm2

A neutrino flux ≈ 5 × 1013 cm−2 s−1 obtained from a nuclear reactor was used
to detect neutrinos for the first time.
Although neutrinos are able to ionise, for their extremely low cross section they
are not considered as ionising radiation for all practical purposes.

5.11 Passage of Radiation from the Point of View

of the Material

The energy deposited by radiation in a material has three effects: ionises the
material; increases locally its temperature; generates other radiation, which can be
absorbed by the material or escape it. An electron from photoelectric effect may
ionise other atoms, but also leaves behind a ionised atom, which receives an electron
from the environment and will emit X-rays, which can be absorbed photoelectrically
by neighbouring atoms and so on. Charged particles leave tracks of ions in the
material, but protons and mesons and heavy ions at a sufficiently high energy can
also displace atoms from a crystal lattice.
The total amount of radiation energy deposited per unit of mass in a material is
measured in Gray (Gy) and is also called absorbed dose

1 Gy = 1 J/kg = 6.24 × 1012 MeV/kg (5.48)

Of course, only the part of material which is interested by the radiation has to be
accounted for in the mass value. This is especially important if the radiation is
completely stopped, like in the case of charged particles. Large radiation doses can
damage solid material, induce or accelerate chemical reactions, accelerate ageing.

5.12 Particle Detectors

Ions separated by radiation can be transformed directly or indirectly into an electric

signal, or in some case into a permanent chemical change to detect ionising

4 Frederick Reines and Clyde L. Cowan, Jr., Measurement of the free antineutrino absorption cross

section by protons, Phys. Rev. 113 (1959), p 273.

5.12 Particle Detectors 93

Amplifier
R

Fig. 5.18 Schematics of a typical solid-state detector. The material is a semiconductor, with a
junction on one surface and a highly doped layer on the other surface. The typical thickness is 0.1
to 0.5 mm. The electrodes can also have the shape of strips or pixels, for spatial resolution. The
electric charges are separated by the radiation and drift in the electric field of a reverse-biased diode
structure. This generates a current, which is amplified by an external circuit and can be observed
with an oscilloscope. Positive ions in semiconductor crystals are called holes: the lack of electrons
move like bubbles in a liquid towards the negatively charged electrode

radiation. This happens in X-ray films, where the radiation ionises crystals of AgBr;
the subsequent chemical treatment removes bromine, leaving metallic silver as a
dark area in the film only in the areas which have been exposed to radiation.
In solid-state detectors, charged particles lose their energy, which partially goes
into crystal excitations, i.e. phonons, and partly to generate electron-hole pairs. On
average 3.6 eV is needed for a single pair in silicon, and a signal of ≈ 3 × 104
electrons can be generated by a minimum ionising particle. Electrons and positive
ions (“holes”) drift in an electric field in a reverse-biased diode structure and
generate a current pulse, which is amplified electronically, as sketched in Fig. 5.18.
In this case the distribution of pulse heights is proportional to the distribution of
energy loss. For thin detectors it is a modified Landau distribution.
In gas-operated detectors the same mechanisms are in place, but the energy loss
in a gas is typically smaller than in solids, because of the density factor. A smaller
electric charge is produced. To have a detectable electric signal the method of charge
amplification with gas discharge is used: the primary electrons, i.e. those generated
by radiation, are drifted to a small sized electrode, like a tiny wire; in its vicinity the
electric field is large enough that electrons acquire energy to ionise other molecules
of the gas. The resulting electric signal can be furtherly amplified with external
electronic circuits. When the internal amplification factor, which is controlled by
the voltage and diameter of the wire and by the gas pressure, is relatively small
the signal amplitude is proportional to the initial ionisation. The detector is called a
proportional chamber. When the gas gain is large we have the Geiger counters.
94 5 Passage of Radiation Through Matter

Scintillating detector
P D1 D3 D5 D7

D1 D2 Dn
P ..... A signal

-HV

Fig. 5.19 Schematics of a scintillator coupled to a photomultiplier: a scintillator detector (S)

produces flashes of light when hit by ionising radiation; light is transmitted through a window
to the vacuum tube where a photocathode (P) emits an electron for every photon; electrons are
amplified by secondary emission in the various dynodes (Dn ); the electric signal is collected
at the anode (A)

The Geiger tube is named after Hans Geiger (1982–1945) from Germany, who
worked from 1907 to 1912 with E. Rutherford in Manchester, UK and then
taught in Tubingen and Berlin, Germany.

A third important class consists of scintillating detectors: all materials emit

photons when they are ionised and the electric charges recombine; in the majority
of cases the light is also re-absorbed; in scintillator materials this light can be
transmitted over a large distance and collected by a light-sensitive electronic
device, to be transformed into electric signals. In general, scintillating detectors
are made of two-component materials: a light-transparent material which hosts
a lower concentration of photoluminescence centres that emit at a wavelength
which is not attenuated by the hosting material. An example is thallium in sodium
iodide crystal. The energy from primary electrons activates the photoluminescence
centres, which produce very small flashes of light, which is detected by a device
called a photomultiplier, as sketched in Fig. 5.19. Scintillating detectors can be
solid inorganic, as NaI(Tl) or solid organic, like plastic scintillators, or liquid.
Scintillators are also used to enhance the sensitivity of photographic films to X-rays,
as shown in Fig. 5.22.
Detectors can be used to measure particle energies, or the position where
particles hit the detectors, e.g. for imaging, or also the time when particles hit the
detector. For each application there are advantages and disadvantages of the various
technologies. One parameter which is common to all detectors is the efficiency,
which is calculated as the fraction of incident radiation which gives an electric signal
which is recognised as such. Energy resolution is an important parameter, especially
5.13 Biological Effects of Radiation 95

for spectroscopy. Particle detectors are used to measure the energy of the radiation
emitted by radionuclides, which is their identifying “fingerprint”. In this case the
energy resolution is a very important parameter.

5.13 Biological Effects of Radiation

Energy deposited by radiation in living cells has the same effects of creating ions,
increasing the temperature locally and generating other radiation. Ionising the saline
solution inside cells or the water between cells creates free radicals, which are
chemically very reactive. Their presence may have several effects: from killing cells
to generating mutations, including carcinogenic ones. The effect of radiation in a
living tissue is measured by the absorbed energy weighted by a factor that takes into
account how this energy is distributed. This is the equivalent radiation dose and is
measured in Sievert (Sv), The factor WR depends on the radiation type and ranges
from 1, for gamma rays, to 20 for α particles and heavy ions:

Equivalent radiation dose = absorbed dose × WR ; (5.49)

1 Sv = 1 Gy × WR

Living cells have natural repair mechanisms to the radiation effects, it is also very
important to consider the time interval in which this dose is delivered, which is the
equivalent dose rate, in Sievert per hour (Sv/h) or per year (Sv/y). The same dose has
the highest effects if it is delivered in a short time. Radiation is used to kill germs and
sterilise equipment and food. It is also used to kill cancer cells: radiotherapy uses
alpha and beta-emitting radionuclides linked to molecules which are attracted to
cancer cells; hydrotherapy uses collimated beams of charged particles with tunable
energy, so that the position of the Bragg peak corresponds to the depth of the tumour.
The same radiation, if administered to healthy organs, will kill their cells in exactly
the same way and may also cause cancer. An equivalent dose of 1 Sv corresponds
to a 5.5% probability of developing cancer from radiation.
We are constantly exposed to natural radiation, from cosmic rays, from radon
gas, from other radioactive minerals, like 40 K. In general, we absorb an equivalent
dose of approximately 1.5–5 mSv/y from natural sources, depending on the location
where we live: it is mainly linked to geology and altitude. In Europe the limit on the
effective dose for occupational exposure is presently 20 mSv/y. For all manipulation
of radioactive sources or operation of X-ray equipment the principle of reducing all
unnecessary exposure must be applied.
Other units of exposure are the rem, which originally stands for Röntgen
equivalent for men: 1 rem = 0.01 Sv. It is now based on the rad: 1 rad = 100 Gy.
These units are presently officially used only in the USA.
96 5 Passage of Radiation Through Matter

5.14 Radiography

To obtain X-ray images of objects or parts of our body (Fig. 5.20), the object is
placed between a X-ray tube and an imaging detector, which can be a special
photographic film or an electronic detector. What we see is the shadow of the object
projected onto the detector. At a given X-ray energy or wavelength, materials of
different Z have different absorption coefficients: while water and other tissue can
be transparent, bones which contain calcium absorb the X-rays and project a shadow
onto the film.
The ideal generator would produce single-energy X-rays from a point-like source
at large distance from the object, in such a way that the rays can be considered as
parallel to each other, and objects project a sharp “shadow”. The ideal detector has

Fig. 5.20 Shadow of a human hand projected on an X-ray detector. The part in black the film has
been hit by X-rays, while the parts which have remained white have been shadowed by the bones,
which have absorbed the X-rays
5.14 Radiography 97

Fig. 5.21 Schematics of an X-ray tube. Electrons are produced by an incandescent filament in
vacuum; the production process is called thermionic emission; they are accelerated with the high
voltage to the desired energy. When they hit the cathode they produce a continuum spectrum
due to bremsstrahlung, but they also ionise the cathode atoms. When the electron energy is
larger than the K energy levels, occupied by the innermost electrons, also the characteristic X-ray
fluorescence lines of the cathode material are emitted. These lines are monoenergetic. Depending
on the application, the lower part of the spectrum may be intentionally suppressed by a filter, to
reduce the dose to the patient and to minimise the energy dispersion. The cathode is heated by the
electron current, which may reach 1 A. A rotating cathode is sometimes used for high intensities.
The cathode is inclined, because the X-ray emission is maximum in the direction perpendicular to
the electron velocity. To avoid penumbra effects on the film, the electrons are focused to reduce the
size of the X-ray source

100% efficiency, a granularity of the order of micrometres and a linear response over
several orders of magnitude. The aim is to have an excellent resolution, maximum
contrast, while minimising the radiation dose to the patient. In reality an equipment
is the best available compromise. Operating voltages range from 25 to 140 kV,
anodes are typically made of tungsten, for general purpose, or molybdenum for
soft X-ray mammography. Their K-level emission lines are Eγ = 69.5 and 20 keV,
respectively. Currents can reach 1 A and the lower part of the spectrum (E ≤ Eγ )
is filtered out to minimise the dose to the patient.
The detector can be a simple, but specific, photographic film, which may have
an enhanced detection efficiency by using a scintillator device, which converts X-
rays into light. Digital radiography uses either a light-sensitive device to detect
scintillation light, or pixelated detectors which convert directly X-rays into electric
signals and then into an image. This gives immediate feedback, without any
chemical processing of the film. A sketch of the devices is shown in Figs. 5.21 and
5.22.
98 5 Passage of Radiation Through Matter

X-rays

"arm"
cross section

Film
Scintillating screen

Fig. 5.22 Cross section sketch of an arm in contact with a radiology film detector. Two layers of
scintillating material are used to enhance the sensitivity to X-rays of the photo-sensitive film. Black
areas correspond to areas which were exposed to the X-rays, light areas are those in the shade of
material with high Z, like bones. The contrast depends on the difference of absorption coefficients
(μ) of the various materials at the dominant X-ray energy. Electronic detectors can replace the film
and lower the dose to the patient

The unavoidable Compton scattering inside the object, or patient, deflects the
incoming X-rays and reduces their energy, adding a noise component to the image
and decreasing the contrast. Special collimators can be used to reduce this effect,
at the price of efficiency, while energy-sensitive detectors can be used to filter out
Compton-scattered photons.

5.15 Problems

5.1 A case study: an X-ray tube operates in the range 25–140 kV. Calculate the
range of 40 keV electrons hitting a silver anode. (ρ = 10.5 g/cm3 , M =
107.87 g/mol). For this study we can in first approximation neglect the energy
lost by radiation. Will the obtained value be larger or smaller than the real
one? Assume a current of 10 mA, calculate the energy loss in 1 s in the
anode and compare this value with the purely electrical power. Assuming no
heat exchange, a mass of the anode ma = 20 g, and a heat capacity Ch =
25 J/mol/K, calculate the temperature of the anode after 10 s of continuous
operation.
5.2 A radiology lab uses 40 keV X-rays from an apparatus with a silver anode,
whose measured emission spectrum is shown in Fig. 5.23. The walls of the
lab need to be thick enough to contain the radiation. What thickness of lead is
needed to attenuate the radiation intensity to 0.1% of the initial value?
What thickness is needed if we use concrete instead?.
The energy of the Ag emission lines Kβ and Kα and the corresponding
attenuation coefficients for lead are reported in Table 5.1. The lead density
is 11.3 g/cm3 . Should we use the kβ or the spectrum end-point energy? The
attenuation coefficient for concrete at 40 keV is 0.5 cm2 /g and its density is
2.4 g/cm3 .
5.16 Solutions 99

Fig. 5.23 Spectrum of X-rays emitted by a tube with silver anode, operated at 40 kV and
measured with a CdTe detector (Courtesy Amptek, Inc. www.Amptek.com)

Table 5.1 Table of the X-ray Line E (keV) μ(cm2 /g)

attenuation coefficients in
lead, for three values of the kα 22 70
X-ray energy kβ 25 45
Bremsst. 40 14

5.4 Calculate the range of 5 MeV α particles (z = 2) in nitrogen at standard condi-

tions, which is an approximation for air, with density ρ = 1.2mg/cm3, Z = 7
and atomic mass M = 14.00 g/mol. The mass of an α particle is mα =
3727.3 MeV/c2 .
5.5 A radioactive source of 90 Sr emits β − with an end-point of 546 keV. Calcu-
late the range of electrons in aluminium, neglecting radiative energy losses.
What thickness of aluminium would shield 99% of all radiation, including
bremsstrahlung? Aluminium: M = 26.98 g/mol, ρ = 2.7 g/cm3 .

5.16 Solutions

Solution to 5.1 First of all we verify that the kinematics of 40 keV electrons can be
approximated by non-relativistic formulae, so Eq. (5.41) is valid. From Eq. (5.41)
we first calculate the average ionisation energy I = 22.8 + 47 × 9.7 = 480 eV
100 5 Passage of Radiation Through Matter

to be used in the average of the log term:

 
2 × 511 × 40 keV2
L = ln = 4.42
511 × 0.48 keV2

we have:

0.0016 MeV2 0.511 107.00 g/mol

R = 0.5 ×
0.078 MeV cm2 0.511 47 × 10.5 g/cm3
2

1
× = 0.0005 cm = 5 μm
4.42
This value is larger than the real depth of electrons because we have neglected
the braking radiation and because the trajectory of electrons inside the material is
not a straight line. However, we have an order of magnitude of a few micrometres
of the anode which takes part to the X-ray emission. 10 mA= 10−2 C/s=
10−2 /1.6 × 10−19 = 6.25 × 1016 e/s. In 1 s the energy loss is

6.25 × 1016 × 40 × 103 = 250 × 1019 eV = 250 × 1019 × 1.6 × 10−19 = 400 J

The value of the electrical energy is

W = I V t = 10−2 A × 40 × 103 V × 1 s = 400 J

The temperature of the anode increases by T

W ma 400 × 10
T = t × = 10 s × = 14 K
MCh 107.87 × 25
Even with a very modest current, the temperature of the anode increases
considerably. This is the reason why rotating or water-cooled cathodes are used
in industrial applications.
Solution to 5.2 As the photoelectric cross section for a given material decreases
with the cube of the X-ray energy, we consider the maximum energy in the
spectrum, which is 40 keV. The attenuation coefficient for lead is μ = ρμ =
11.3 × 14 = 158.2 cm−1 .

N(x)/N(0) = e−μ x = 0.001; ⇒ −μ x = ln(0.001);

1
x=− ln(0.001) = 6.91/158.2 = 0.4 mm
μ

In case of concrete μ = ρμ = 2.4 × 0.5 = 1.2 cm−1 and

1
x=− ln(0.001) = 6.91/1.2 = 5.7 cm
μ
5.16 Solutions 101

Fig. 5.24 Energy loss profile

1.6
of 5 MeV α particles in air, as
calculated with a numerical
integration of Eq. (5.39) 1.4

Energy deposited in 5 μm [keV]

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Position along the trajectory [cm]

Solution to 5.4 From Eq. (5.41) we first calculate the average ionisation energy
I = 22.8 + 7 × 9.7 = 90.7 eV to be used in the average of the log term:
 
2 × 0.511 × 5 MeV2
L = ln = 2.86
3727.3 × 9 × 10−5 MeV2

we have:

25 MeV2 0.511 14.00 g/mol 0.25

R = 0.5 × × = 3.2 cm
0.078 MeV 2
cm2 3727.3 7 × 1.2 × 10−3 g/cm3 2.86

Alpha particles are absorbed by a few centimetres of air (Fig. 5.24).

Solution to 5.5 From Eq. (5.41) we first calculate the average ionisation energy
for aluminium: I = 22.8 + 13 × 9.7 = 149 eV to be used in the average of the
log term:
 
2 × 0.511 × 0.546 MeV2
L = ln = 8.89
0.511 × 1.49 × 10−4 MeV2

we have:

0.298 MeV2 0.511 26.98 g/mol 1

R = 0.5 × × = 0.33 cm
0.078 MeV2 cm2 0.511 13 × 2.7 g/cm3 8.89
102 5 Passage of Radiation Through Matter

The β particles from 90 Sr are stopped by a few mm of aluminium. In addition,

they produce bremsstrahlung radiation, with end-point at 546 keV and charac-
teristic K-lines of aluminium, at 1.6 keV. The low-energy X-rays from Al can
be easily shielded either by aluminium itself or by a thin layer of shielding with
higher Z. To shield at 99% from bremsstrahlung we can consider to use iron,
with ρ = 7.86 g/cm3 and μ = 0.084 cm2 /g.

−μ x = ln(0.01) ⇒ x = 4.6/0.66 ≈ 7 cm

Bibliography and Further Reading

L. Cerrito, Radiation and Detectors (Springer International Publishing, Singapore, 2017)

A. Del Guerra, Ionizing Radiation Detectors for Medical Imaging (World Scientific, Singapore,
2004)
R. Fernow, Introduction to Experimental Particle Physics (Cambridge University Press, Cam-
bridge, 1986)
G.F. Knoll, Radiation Detection and Measurement (Wiley, New York, 2012)
W.R. Leo, Techniques for Nuclear and Particle Physics Experiments (Springer, Berlin, 1993)
B.R. Martin, Nuclear and Particle Physics - An Introduction, 2nd edn. (Wiley, Chichester, 2009)
B. Povh et al., Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts (Springer, Berlin,
2015)
E. Segré Nuclear and Particle Physics (W. A. Benjamin, Reading, 1977)
M.G. Stabin, Radiation Protection and Dosimetry (Springer Science+Business Media, New York,
2007)
S. Tavernier, Experimental Techniques in Nuclear and Particle Physics (Springer, Berlin, 2010)
J.E. Turner, Atoms, Radiation, and Radiation Protection (Wiley WCH, Weinheim, 2007)
Chapter 6
Introduction to Particle Physics

6.1 Introduction to Fundamental Interactions

We have experience from everyday life of the electromagnetic and the gravitational
interactions. Their form is similar, but the relative strength is really different.

m1 m2 1 q1 q2
F = GN ; F = ; (6.1)
r2 4π0 r 2

They are both long-range forces, they have a nice “geometrical” variation with 1/r 2 ,
which is very convenient in a 3-dimensional world. The mass plays the role of
“gravitational charge”. This is the equivalence principle of general relativity. The
ratio of the two forces for an electron and a proton, at any arbitrary distance, which
cancels out in the ratio, is 10−39 . So gravity is completely negligible in particle
physics. There is no theory of quantum gravity yet. Let’s now look at other forces.
From the structure of the atomic nucleus, it is clear that there must exist a force
which binds together protons and neutrons. This force has to be stronger than the
electrostatic repulsive force between protons, which are all positively charged. It
is called “strong nuclear force”. Its effects are negligible in ordinary matter. This
means that the strong nuclear force must have a limited range, within the size of the
nucleus, which is a few femtometres in radius (1 fm = 10−15 m) (Fig. 6.1).

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018 103

S. D’Auria, Introduction to Nuclear and Particle Physics,
Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93855-4_6
104 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

p
Fig. 6.1 Initial (1934) model of the weak interaction involving four particles. The β decay
of the neutron is shown in the t − x plane. Time is along the horizontal axis. This type of
interaction is not mediated by any force. All particles are in contact at the interaction time,
and it is called “4-fermion contact interaction”. We now know that the β decay is mediated
by the W boson

Nuclides decaying β emit particles in the 0.1–1 MeV energy range with a
continuous distribution, thus indicating the emission of a second particle, which
escapes detection; this particle does not ionise matter and, therefore, has to be
electrically neutral. The other neutral particle we have met so far in this book is
the neutron, which was discovered by James Chadwick in 1932. Neutrons decay
with an average lifetime of about 14 40". The decay products are a proton, an
electron and “something else”, which must be also neutral, and have a small mass.
This particle was called neutrino, which stands for “the little neutral” particle. It
escaped direct detection until 1956. The fact that this particle escapes detection
means that its interaction with other particles, in particular electrons and protons,
has to be particularly weak. Hence the name of weak nuclear force. The relatively
long lifetime of the neutron is also an indication of the weak force involved in its
decay. The neutrino is our probe to the weak force, which is so weak that neutrinos
can traverse the planet earth without interacting. The weak force does not produce
any bound state of the matter. It is only visible in decays and is universal: all the
spin 1/2 fundamental particles that we know of are subject to the weak force.

The (anti) neutrino was experimentally discovered in 1956 by Clyde Cowan,

Frederick Reines et al. using as a source the Savannah River nuclear plant, in
South Carolina, USA. Reines was awarded the Nobel prize in 1995.

The strong nuclear force keeps together quarks, to form particles which we
call mesons and baryons. Protons and neutrons are the only baryons we have met
so far. Neutrons are our probe to the nuclear force: they are neutral and do not
interact, or interact very weakly, with the long-range electromagnetic force. Its
strong interaction is the residual interaction of a more fundamental one, the quantum
chromo dynamics (QCD), which holds together the components of neutrons and
protons: the quarks. The fundamental forces are listed in Table 6.1.
6.2 Strength and Range of the Interactions 105

Table 6.1 Comparison of the apparent strength of the fundamental forces, relative to the
electromagnetic force
Force Strength Carrier Symbol Mass
Electromagnetic 1 Photon γ 0
Weak 10−5 Vector bosons Z0 , W ± 91–80
Strong 103 Gluons (8) g 0
Gravitation 10−39 Graviton? G 0
The mass of the force carriers is in GeV/c2 . There is no experimentally established quantum
theory that includes gravity, so the existence of graviton is still hypothetical

It should be noted, in passing, that neutrons, even though are electrically

neutral, have a “residual” electromagnetic interaction: its magnetic moment is
μn = −1.913 × μN = −1.913 × eh̄/2mp . This is explained by the fact that it
is a composite particle, made by quarks, which are electrically charged.

Forces are mediated by fields. The reader may be familiar with the electric and
magnetic fields. In every point of our laboratory space we can define a quantity,
actually a “little arrow”, a vector, indicating the electric field E in that point, and
the same for the magnetic field B.  The charged particles feel a force, which is
proportional to the value of the field in that point. We also know that rapidly varying
electromagnetic fields are radio waves and light. In this example the electromagnetic
force is mediated by the corresponding fields (E,  B),
 which can be represented
in relativistic notation by a single field A(x), the 4-vector potential. There is a
quantum particle corresponding to this field and it is the photon. It has zero mass,
and therefore in vacuum it always travels at a constant speed, the speed of light.
Similarly, the strong and weak interactions have a corresponding field, which results
into particles which carry, or mediate, the force. The weak interaction is mediated
by two particles, which are massive : the W ± and the Z 0 . The strong interaction is
mediated by the gluons, which are massless, like the photon, but are “prisoners of
their strength”: they cannot exist as free particles, they are confined inside other,
composite, particles.

6.2 Strength and Range of the Interactions

We’ll now make some quantitative statements about the strength of the fundamental
forces, trying to avoid, if possible, to purely put them into categories. In doing
so we have to consider not only the strength but also the range of a force. The
electromagnetic force has infinite range. We’ll see that the strong and the weak
nuclear force have a limited range, but for very different reasons. We’ll need some
results from quantum mechanics to be more quantitative.
106 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

The Heisenberg uncertainty relations link the energy available for a decay to
the lifetime of the corresponding particle. From the general Heisenberg uncertainty
relation:
h̄
E t ≥ (6.2)
2
we can define the decay width  as

h̄
= (6.3)
2τ
where τ is the average lifetime of the decay. A stable particle has a very definite
value of its mass. The mass of unstable particles can only be measured in a finite
time interval of their existence before they decay. As time and energy are conjugate
variables, they are subject to the quantum mechanics uncertainty. The mass of a
particle is its energy when it is at rest, so also the mass of unstable particles has an
intrinsic range of variation. We measure the mass of unstable particles by measuring
the energy and momenta of the decay products and calculating the invariant mass,
as in Eq. (2.39). When repeating the experiment several times, the resulting values
of the invariant mass will not be all the same. One component of uncertainty is
the experimental error, but even when this is reduced to a minimum value, the
distribution of masses is not a narrow line, but a bell-shaped curve, which is not
a Gaussian, and whose width is larger when the lifetime is shorter. The width of this
curve is the intrinsic variation of the mass and is indicated with . Its dimensions
are the same as an energy.
In particle physics it is usual to measure masses in MeV/c2 or GeV/c2 . As an
example, the Z 0 has an average value of the mass of (91.188 ± 0.002) GeV/c2 and
a width of (2.495 ± 0.002) GeV/c2 , or 2.7% of the mass value, as shown in Fig. 6.2.
Considering unstable particles, we would expect that particles of approximatively
the same mass would also have about the same average lifetime, if the decay
occurs with only one fundamental interaction, because the energy available to the
final states is about the same. In Fig. 6.3 we can see that the lifetimes of these
mesons vary by 15 orders of magnitude. Three interactions play their role, with
different strength, and, therefore, with different decay times, which are longer for
weaker interactions. The weak interactions are characterised experimentally by
relatively large lifetimes,1 which are of the order of 10+3 ( neutron) to 10−12 s. By
comparison, the electromagnetic decays have lifetimes of 10−18 to 10−20 s and the
strong decays have lifetimes of the order of 10−22 s. Of course, several corrections
must be applied to this “rule of thumb”, but this is an indication of the various

1 The most notable exception to the large lifetimes rule is the top quark, which decays weakly, but

very rapidly, due to its very large mass.

6.2 Strength and Range of the Interactions 107

Fig. 6.2 The intrinsic width of the Z 0 boson has been measured very precisely by measuring
its production cross section in e+ e− collisions at various energies. The width of the Z 0
depends on the total number of light neutrino species existing, so this figure which illustrates
the natural width of a particle is also the experimental proof that there are just three types of
light neutrinos (from Phys. Reports, 427, 5–6 (2006), p. 277)

“strength” of the forces that are involved, or one of the motivation to introduce three
different forces. In general, reactions can be divided into scattering

A+B →C +D; 2 initial → 2 final , (6.4)

where A, B, C and D are particles, and decays, like

B →C+D (6.5)

In both cases we want to calculate the transition rate: in the first case we calculate
the cross section, σ in the other the lifetime, or the decay width  = h̄/τ .
There is a general rule to calculate the rate for these reactions to occur, factorising
the components. The reaction rate in case of a 2 → 2 reaction depends on the flux
108 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

2500
Electromagnetic Weak
Mass (MeV/c^2)

2000 0
D

1500

1000 η'
0
η KL
0
500 Ks
Strong
π0 π+/-
0
10-23 10-22 10-2110-2010-19 10-1810-17 10-1610-15 10-1410-13 10-12 10-1110-10 10-9 10-8
Lifetime τ (s)

Fig. 6.3 Lifetime of some mesons as a function of their mass. Lifetimes span 15 orders of
magnitudes. Strong decays occur with very short lifetime in the range 10−21 to 10−23 s, and only
have lighter mesons as decay products. Electromagnetic decays have lifetimes of the order of 10−18
to 10−21 s and have photons in the final state. Weak decays have, in general, a much longer lifetime,
and include leptons in the possible final states

JA of the incident particles and on the number density NB of the target particles, as
we have seen before:
NA
Wr = J Nσr = I ρ δx σr (6.6)
MA

where ρ is the density of the target, NA the Avogadro’s number, MA the atomic
weight in a.m.u. , or Dalton, Eq. (7.10), and δx the thickness of the target. The
quantity J N is called the Luminosity and it gives the rate, once it is multiplied by
the effective cross section σr .
In the case of a decay (Eq. (6.5)), the decay rate, as shown in Chap. 4, depends
on the initial number of particles N and on the mean lifetime τ = h̄/ . We
want to calculate the decay width and/or the scattering cross section. Grouping
the two cases, we calculate the transition rate from an initial to a final state. This
calculation can be factorised: one part depends only on the initial and final states
and one part is specific to the interaction. The mathematical space of coordinate and
momenta of a given physical system is called the phase space. For a free, point-like
particle it is a six-dimensional space R6 . The term linked to the final states is purely
quantum origin: the transition rate depends on the density of the phase space which
is available to the decay products. It depends on the energy available to the final
states. Let’s call this factor ρf . When considering a decay, if there is not enough
6.2 Strength and Range of the Interactions 109

energy available to the final products, the phase space term is zero. For a decay we
can write

 = ρf |Mif |2 (6.7)

The term which depends on the nature of the interaction is called “the square of the
transition amplitude” |Mif |2 from the initial (i) to the final (f) state

2π
Wr = J N ρf |Mif |2 (6.8)
h̄
or

σ = ρf |Mif |2 (6.9)

This term takes into account the interaction strength. The equations above
(Eqs. (6.9) and (6.7)) are called the Fermi’s golden rule. We’ll see a qualitative
application of it when considering the β ± decays. The argument of linking the
decay time with interaction strength can now be made more quantitative: the phase
space factor depends on the mass of the particle, which is about constant, so the
variation is given by the amplitude, which is different for different interactions.
We have already encountered a cross section calculation, the K-N cross section
for the Compton scattering (Eq. (5.34)), which is an electromagnetic process. The
amplitude term contains the electric charge, or the fine structure constant, and the
angular variation.

Fermi’s golden rule, although was originally found by P.A.M. Dirac, is

named after Enrico Fermi, 1901–1954, Nobel prize in 1938, who stressed the
importance of this formula.

For a generic interaction, we assume that it is invariant for time reversal (T ) and
parity (space inversion) (P ) we have that

|Mif |2 = |Mf i |2 . (6.10)

This is called the principle of detailed balance. It was experimentally confirmed

for the strong interaction, as shown in Fig. 6.4. The weak interaction violates
T-invariance, but to a first approximation detailed balance still holds true for the
weak interaction. At this point we want to calculate Mif . The calculation is
easier if we are allowed to consider the interaction as a small perturbation to the
propagation of free particles. We cannot do so in some cases, for instance, for the
strong nuclear force at low energies. However, this method works very well for the
electromagnetic and weak interactions, giving results that match the experimental
values. To quantify the concept of “small perturbation” we can introduce the so-
called structure constants. We have already introduced the fine structure constant
110 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

Fig. 6.4 Experimental E [MeV]

confirmation of the detailed 13.40 13.42 13.44 13.46 13.48
balance: the reaction 7
24 Mg + α  27Al + p can 20

proceed both ways. After

normalising for the 6
experimental set-up and for

[mb/sr]
the phase space factors, the

[mb/sr]
15
differential cross section 5
dσ /d% of the two reactions

Al (p, ) 24Mg d /d
has the same dependence on

24Mg ( ,p) 27Al d /d

the energy of the incoming 4

particle (p or α). Reprinted 10

with permission from W. von
3
Witsch, A. Richter, and P. von
o
Brentano, Phys. Rev. Letters CM = 172.6
27

19, n. 9 (1967) copyright 2

(1967) by the American 5
Physical Society
1

10.26 10.28 10.30 10.32 10.34

Ep[MeV]

for the electromagnetic interaction (Eq. (5.37)):

e2 1
αem ≡ ≈ = 7.297 × 10−3 (6.11)
4π0 h̄c 137.04

This number is also called a coupling and, so long as it is well below the numerical
value of 1, we can use perturbation theory. In practice, it is like approximating a
function with the first or second term of its Taylor series. The terms of the series are
proportional to powers of the coupling of the interaction under consideration.
The purpose of the following arguments is to show that the weak nuclear force
has the same strength as electromagnetic force, although, at a first sight, they seem
so different.
First of all, we have to guess a potential for the new short-ranged nuclear
interactions. The nuclear force has been shown to have a range beneath which its
effects are negligible. Hideki Yukawa (Fig. 6.5), back in 1935, introduced a potential
which modifies the 1/r shape, which is typical of a Coulomb potential, with an
exponential function. The new term reduces the effects of the corresponding force
at a distance larger than a “characteristic distance” which we call R.

g 2 1 −r/R
V (r) = e (6.12)
4π r
6.2 Strength and Range of the Interactions 111

Fig. 6.5 Hideki Yukawa, 1907–1981, Nobel prize in 1949 for having predicted the existence
of the π meson. He was born and educated in Japan. His name was Ogawa, he adopted his
wife’s family name, as she had no brother. Photo from April 1951, Asahi Shimbun newspaper

102
10
1
10-1
V(r) [a.u.]

10-2
10-3
10-4
10-5
10-6
10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10
r [fm]

Fig. 6.6 The Yukawa potential (solid line) is qualitatively compared to the Coulomb
potential (dashed line). The two have the same shape for r < R ≈ 1 fm, but the Yukawa
potential goes exponentially to zero at large r. Note the logarithmic scale on both axes

where g is the “charge” of the interaction and R is the range of the force. A
qualitative comparison between the Yukawa and the Coulomb potentials is shown
in Fig. 6.6. In his original article Yukawa applied this principle to the strong
interaction, which experimentally has a range R ≈ 10−15 m. In physical terms, the
quantum of electromagnetic interaction is the photon, which is massless. Suppose
that the quantum that mediates an interaction has a mass m, then it can only
appear for a time t which is limited by the uncertainty principle (Eq. (6.2)):
112 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

t ≤ h̄/(2mc2 ). In other words, the interaction has a range R

h̄ c
R ≈ c t = (6.13)
2m c2
This is the “Compton wavelength” of a particle of mass m. If we use the
experimental value of the radius of a proton R ≈ 10−15 m, then the mass of the
mediator of the force is mc2 = h̄c/(2R) ≈ 100 MeV. There is indeed a particle,
which is called a pion and is denoted by the symbol π ±,0 , whose mass is 140
GeV/c2 . Thus the pion was assumed to be the fundamental particle mediating the
strong force. The pion can be used to describe the p−n scattering, but we now know
that it is not a fundamental particle. The strong interaction is more complicated
than that. These ideas, or heuristic arguments, however, turned out to be applicable
to the weak interactions, as follows. In quantum perturbation theory the Born2
approximation relates the amplitude of the probability for a particle to scatter off
a potential V (r) to the Fourier transform of the potential:

q r
M( q ) = d 3 rV (r )ei h̄ (6.14)

We can start from the result above, and use for V the Yukawa potential to obtain the
transition rate. We include the Yukawa potential (Eq. (6.12)), replacing R with the
Compton wavelength of a particle of mass mx , as in Eq. (6.13) into Eq. (6.14) and
we perform the integral. This calculation is shown in detail in the next section. We
obtain
g 2 h̄2
M(q 2) = (6.15)
|
q |2 + m2x c2
This result assumes that the target particle is extremely heavy, so that it can be
treated as a potential source in a fixed position. In general, this is not the case. The
correct and relativistically invariant result is instead the following:

g 2 h̄2
M(q2 ) = (6.16)
|q|2 − m2x c2
The denominator of the equation above (Eq. (6.16)) is called the propagator. The
low-energy limit (q → 0) of the above formula is a constant, which we call GF
(Fermi’s constant):

g 2 h̄2
− GF = (6.17)
m2x c2

2 After Max Born, 1882–1970, from Germany, he taught in Göttingen, Cambridge and Edinburgh

and was awarded the Nobel prize in 1954, for his fundamental research in quantum mechanics,
especially in the statistical interpretation of the wave function.
6.2 Strength and Range of the Interactions 113

In the right-hand side of the equation above there are two quantities which we do
not know: the “coupling” g and the mass of the mediating particle mx . However, the
value of GF can be calculated from the experimental value of the muon lifetime.
We actually calculate GF /(h̄c)3 , to obtain the correct units [Energy]−2. We define
a “structure constant” for the weak interaction and we call it αW , along the lines of
the fine structure constant αEM (Eq. (6.11)):

g2
αW = (6.18)
4π h̄c

This is a dimension-less constant, which we can use in the definition of GF instead

of g

GF h̄2 g 2 4π g2 4παW
G = 3
= 3 2 2
= 2 4 = (6.19)
(h̄c) 3
h̄ c mx c mx c 4π h̄c m2x c4

From the experimental lifetime of the muon decay we get value of the Fermi’s
constant:

G = GF /(h̄c)3 = 1.166 × 10−5 GeV−2 (6.20)

Now, let’s assume, as a heuristic hypothesis that

αweak ≈ αem = α ≈ 1/137 = 7 × 10−3

This means that we can calculate approximately the mass of the mediating particle:
 
2 4πα 4π × 7 × 10−3
mx c = = = 88 GeV
G 1.166 × 10−5

The mediating particles of the weak force have been experimentally discovered in
1984 and are called W ± and Z 0 vector bosons. They indeed have a mass close
to the value which we have calculated “on the back of the envelope”. This means
that our initial guess αW ≈ αEM was correct: the weak nuclear force has about the
same coupling as the electromagnetism. This is why we now speak of electroweak
interactions, because they are essentially unified.
In summary: there are two ways for an interaction to be weak: to have small
values for the coupling constant and/or to be mediated by massive particles, which
means it has a short range. The latter is the case of the weak interaction: it is not
so weak, per se: it has similar couplings as the electromagnetic interaction, but it is
mediated by two massive particles.
The next section is dedicated to show how Eq. (6.15) is calculated from Eqs.
(6.12) and (6.14).
114 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

6.3 The Yukawa Potential in Born Approximation

In this section we explain how from the Yukawa potential and the Born approxima-
tion (Eqs. (6.12) and (6.14)) we obtain the propagator as in Eq. (6.15).
From quantum mechanics: the transition amplitude from a potential is given by

2π ∗
Mif =< ψin |V |ψout >= d 3 rψin (r)V (r)ψout (r) (6.21)
h̄

We consider the case of an incoming plane wave and we assume that the outgoing
wave function is also a plane wave:

qi r qf r
1 1
ψout = √ ei h̄ ; ψin = √ ei h̄ ; (6.22)
Vol Vol

“Vol” indicates the volume in which the wave function is normalised. The case under
study is a Yukawa potential of the type

−g 2 1 − r
V (r) = e R (6.23)
4π r
where R is some characteristic distance, which is given by the uncertainty principle
for a particle of mass Mx :

h̄
R= (6.24)
Mx c

Substituting into (6.21) we have


1 g2 1 r i
Mif = − d 3 r e− R e− /h̄ q·r , (6.25)
Vol 4π r

where q = qi − qf . We can use polar coordinates:

d 3 r = r 2 sin θ dθ dφ dr

and q · r = |q|r cos θ The integral becomes

  
1 − r −i/h̄ qr cos θ 2
e Re r sin θ dθ dφ dr (6.26)
r
 2π  π ∞
re− R e−( /h̄) qr cos θ sin θ dθ dr ; but sin θ dθ = d(cos θ )
r i
dφ
0 0 0
(6.27)
6.3 The Yukawa Potential in Born Approximation 115

 2π  1  ∞
re− R e−( /h̄) qr cos θ d(cos θ )dr |call cos θ = μ
r i
dφ (6.28)
0 −1 0
 ∞  1
re− R e−( /h̄) qrμ dμ
r i
2π dr (6.29)
0 −1

Now the inner integral:

 1
e−( /h̄) qrμ dμ =
i
(6.30)
−1
i h̄ −(i/h̄) qrμ 1 i h̄ −(i/h̄) qr

|−1 = − e+( /h̄) qr =

i
e e (6.31)
qr qr
2 sin (qr/h̄)
= (6.32)
qr/h̄

Substituting into (6.29):

 ∞ 2 sin ( qr
h̄ )
re− R
r
2π qr dr = (6.33)
0 h̄
 ∞
4π
e− R sin (qr/h̄) dr =
r
(6.34)
q/h̄ 0

This can be solved by integrating twice by parts, resulting in:

 ∞ eax
eax sin(bx)dx = (a sin(bx) − a cos(bx)) |∞
0
0 a 2 + b2

where a = −1/R and b = q/h̄; the integral becomes:

 
4π e−∞ 1
(someth. oscill.) − (−q) = (6.35)
q 1/R 2 + q 2 1/R 2 + q 2

1
− 4π (6.36)
1
R2
+ q2

Using the definition of R (Eq. (6.24)) and substituting Eq. (6.36) into Eq. (6.25), we
finally obtain

g 2 h̄2
Mf i = (6.37)
q 2 + Mx2 c2
116 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

which is Eq. (6.15). The volume at the denominator of Eq. (6.25) cancels in the
calculation of the cross section with a volume at the numerator, which comes from
the phase space factor.
Before looking at the strong force we have a look at the particles, which we
believe, at present, are fundamental.

6.4 Fundamental Particles

In this section we’ll introduce the twenty-four fundamental particles, plus the
corresponding 24 anti-particles, and the twelve fundamental fields which carry
the interaction between particles. The particles and fields are primarily classified
according their spin. This quantum number tells us how the quantum wave function
which corresponds to the particle transforms with space rotations.

6.5 Bosons and Fermions

The intrinsic angular momentum, or spin, deeply influences the behaviour of

systems made of many indistinguishable particles. The particles that we believe
are elementary are point-like; they don’t show any spatial extension, as nuclei do.
It is convenient to represent them by tiny little arrows, because all these particles
carry an intrinsic angular momentum, in half-integer or integer units of h̄. This tells
us how the wave function behaves under rotations of the reference frame. The only
fundamental particle that carries no angular momentum, that we know so far, is the
Higgs boson.
The spin-statistics theorem states that all particles which have semi-integer
angular momentum follow Fermi-Dirac statistics and it is subject to the Pauli’s
exclusion principle: no two identical particles can be in the same location of
the phase space, or can have the same quantum numbers. These particles are
collectively named fermions. Fermi-Dirac statistics means, among other things, that
the collective wave function of a system of N indistinguishable particles of the same
type, e.g. N electrons, changes sign if two particles are swapped:

ψ(f1 , f2 , f3 , . . . , fN ) = −ψ(f1 , f3 , f2 , . . . , fN ) (6.38)

In the above formula fi indicates the quantum state of the i th fermion. A conse-
quence of this is that two identical fermions cannot be in the same quantum state:
as particles are indistinguishable, if they are in exactly the same state the wave
function would be symmetrical, or zero. This is Pauli’s exclusion principle. The
wave function, or quantum state, of the system is said to be antisymmetric under
interchange of any two particles. Electrons, protons and neutrons are all fermions.
6.5 Bosons and Fermions 117

Fig. 6.7 Satyendranath Bose (1894–1974) from India, where he was born and educated.
His article “Planck’s Law and the Hypothesis of Light Quanta” was translated to German
by Einstein and published in Zeitschrift für Physik 26:178–181 (1924). Bose had previously
translated Einstein’s article on general relativity into English. He taught at the Universities of
Dhaka and Calcutta. Photo taken in Paris, 1925, courtesy AIP Emilio Segrè Visual Archives

All particles that carry integer spin, in units of h̄, or no angular momentum at all,
follow Bose–Einstein (Fig. 6.7) statistics: the wave function describing a system of
N indistinguishable particles with integer spin does not change sign when swapping
two particle indices:

φ(b1 , b2 , b3 , . . . , bN ) = φ(b1 , b3 , b2 , . . . , nN ) (6.39)

These particles are not subject to the exclusion principle and are called bosons.
Photons, alpha particles and He atoms are bosons. All particles fall in one of
these two categories. Particles are described mathematically as wave functions, in
(relativistic) quantum mechanics. These wave functions are solutions of relativistic
wave equations. The number of “components” of a wave function depends on the
spin of the particle that describes. As an example, a spin-1 particle with mass
is described by a triplet of wave functions: two for the polarisation states which
are transverse (perpendicular) to the particle momentum and one for longitudinal
polarisation (parallel to the momentum). The photon has spin 1, but has no mass
and has no longitudinal polarisation. It is described by the two components of the
electric field which are perpendicular to the photon propagation direction. In general
bosons are described by an odd number of components, fermions by an even number
of components.
118 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

Fermions and Bosons:

• spin 1/2, 3/2 . . . = fermions ;
Pauli’s exclusion principle applies
• spin 0, 1, 2, . . . = bosons;
No exclusion principle, many particles can be in the same state.

6.6 Elementary Bosons

The elementary vector bosons that we know are all carriers of fundamental
interactions:
Electromagnetic: photons have spin 1h̄ and mediate the electromagnetic inter-
action. These are massless force carriers of the electromagnetic interaction and
are described mathematically by vector wave functions A,  with no transverse
component. In quantum electro dynamics (QED) the photon is indicated with γ
and is described by a 4-vector field

A(x) = A0 sin(κx) (6.40)

where  is the polarisation 4-vector and κ is the propagation 4-vector, as shown

in Fig. 6.8.
Weak: W ± and Z 0 are also “vector” bosons, they have spin 1h̄, their non-
relativistic wave function is a 3-component vector, and they are the carriers
of the weak sector of the electroweak interaction. Their masses are mW =

Fig. 6.8 Electromagnetic wave: the electric and magnetic field are perpendicular to each
other; the propagation vector κ is along the propagation direction, the polarisation vector  is
perpendicular to κ
6.7 The Higgs Boson 119

80.385 GeV/c2 and mZ = 91.1876 GeV/c2 . They were predicted theoretically

in 1968 and were discovered experimentally at the Super Proton-antiproton
Synchrotron (SppS) in 1983. The vector bosons decay almost immediately to
a fermion–antifermion pair. As an example, Fig. 6.2 shows the invariant mass
distribution for the Z 0 .

Sheldon Glashow, Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam were awarded the
Nobel prize in 1979 for the electroweak theory which predicted the W ± and
the Z 0 ; Carlo Rubbia and Simon Van Der Meer were awarded the Nobel
prize in 1984 for the experimental discovery of the vector bosons.

Strong: Eight vector bosons called gluons mediate the strong nuclear force, which
is described by the quantum chromo dynamics (QCD). They have spin 1h̄ and
are massless. They have no electric charge, but have a strong charge, which
is conventionally called colour and has nothing to do with the colours in our
ordinary experience.

6.7 The Higgs Boson

The Higgs boson is the only fundamental particle which has no electric charge, spin
zero, and has its own special place in the realm of particles. It is described by a
one-component wave function, which does not change if we rotate the reference
system. Its presence was postulated in 1964 by Peter Higgs and, independently, by
Francois Englert and Robert Brout, as an elegant mathematical solution to provide
mass to particles, while still preserving fundamental symmetries. The explicit mass
terms are replaced with an interaction with the Higgs boson. The peculiarity is that
the strength of this interaction is proportional to the mass of the particle. The Higgs
boson has been detected in 2012 at the Large Hadron Collider, as a peak in the
invariant mass of its decay products: two photons or a pair of Z 0 vector bosons.
As the boson is electrically neutral, and photons are massless, the decay to two
photons has an extremely low branching ratio, due to quantum corrections which
are calculated using higher order calculations. The mass of the Higgs boson was not
predicted by the theory and turned out to be

mH = 125.09 ± 0.24 GeV/c2 (6.41)

The coupling of the Higgs boson is peculiar, because it is proportional to the

mass of particles: it has a very strong interaction with the top quark which is the
heaviest known particle, a strong interaction with the W ± and with the Z 0 and a
very weak interaction with all others, as shown in Fig. 6.9. It has been discovered
in proton–proton collisions with its decay to photons. As photons are massless, and
the Higgs boson is electrically neutral, there is no direct coupling between these two
120 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

κ F vF or κ V vV
1 t

m
ATLAS and CMS
LHC Run 1 WZ

m 10−1

b
10−2 τ

ATLAS+CMS
SM Higgs boson
10−3 μ
[M, ε] fit
68% CL
95% CL
10−4
10−1 1 10 102
Particle mass [GeV]

Fig. 6.9 The coupling of the Higgs boson to other particles is proportional to the mass of the
particle. This has been measured in proton–proton collisions at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC)
by two international collaborations ATLAS and CMS, using data collected at a centre of mass
energy of 7 and 8 TeV (“Run1”). In the vertical axis is the dimension-less coupling strength, on
the horizontal axis the particle mass. ATLAS and CMS Collaboration, J. High Energ. Phys. (2016)
45 Springer (2016)

particles. However some virtual processes, which will be mentioned later, involving
a contribution from the top quark, make possible its coupling both with gluons, for
production, and with photons for its decay. Although the branching fraction of the
Higgs boson decaying to two photons is extremely low, this decay mode is the most
distinctive and useful because of the relatively low background due to the production
of pairs of high-energy photons, as shown in Fig. 6.10.

Peter Higgs and Francois Englert were awarded the Nobel prize in 2013 for
the theoretical discovery of a mechanism that contributes to our understanding
of the origin of mass of subatomic particles. Robert Brout (1928–2011) from
Belgium also contributed to the theoretical prediction of the boson.

6.8 Elementary Fermions: Quarks and Leptons

The fundamental particles which make up the world in terms of matter (and anti-
matter) are the leptons and quarks. They are fermions and are the building blocks
6.8 Elementary Fermions: Quarks and Leptons 121

10000
Events / 2 GeV
Selected diphoton sample

8000 Data 2011+2012

Sig+Bkg Fit (m =126.8 GeV)
H
Bkg (4th order polynomial)
6000 ATLAS Preliminary
H→γ γ
4000

2000
∫
s = 7 TeV, Ldt = 4.8 fb
-1

s = 8 TeV, ∫ Ldt = 20.7 fb

-1

500
Events - Fitted bkg

400
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
100 110 120 130 140 150 160
mγγ [GeV]

Fig. 6.10 Invariant mass distribution of two high-energy photons in “events” from pp collisions at
a centre of mass energy of 7 and 8 TeV. The mass of the Higgs boson is measured from the invariant
mass of the two γ produced in the decay H → γ γ . The plot below shows the background-
subtracted data, where the peak in invariant mass is more evident (from Phys. Lett. B 726 (2013)
Elsevier (2013))

of ordinary matter as we know it, as well as the particles that are created by cosmic
ray interactions and the matter that was present at the early stages of the universe.

Leptons from the Greek λεπτος which means thin, light.

The word quark originates from
Three quarks for Muster Mark!
Sure he hasn’t got much of a bark
And sure any he has it’s all beside the mark.
From the Finnegans wake, by J. Joyce.

Ordinary matter is made of electrons and two types of quarks, which we call up
and down. Electrons have an electric charge −e, while quarks have a fractional
electric charge: qup = 2/3 e and qdown = −1/3 e. Electrons are subject only to
electromagnetic and weak interactions, quarks are subject to all three interactions.
They carry a “colour” charge for the strong interactions: each quark comes in three
colours. This property has nothing to do with the colours of everyday life: it is just
122 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

Table 6.2 Leptons and quarks are arranged in three families

Fam. 1 Fam. 2 Fam. 3 Q(|e|) B L
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
up charm top +2/3 +1/3 0
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜down⎟ ⎜strange⎟ ⎜bottom⎟ −1/3 +1/3 0
⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ e ⎠ ⎝ μ ⎠ ⎝ τ ⎠ −1 0 1
νe νμ ντ 0 0 1
Quarks have fractional electric charge Q and baryon number B = +1/3; leptons have integer, or
zero electric charge, baryon number zero and lepton number L = 1. For anti-particles the quantum
numbers change sign

a label to distinguish the three possible states of a quark. An alternative way is to

think of this property of quarks as a unit vector in an abstract 3-D space, where
the colours are replaced by an abstract |x , |y , |z. So far we know six “types” of
quarks, or six “flavours: up, down, charm, strange, top, bottom (or beauty). They
differ from each other by the value of their mass and electric charge. The first two,
u and d, and the quark s, have almost the same mass.
We have already met the neutrinos: they are fermions, they carry no electric
charge and are subject only to the weak interaction, so they are leptons. For every
charged lepton there is a corresponding neutral lepton, or neutrino. The neutrino
mass is also very small, but recent experiments have demonstrated that their mass is
not zero.
Leptons and quarks can be arranged in three “families”, or “generations” as
columns in Table 6.2, where the first three columns indicate particles of the three
families, the last three columns indicate the corresponding quantum numbers.

In addition to fermions in Table 6.2 we know the following fundamental

particles

γ , Z 0 , W ± , g, H

which are mediators of interactions.

To be correct, we should have three “copies” of each quark, one for each “colour”
charge. When considering the existence of colours, within each family the sum of
the electric charge is zero:

Q = 3 × 2/3 − 3 × 1/3 − 1 = 0 (6.42)

The main difference between families is the value of the particle masses: they
increase from the first to the third family, as shown in Table 6.3. We don’t know why
there are three families: we know experimentally that there are no further families
with the same structure, in particular we know that there are only three types of light
neutrinos.
6.9 Anti-particles 123

Table 6.3 Experimental Mass (MeV)

values of the masses of
fundamental fermions Lepton
e 0.5109989461 ± (31)
μ 105.6583745 ± (24)
τ 1776.86 ± 0.12
Quark
u 2.2 ± 0.5
d 4.7 ± 0.5
c 1280 ± 30
s 96 ± 6
t 173100 ± 600
b 4180 ± 40
The experimental errors in
parenthesis refer to the last
two digits. Data from C. Pa-
trignani et al. (Particle Data
Group), Chin. Phys. C 40,
100001 (2016)

In Table 6.2 each symbol of a particle corresponds to a wave function. For

instance, e− really means ψe (x), i.e. the wave function of an electron; similarly,
for the quark “up” (u) and the quark “down” d = ψd (x). The same applies to other
fundamental particles. In more advanced books these wave functions are properly
extended to represent spin 1/2 particles, by using a multi-component wave function.

6.9 Anti-particles

All fundamental particles with spin 1/2 have a corresponding anti-particle. The
existence of the anti-electron was predicted by P.A.M. Dirac explicitly in 1931,
as a mathematical necessity for a relativistically invariant description of particles
with spin 1/2. The anti-electron, or positron was discovered in cosmic rays in 1932,
while 2 years later the positron-emitting β + decay was discovered. Anti-particles
have exactly the same mass as the corresponding particles, but opposite electric
charge. When a particle and its anti-particle “meet” they may, or may not, because
of the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics, produce a bound state and then
decay into photons. As an example, we have the electron–positron bound state,
called positronium which sometimes is indicated with Ps. Positronium is formed
with low-energy positrons, e.g. those originated from a β + decay, and is produced
in two “forms”, spin-zero and spin-1, which decay into two and three photons,
respectively. In high energy e+ e− collisions the initial particle–anti-particle can
transform themselves into a different pair of particle–anti-particle, like

e+ e− → μ+ μ− or e+ e− → q q (6.43)
124 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

Anti-particles are indicated with a bar above the symbol: in Eq. (6.43), q indicates a
quark and q indicates an anti-quark; if νμ indicates a neutrino of the second family,
which is called muon-neutrino, then the symbol ν μ indicates the corresponding
anti-neutrino. For charged leptons (e, μ, τ ) it is customary to indicate their electric
charge as a superscript: e− for an electron and e+ for a positron; by extension from
the case of electrons, the negatively charged leptons are considered as particles,
while the positively charged leptons are anti-particles. Particles and anti-particles
appear and disappear in pairs: as an example, positronium decays into photons. The
opposite process is called “pair creation” and it occurs when one (or in general more,
to conserve energy-momentum) fundamental boson transform into a particle–anti-
particle pair. As an example, if a photon traversing a medium has sufficient energy
it can transform itself into a pair of e+ e− . An exception to this occurs when the
charged weak W ± boson is involved: it does not couple to a quark and its own anti-
quark, but to a different pair of quark–anti-quark flavours. Charged weak decays are
therefore “flavour changing”. A similar process to those in Eq. (6.43) is

Incidentally, the mathematical operator which transforms a particle quantum

state, or wave function, into the corresponding anti-particle state is called
“charge conjugation”, and indicated with C:

C |e−  = |e+  (6.44)

The electromagnetic and strong interactions are the same for particles and anti-
particles, while the weak interaction does not conserve C and space inversion,
which is also called parity P.

D + (= cd) → μ+ νμ (6.45)

Here the D + indicates a meson, a bound state which will be described later.

6.10 More Quantum Numbers

We can now define some quantum numbers, which are useful to describe systems
of particles. We have already mentioned in Table 6.2 the baryon number, which
is B = 1/3 for quarks and B = 0 for lepton and the lepton number which is
L = 1 for electrons, muons, taus and neutrinos, and is L = 0 for all quarks. These
numbers are important because both are conserved by all interactions. We can also
define the flavour-related leptonic number (which should be called the family related
leptonic number). Not only the total number of leptons is conserved, but this holds
true within each family. So we have the electronic number (or flavour), the muonic
6.11 Feynman Diagrams 125

number and the tau-onic number, each of which is separately conserved. They are
defined as

Le = N(e− ) + N(νe ) − N(e+ ) − N(ν e ) (6.46)

Lμ = N(μ− ) + N(νμ ) − N(μ+ ) − N(ν μ ) (6.47)
− +
Lτ = N(τ ) + N(ντ ) − N(τ ) − N(ν τ ) (6.48)

Each of them is individually conserved by all, but the weak interaction: neutrino
oscillations, which have been recently discovered, indicate that the three equations
above ((6.46)–(6.48)) are mostly valid, but have to be considered just as an
approximation: neutrinos can change nature and “oscillate” between a type and
another: νe → νμ → νe . So, while the total lepton number is conserved, the family
lepton number is not. Experimentally there is no evidence of any flavour changing
neutral process, of the type μ → e + γ , or μ → e + e+ e− .

The possibility of neutrino oscillations was predicted by Bruno Pontecorvo

in 1957. The 2015 Nobel prize was assigned to Takaaki Kajita and Arthur
McDonald for the experimental discovery of neutrino oscillations, which
indirectly shows that neutrinos have a small mass.

6.11 Feynman Diagrams

Recalling Eq. (6.9), a process, which can be a decay or a scattering, occurs with
a probability that is factorised in a phase space density factor ρf , and a second
term, which depends on the interaction and is called transition amplitude from the
initial to the final state. The latter is indicated with Mif and is also called a “matrix
element”. The formula for the transition amplitude, in the Born approximation, has
a structure: it is a sum of terms of a series. Each term corresponds to a power of
the coupling constant of the interaction: α, αs , αEW and can be translated into a
graph, which indeed resembles the pictorial representation of a scattering process
(Fig. 6.11). Each factor of a term corresponds to an element of the graph. This
graph can be imagined to be in the (t, x) plane and is called a Feynman diagram.
It is beyond the scope of this course to calculate the transition amplitudes Mif
using Feynman diagrams; however, we can use them as a pictorial description of
the reaction. These diagrams follow specific rules and conventions. Fermions are
represented by continuous lines with arrows going forward in time, anti-fermions
are represented by continuous lines with arrows going backward in time. The anti-
fermions that are going back in time should not be taken literally: positrons are
not coming from the future. This convention is useful to translate a graph into
a formula and to correctly draw Feynman diagrams. The incoming and outgoing
126 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

The diagrams are named after Richard Feynman, 1918–1988, from the USA. He was awarded
the Nobel prize in physics in 1965 for his fundamental work on quantum electrodynamics and
particle physics.

A non interacting particle A non interacting particle

in motion at rest
space

space
time time

Two interacting particles A non interacting anti-

particle at rest
space

space

time time

Fig. 6.11 The Feynman diagrams originate from the particle trajectory in the space-time
plane. Non-interacting particles are represented by straight lines. Their slope cannot exceed
the speed of light. Particles at rest are represented by horizontal lines. Graphs translate
directly into formulas, so in Feynman diagrams only the topology of the graph is important,
not the line slopes. Conventionally anti-particles are represented with an arrow pointing
back in time. The convention can be explained with the CPT theorem: anti-particles, which
are obtained by charge conjugation C, are particles in reverse time-space (PT) so they are
represented with a reversed arrow and are said to go “backward in time”

lines are connected by “internal” lines, or propagators, which correspond to the

interaction. If there are less than two internal lines, the diagram is said to be “at
the tree level”. The internal lines represent the force carriers, or “virtual” states of
the particle. Some special graphs, which only involve force carriers, may have no
internal line. Other conventions are shown in Fig. 6.12:
– Photons, γ , are represented by wavy lines.
– Vector bosons, W ± , Z 0 , are represented by wavy lines, possibly of different style.
– Gluons, g, are represented by spring-shaped lines.
Vertices represent interactions. In general only three particle lines meet at a vertex:
two for fermions and one for the force-carrying boson. In some special cases four
force-carrying bosons can meet at a vertex: four gluons or 4 week bosons, but
this is beyond the scope of this book. Electric charge is conserved at all vertices.
The number of incoming (fermions minus anti-fermions) must equal the number
of outgoing (fermions minus anti-fermions). Graphically, this means that there is a
“fermionic flow” at each vertex, with no source or drain for fermions. Photons only
interact with charged particles and consequently there is no vertex involving photons
6.11 Feynman Diagrams 127

Fig. 6.12 Line convention to represent fermions, photons, vector bosons and gluons

and neutrinos. Gluons only interact with quarks and with other gluons, and therefore
there is no vertex involving gluons and leptons. The Higgs boson is represented with
a dashed line and only couples to massive particles: there is no vertex involving the
Higgs boson and photons or gluons. As neutrinos have a very small mass, their
coupling to the Higgs boson can be considered to be zero for most cases.
The incoming particle can be seen as emitting a quantum of the “preferred” force
and starts scattering, the target particle absorbs a quantum and is scattered. It is
important to keep in mind that the Feynman diagrams are a graphical visualisation
of a formula to calculate Mf i : e.g. for every “internal” line a “propagator” must
be used in the formula. We have already seen its general form. The external lines,
incoming and outgoing, translate into wave functions. The slopes of lines are not
important for Feynman diagrams, what is important is the topology, i.e. how lines
are connected: the same connections correspond to the same formula, as shown in
Fig. 6.13.
The matrix element of a physical process is calculated by adding all Feynman
diagrams which are not equivalent and have the same initial and final state. An
example is shown in Fig. 6.14, where two diagrams contribute to the electron–
positron annihilation to two gammas. The cross section is proportional to |Mif |2 .
When more than one sub-process contribute, with identical initial and final states,
the matrix elements are added:

Mif = M(a) (b) (c)

if + Mif + Mif (6.49)

and the cross section is proportional to the square of the sum. As each term
(j )
Mif , (j = a, b, c . . . ) is not necessarily positive, interference effects are possible.
128 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

e
e

space
space

e+ e+

time time

Fig. 6.13 These two diagrams describe with a different time order of the same process. They
translate into identical mathematical formulas for the scattering matrix element. Their topology is
the same, although the slope of the lines is different, this is irrelevant for Feynman diagrams

M= if +
Fig. 6.14 At the lowest approximation level, where no loop line is considered, there are two
topologically different Feynman diagrams for the process e+ e− → γ γ . The corresponding
formulas are two terms which are added to form the matrix element

(j )
Each of the terms Mif is in reality a sum of amplitudes A times powers of the
coupling constant of the interaction:
∞

M(a)
if = α n A(a)
n (6.50)
n

The number of terms is infinite, but for all practical calculations truncated sums are
used, up to a given power of the coupling, or order. When the coupling is small the
result is satisfactory already at the lowest order (LO) M(a)
if (LO) .

6.12 Feynman Diagrams: Examples

The two Feynman diagrams corresponding to the Compton scattering are shown in
Fig. 6.15. In Fig. 6.16 the main vertices for electro weak interactions are shown. In
Fig. 6.17 two important Feynman diagrams are shown, for the two beta decays β +
and β − . The two processes have about the same Feynman diagram, with the same
vertices, so their matrix element |Mif |2 also has the same value. The two other
quarks don’t take part in the process, and are called “spectators”. Neutrons decay
into protons because the neutron mass is (slightly) larger than the proton mass. This
6.13 Composite Particles: Mesons and Baryons 129

space
space

e e e

time time

Fig. 6.15 Feynman diagram of Compton scattering. The Klein–Nishina cross section
(Eq. (5.34)) can be calculated using this diagram

makes some quantum states are available to the final states, making the factor ρf
larger than zero. Conversely, the proton mass is lower than the neutron mass and, for
isolated protons, no final state is available for a decay into neutrons (ρf = 0). We’ll
see in the next chapter that this may no longer be the case if we consider the mass
energy of the whole nucleus, and we observe that also the β + decay occurs in nature.
In Fig. 6.18 a higher order process is shown, with the only purpose of mentioning
that more complicated diagrams correspond to either rare processes, as the one in
the picture, where the Higgs boson couples, indirectly to gluons and to photons, or
to “better” approximation of processes which also occur at tree level. In this case
they are additional terms of a series which converges to the result, which is typically
a cross section (Fig. 6.19).

6.13 Composite Particles: Mesons and Baryons

The nuclear strong interaction holds together the quarks to form

mesons bound states of one quark and one anti-quark;
baryons bound states of three quarks.
Baryons and mesons (Figs. 6.20 and 6.21) are collectively called hadrons and are all
subject to the strong nuclear interaction.
Neutrons and protons are baryons:
• neutron = (up, down, down);
electric charge qn = 2/3 − 1/3 − 1/3 = 0
• proton = (up, up, down)
electric charge qp = 2/3, 2/3 − 1/3 = +1
Many other particles were discovered, initially studying the composition of
cosmic rays, then with particle accelerators, with a large number discovered in the
130 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

charged fermion

photon
charged anti-fermion

charged quark
u

W+/- vector boson charged anti-quark

of different flavour
d

l corresponding neutrino

+
W vector boson
+
l charged anti-lepton

l corresponding anti-neutrino

+
W vector boson
l charged lepton

Fig. 6.16 Vertices of Feynman diagrams for some fundamental forces. These are only parts of
Feynman diagrams used to calculate a physical process. Conservation rules, like charge and spin
conservation, apply at each vertex. The W ± boson couples with leptons and anti-leptons of the
same family, and thus conserves the lepton flavour number, but it can couple to quarks of different
families. Examples: W + → ud; W + → us; W + → e+ νe ; W + → μ+ νμ ; W + → τ + ντ ; Other
vertices can be constructed this way, provided charge and lepton number are conserved. As an
example by charge conjugation of the last one we obtain W − → τ − ν τ ; These diagrams can be
“rotated” at will and stuck together to form diagrams corresponding to physics processes

years 1960–1970. The classification of these, in terms of quantum numbers and

regularity patterns, is based on the quark model, quantum mechanics and group
theory. It was realised that some of the new particles, with extremely short lifetime,
were orbital excited states of other particles and are called “resonances”. They still
have their own mass, but the quark content is the same as other particles. Using the
language of atomic physics, where the energy levels of atomic electrons are studied,
the subject is called hadron spectroscopy.
We give below a short and a longer introduction to hadron spectroscopy.
6.14 Hadron Spectroscopy: A Short Introduction 131

electron

W antineutrino
d
u

Time

neutrino

W+ positron
u

Time

Fig. 6.17 The fundamental diagrams for the β + and β − decays, where we have used the last
two vertices of the figure above. Conservation rules apply at each vertex. In this case W ±
couples with leptons of the same family on one end and with quarks of the same family on
the other end

6.14 Hadron Spectroscopy: A Short Introduction

Change of notation: so far we have indicated the spin with s. To avoid confusion
with the strange quark, from now on the spin is indicated with J .
Hadrons are composite particles which are made of quarks and are held together
by gluons. We use their quantum numbers to classify them. Primarily, the baryon
number separates mesons, which are bound states of a quark and an anti-quark, and
therefore have baryon number B = 0, from baryons, which are bound states of
three quarks and, therefore, have B = 1. Within each category, the second most
important quantum number is the spin. In general, mesons are composite bosons
with spin J = 0, 1, 2 . . . , while baryons are composite fermions, J = 1/2, 3/2, . . . .
The intrinsic Parity is another useful quantum number, but its description is left
to a more advanced course. Given this triplet of quantum numbers, |B, J, P , the
composite particles can be further grouped into multiplets: particles of the same
multiplet behave equivalently under the strong interaction. For instance, the mesons
with |B, J, P  = |0, 0, − form two sets: a single particle (η ), called a singlet,
132 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

proton

gluon

H0

proton

Fig. 6.18 One of the Feynman diagrams of Higgs production in p−p collisions, with H 0 decaying
to γ γ . This is a higher order process, with triangle shaped loops. The electrically neutral Higgs
boson couples indirectly to photons via this loop process, where the top quark provides the highest
contribution. An analogous term couples the colourless Higgs boson to gluons

+ µ
W+

µ+
Fig. 6.19 Weak decay of a composite particle, a charged π-meson, which is a bound state of
quark–anti-quark of the first family. π − → μ− ν μ The charged lepton and the corresponding anti-
neutrino are from the same family. The charged lepton has the same charge as the meson

Fig. 6.20 Quark composition scheme of the proton (left) and the neutron (right)
6.15 Meson Classification 133

Fig. 6.21 An artist’s view of the quark composition of a meson. Gluons are shown as little
springs. Besides the component quark and anti-quark pair, other virtual quark–anti-quark
pairs are continuously created and destroyed

and a set of eight particles which behave equivalently if we ideally turn off all but
0
the strong interaction: π + , π − , π 0 , η0 , K 0 , K − , K + , K . In other words, for the

strong interaction we only have two particles: the η and any of the particles in
the octet. This information should be sufficient for an introductory course, but for
completeness we can go more in detail in the following sections.

6.15 Meson Classification

It is important to make clear that the classification of hadrons is not driven by

a stamp-collecting passion, but is a fundamental key to understand the strong
interaction: particles which are in the same “category”, although are distinguishable
for other features, behave essentially as the same particle for what strong interac-
tions are concerned, in particular in terms of scattering amplitudes. Most of the
classification work was initiated before the quark model emerged and was essential
to build this model. In the light of the quark model the hadron characterisation is
much clearer. Here we’ll use the opposite approach and will start from quarks to
form bound states. Let’s start with mesons, which are formed with a quark and an
anti-quark. By definition their baryon number is zero. First of all we have to choose
the total spin and angular momentum: we can form scalar mesons, which have zero
spin, or vector mesons, with spin-1.

J = 1 triplet state J3 = −1; 0; +1
(1/2, 1/2)spin ⇒ (6.51)
J = 0 singlet state J3 = 0

Other excited states, with higher orbital angular momentum, are also possible,
giving rise to a large number of so-called meson resonances, each behaving as
134 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

a short-lived particle, with its own mass and quantum numbers. Let’s focus on the
scalar mesons.3
We have five different types, or flavours, of quarks which form bound states, so
the total number of pseudoscalar meson is

Np.s. = 52 = 25

While this result is correct, at least for mesons, the way quarks are arranged is not
as simple: for mesons formed with u, d, s quarks the quark content of the mesons
is not pure, but is a linear combination of quark–anti-quark states. Group theory
is needed for a mathematical description of this classification. To understand this
we should imagine turning off the electric charge and assigning all quarks the
same mass value. This way the only label which identifies a quark is its flavour:
u, d, s, c, b. In an abstract way we can think of it as a five-dimensional vector
space, and transformations in this space are elements of the SU(5) group. As the
mass of the b-quark is much larger than the mass of the others, this is really a
broken symmetry, and for c-quark mesons the symmetry is only approximate. Let’s
start with only the first two quarks, u and d. Their mass is indeed very similar and
when turning off the electromagnetic interaction, they really behave almost as two
states of the same particle. These two states can be described by a vector space
where SU(2) transformations operate. This is the same group which operates on
the spin, and this property is called isotopic spin, or isospin: having turned off the
electromagnetic interaction, there is only one quark with isospin 1/2. In this picture
the quark up has “third component” of the isospin I3 = +1/2, or “up”, while the
quark down has I3 = −1/2, or “down”. This way, combining a quark with an anti-
quark becomes mathematically similar to combining their spins, and we know from
quantum mechanics, or from group theory, that combining spins (1/2, 1/2) just as in
Eq. (6.51) we obtain:

I = 1 triplet state I3 = −1; 0; +1
(1/2, 1/2)isospin ⇒ (6.52)
I = 0 singlet state I3 = 0

This is shown graphically in Fig. 6.22, in what is called a weight diagram in group
theory language. These states are identified as the mesons π − , π 0 , π + (which are
called pions) for the triplet and η as the singlet state, in the first approximation.
It should be noted that the third component of isospin has nothing to do with
the z direction in ordinary space, but it is a mathematical abstraction. The strong
interaction depends on the isospin of the system, not on its third component. This
statement can be verified experimentally as we are able to produce secondary beams
of pions with accelerators.

3 These scalar mesons are actually pseudoscalars, because their wave function changes sign under
parity. Parity P is the transformation that changes sign to the space coordinates: P : x → −
x.
6.15 Meson Classification 135

d u

u
+ d
=0 +
0

-1 -1/2 0 +1/2 +1

Fig. 6.22 A quark (u/d) and an anti-quark (u/d) are two states of isospin 1/2. By combining them
we obtain a meson of isospin 1, which has three possible states of I3 , corresponding each to a
meson (pion), and a meson of isospin I = 0 which is only one state, a singlet state, which we
temporarily identify with the η meson. In group theory notation: 2 ⊗ 2 ⇒ 3 ⊕ 1 (SU(2) )

The key point is that in combining quarks to form mesons we cannot simply
consider quarks as marbles. The total number of possible mesons is the same as
if the quarks were classical objects. However , the existence of isospin symmetry
for quarks and the requirement that the resulting mesons are also eigenstates of
isospin “rotations” results in a grouping of mesons according to their isospin value.
In addition, the meson states are linear combinations of the classical pairs (q1 , q 2 ).
We are now ready to add a third type, or flavour of quark to the picture, the
strange quark s. The vector space now has three dimensions, and the fundamental
transformations in this space are operators of the SU(3) group. While the eigenstates
of SU(2) are labeled by just one value, which can be ±1/2 in the 2-dimensional
space, the eigenstates of SU(3) are identified by a set of two values, one of them is
the third component of the isospin, as in SU(2), the other is, in first approximation,
the strangeness, a quantum number which is S = −1 for mesons containing a
strange quark and S = +1 if a strange anti-quark is present. So the s quark itself has
no isospin and strangeness S = −1, while the anti-quark s has strangeness S = +1,
as shown in Fig. 6.23. To form mesons with three flavours of quark and anti-quark
we use the same method as we have done with two flavours. This time, however,
we have to combine the states of the 3-dimensional representations of SU(3). We
have to use a result from group theory. Its proof is outside the scope of this book.
We obtain just two different particles for the strong interaction: a singlet state, with
no isospin and no strangeness, and an octet of states, which are all equivalent from
the point of view of the strong interaction and are labeled by two numbers:
the strangeness and the third component of isospin (s, I3 ), as shown in Fig. 6.24.
We identify the singlet state with the meson called η . The eight particles in the
0
octet are π + , π − , π 0 , η0 , K 0 , K − , K + , K . The physical particles η0 and η are a
mixture of the two, but this is a complication that goes beyond the scope of this
introductory book. In group theory notation we write

3 ⊗ 3 ⇒ 1 ⊕ 8; (SU(3)) (6.53)

with respect to the spin the group is different. We are doing with groups all possible
combinations of quark–anti-quark, rotating each of them independently of the other
136 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

Fig. 6.23 The eigenstates of SU(3) can be labeled with two indices. In the approximate
SU(3) flavour symmetry “the” quark assumes different names according to these indices.
They can be chosen as the strangeness and the third component of the isospin. The vertices
are the eigenvalues of the anti-quark flavour states, with respect to these two operators, in
the 3 × 3 conjugate representation, which in group theory is indicated as 3. In other words,
the anti-quark state s has isospin I3 = 0 and strangeness S = +1, the anti-quark state u has
isospin I3 = −1/2 and strangeness S = 0

Fig. 6.24 The octet of pseudoscalar mesons is represented in the isospin (x) and strangeness (y)
plane, according to the eigenvalues of the 8-dimensional representation of SU(3)

in the “flavour vector space”. Therefore we use the symbol ⊗. The result are two
independent sets of states, i.e. particles, each being an eigenstate of a representation
of SU(3). The next step is now quite clear: we introduce a fourth quark flavour, the
charm c, and we make use of SU(4) operators, requiring that the physical states
6.16 Baryon Classification 137

are eigenstates of a representation 4 ⊗ 4-dimensional of SU(4). We introduce a

charm quantum number, which is positive for the charmed quark and negative for
the charmed anti-quark. The SU(4) eigenstates are identified by three numbers,
which we can chose to be I3 , s, c and the corresponding graphical visualisation
will be 3-dimensional, accommodating all 42 = 16 mesons which we can form
with four quarks and four anti-quarks. However, the mass of the charm quark is
mc ≈ 1.3 GeV/c2 , which is much larger than the mass of the previous three quarks;
even turning off all other interactions c-quarks still present their own identity. This
is even more evident with the b-quark, with a mass mb ≈ 4.1 GeV/c2 , so it is not
very useful to introduce SU(5). The next step is to combine three quarks to form the
bound states which are called baryons.

The quantum number “strangeness” was introduced in 1953 by Murray Gell-

Mann, who was awarded the Nobel prize in 1969 for the classification of
elementary particles and their interactions. He coined the name for quarks and
he is proponent, among other things of a mechanism for the neutrino to acquire
a mass.

6.16 Baryon Classification

Baryons are bound states of three quarks, and to classify them we follow the same
lines as we did for mesons, first restricting to the two lightest flavours, then adding
flavours one by one. There is just a slight complication in the definition of the
quantum numbers, and we’ll have to use additional symmetry considerations, which
restrict the number of possible states. As we did for mesons, first of all we have a
look at the spin. A bound state of three particles with spin 1/2 can have either all
spins aligned, to form a particle of spin 3/2, or just two spins aligned and the third
in the opposite direction and form a system of spin 1/2. Using the mathematical
language of groups this is translated in the following way: the initial state of free
particles is represented by three bi-dimensional subspaces, where the spin operators
are the direct sum of three two-dimensional representations of SU(2). When forming
a bound state the resulting particle is described by a spin space corresponding to
one of the so-called irreducible representations of SU(2) in the available number of
dimensions: in this case either a four-dimensional space, corresponding to a spin
3/2, or a two-dimensional space, corresponding to spin 1/2. The dimension of a
representation is indicated as a boldface number:

2 ⊕ 2 ⊕ 2 ⇒ 4 ⊕ 2 SU(2)(spin) . (6.54)

In actual fact, there are two possible sets of states which describe spin-1/2:
one which is symmetric under interchange of quarks 1 and 2, and one which is
138 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

antisymmetric for the same exchange. A linear combination of the two is going to
be used. Let’s focus on the spin 1/2 states and combine the isospins of the three
particles by “rotating” them independently of each other in the (u, d) isospin space.
We form a direct product of three 2-dimensional representations of SU(2). We then
find the irreducible representations of this product

2 ⊗ 2 ⊗ 2 ⇒ 4 ⊕ 2 ⊕ 2 (SU(2)isospin) (6.55)

The physical particles are eigenstates of the isospin I3 operator representations. Also
in this case we have two sets of states corresponding to isospin 1/2: one which is
symmetric under interchange of quarks 1 and 2, and one set which is antisymmetric.
At this point some symmetry considerations are in order. Sets of indistinguishable
particles with spin 1/2 or 3/2 are described by a global wave function, which is
antisymmetric under interchange of any two particle, as required by Fermi-Dirac
statistics (Eq. (6.38)). While studying baryons we have ideally “turned off” all
interactions but the strong one. We have also neglected any possible mass difference
between quarks, so the three quarks in a baryon are treated as indistinguishable. The
total wave function is factorised in four parts:

ψ(q1 , q2 , q3 ) = φQCD ρL ηJ χiso . (6.56)

Each factor depends on the three quark states (q1 , q2 , q3 ): the first component is
due to the strong interaction, and we know from arguments which we’ll see later, is
antisymmetric; the second factor ρL depends on the orbital angular momentum L,
which we assume is zero, and therefore this wave function is symmetric; the third
and fourth components describe the spin and the isospin, and their product must be
symmetric. This is obtained by a linear combination of the two set of spin symmetric
and isospin symmetric states (1 ↔ 2) and spin anti-symmetric and isospin anti-
symmetric (1 ↔ 2). Therefore, the spin-1/2 isospin-1/2 baryon has two states,
which we indicate with |u, u, d and |d, d, u for simplicity, but they have a more
complicated structure. The two states, which are eigenvalues of the isospin third
component, correspond to the well-known proton and neutron. They behave, from
the point of view of the strong interaction, as the same particle, which is called
nucleon. Protons have isospin third component Iz = +1/2, neutrons have Iz = −1/2.
If we try to combine spin-1/2 with isospin-3/2, or vice versa, the same symmetry
arguments apply. The eigenstates corresponding to spin-3/2 are symmetric, and
therefore they cannot be combined with mixed symmetry isospin states. So there
is no baryon with |J, I  = |3/2, 1/2 or |J, I  = |1/2, 3/2. The only other
combination left is |J, I  = |3/2, 3/2. In this case both the spin and isospin states
are symmetric, we have four baryons, corresponding to the four possible eigenstates
of the third component of isospin: the “Delta resonances”: − , 0 , + , ++
(Fig. 6.25). They behave as the same particle for strong interactions, as is confirmed
experimentally.
6.16 Baryon Classification 139

0 + ++

I
-3/2 -1 -1/2 0 1/2 1 3/2 3

Fig. 6.25 The  resonances have spin 3/2 and isospin 3/2. Note the presence of a baryon with a
positive electric charge Q = 2|e|, the ++ , which is composed by three u quarks

The existence of the states ++ and − has played a key role in discovering the
symmetry that gave rise to our present understanding of the strong interaction, the
so-called colour charge.
Having discovered the six possible baryons which are made with u and d quarks,
we are now ready to add the strange quark s. As we have done with mesons, we now
use SU(3) for the isospin part, while keeping the eigenstates of SU(2) representation
for the spin. The irreducible representations of SU(3) are:

3 ⊗ 3 ⊗ 3 ⇒ 1 ⊕ 8 ⊕ 8 ⊕ 10 (SU(3) flavour) . (6.57)

We therefore expect to be able to form 27 particles for any spin state, arranged in
a singlet, two octets and a decuplet. However, once again symmetry considerations
restrict the number of particle states to just one decuplet and one octet. We have
to couple these states with the same spin states, just as in the case of two flavours.
The SU(3) singlet eigenstate is antisymmetric by exchange of any two quarks, and
there is no spin state that is also antisymmetric, to form a symmetric state. The
same holds true for the eigenstates of one of the octet representations. The decuplet
state is symmetric and can only be paired to the symmetric spin-3/2 states. The
mixed symmetry octet states can be combined with the mixed symmetry spin-1/2
states, to give a symmetric wave function: we have the baryon octet and the baryon
decuplet. As for the mesons, states are labeled by two indices: the third component
of isospin I3 and the strangeness S. To complicate slightly we can introduce the
quantum number flavour hypercharge (Y ), which is defined as

Y =B +S , (6.58)

where B is the Baryon number, B = 1 for baryons and B = −1 for anti-baryons,

and S is the strangeness, defined as S = −1 for every strange quark in the bound
state. I3 and Y can be used to label the baryon particle eigenstates, as shown in
Fig. 6.26. The Gell-Mann Nishijima Nakano formula links the electric charge of
baryons to the flavour hypercharge and the third component of the isospin.

Q = Iz + Y/2 = Iz + (B + S)/2 (6.59)

Eq. (6.59) becomes clear within the quark model, assuming the strange quark has
electric charge Q(s) = −1/3.
Adding more flavours, charm and bottom/beauty we can use, just as for mesons,
higher symmetries and form charmed and beauty baryons. It is now time to explain
the force that holds together quarks within hadrons.
140 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

Fig. 6.26 The baryon octet (left) is a set of spin-1/2 particles which behave as the same particle
with respect to the strong interaction. The particles are eigenstates of SU(3)flav. operators and are
labeled with two sets of eigenvalues: the flavour hypercharge Y on the vertical axis and the third
component of isospin in the horizontal axis. The 0 and the  0 have the same labels. Also the
baryon decuplet (right) behaves as one particle when only the strong interaction is considered. The
particles of this set have spin 3/2. Note the ∗ to the  ∗ and ∗ decuplet states, indicating that they
have the same quantum numbers as the corresponding octet particles, but have a higher spin. The
Gell-Mann Nishijima Nakano formula for the electric charge is also illustrated with diagonal lines

6.17 The Strong Interaction

The strong interaction binds together quarks to form mesons and baryons. At a
different energy scale level it also binds together nucleons inside atomic nuclei.
Using an analogy, it is like the electromagnetic force binding together nuclei and
electrons, but also a residual electromagnetic interaction among neutral atoms binds
them together to form molecules.
We have given for granted the existence of quarks of fractional electric charge.
One thing that we notice is that we have no experience of fractional electric charge,
so whatever force binds quarks together must be so strong that it is impossible to
separate them. This is normally called confinement of quarks. Also, we have no
experience of nuclear force in everyday life, so it is a short-range force. This can be
achieved by using massive “messengers” of the force; however, as we have seen, this
also makes the force weak. An alternative solution requires that also the interaction
quanta are confined to a neighbourhood of hadrons, and this is what happens for the
strong interaction.
We have two well-defined energy ranges where we can describe this force: one
is the static model, where we can imagine a potential around quarks, and we can
try to calculate the energy levels, which correspond to the masses of the simplest
systems of quark–anti-quarks, the mesons. The other energy range is obtained when
we collide mesons and baryons among themselves or with electrons, at high energy.
6.17 The Strong Interaction 141

The theory of strong interaction has to reconcile in one consistent description the
experimental evidence that originates from
1. the energy levels of mesons and baryons,
2. the static model of mesons and baryons, as described in the previous sections,
3. the production of hadrons in e+ e− collisions, as shown in Fig. 6.28,
4. the scattering of electrons and neutrinos on nucleons.
The energy levels of mesons are easier in two cases: when the mass of one of
the quarks is much larger than the other, as in the case of b-flavoured mesons,
like B ± , B 0 and Bs , when the quark–anti-quark pair have the same flavour and,
therefore, the same mass. We call these bound states quarkonia: as an example the
particle J/ψ is a bound state of cc quarks and the ϒ is a bound state of bb. We have
mentioned before positronium, a bound state of an e+ and an e− , which is atom-
like, in the sense that it is a neutral, electromagnetic bound state; quark–anti-quark
bound states are held together by the strong force. By comparing the energy levels
of the quarkonia with those of positronium, the potential of strong interactions can
be inferred, with a term which is similar to the electrostatic potential 1/r and a
second term which allows for quark confinement and is therefore proportional to
the distance:
4 αs
Vstrong = − h̄c + kr (6.60)
3 r
The “constant” αs is dimension-less and is characteristic of the strong interaction.
Its value is only constant to first approximation, and ranges 0.1 ≤ αs ≤ 0.5. The
equivalent constant for the electromagnetic interaction has a value αEM ≈ 1/137
(Eq. (5.37)), so the strong interaction is intrinsically strong. The potential as a
function of radius r (Eq. (6.60)) is shown in Fig. 6.27. The origin of the factor 4/3
will become clear later.

The b-flavoured mesons quark content:

B − = (bu), B + = (bu)

B 0 = (bd), Bs = (bs)
0
B = (bd), B s = (bs)

The linear term in the potential describes the confinement of quarks inside
hadrons: it is not possible to separate quarks.
In the meson classification three particle the − (ddd), ++ (uuu) and the
−
% (sss) play a special role, because their existence has led to the theory of
strong interactions. In these examples of quark systems the Pauli’s exclusion
principle would be apparently violated: we have three quarks of the same flavour,
142 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

10

5
V(r) [GeV]

-5

-10
10-2 10-1 1 10
r [fm]

Fig. 6.27 The QCD potential, as a function of the distance between a quark and an anti-
quark, as calculated from Eq: (6.60) with a constant value of αs = 0.2 and k = 1 GeV/fm.
Note the logarithmic scale in the horizontal axis

indistinguishable and occupy the same state. So solve this problem a “strong
charge” was introduced: each quark carries a strong “charge” which makes them
different from one another. This charge has to comply with general consistency
rules, like anti-quarks must carry the opposite charge. So it has to have a different
structure from the electric charge: we need three different charges for quarks and the
corresponding anti-charges for anti-quarks. The charges must also have all the same
strength, so we can’t call them (1), (2), (3), but letters may be more adequate: (a),
(b), (c) or why not (r), (g), (b) like the so-called primary colours for the human eye.
From this very indirect analogy the theory of strong interaction was named quantum
chromo dynamics or QCD. We can combine systems of more than one quark, each
with one of three “colour” charges, and we use exactly the same method as in the
static model of mesons and baryons (SU(3)flavour), with one additional rule: the
combinations that correspond to observed particles are always an eigenfunction of
a singlet representation of SU(3)colour. Singlet eigenstates are antisymmetric with
respect to an exchange of any two quarks, so the interaction wave function φQCD
(Eq. (6.56)) is always antisymmetric. The three charge states are represented in a
three-dimensional vector space where all vectors are unitary. In such a mathematical
space we have exactly eight independent, non-trivial operators which transform
one state into a different one. These operators form a group, which is SU(3), the
same group as the one we have used already to classify hadrons. However, instead
of transforming a quark flavour into another flavour, like u → s (remember that
we have ideally turned off the electromagnetic interaction), now these operators
transform a quark strong charge into another strong charge, or in a more colourful
language, they transform a quark colour into another colour. We identify these
mathematical operators in the abstract space as the carriers of the strong force, the
gluons. In QCD they have spin-1 and are massless.
6.17 The Strong Interaction 143

Fig. 6.28 In e+ e− collisions at high energies q q pairs can be produced. Quarks appear as jets
of particles. In some of these events a high-energy gluon can radiated by one of the quarks,
producing an additional jet of particles: these events have 3-jets, as the one shown above:
e+ + e− → q + q + g. Here the electrons come from above, perpendicular to the sheet, the
e+ beam from below, the curved tracks are the trajectories of the charged particles produced
in the collision. They are bent by a magnetic field. A 3jet event from e+ e− collisions at 31
GeV (JADE detector at PETRA accelerator, DESY, Germany, 1979). From P. Soeding, Eur.
Phys. J. H 35, 3–28 (2010) Copyright Springer (2010)

The experimental evidence of the strongly charged gluons comes from e+ e−

collisions at high energy, where the kinetic energy is more than enough to produce
a quark–anti-quark pair with high kinetic energy:

e+ e− → q q → jet, jet . (6.61)

While the quarks separate, the linear part, spring-like, of the strong potential
(Eq. (6.60)) comes to play: eventually enough energy is stored in the spring tension
to “break the spring” and generate more pairs of quark and anti-quark, at each new
end of the spring; they ultimately combine and form mostly mesons. This process,
which is called quark fragmentation, results in a focused shower, or jet of particles,
which are all produced in a cone around the direction of the initial quark. In most
cases we only observe two jets of particles, corresponding to the original quark-
anti-quark pair; in some cases a third jet is observed, as shown in Fig. 6.28, which is
an indication of emission of strong radiation: this jet corresponds to a high-energy
144 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

The asymptotic freedom of QCD was formulated by Frank Wilczek, David Gross and David
Politzer, USA, 1973. They were awarded the Nobel prize in 2004. Also Gerard t’Hooft had
contributed as a precursor on the same subject.

2
s(Q )

0.3

0.2

0.1
QCD s(MZ) = (0.1181 ± 0.0011)

1 10 100 1000
Q [GeV]

Fig. 6.29 The experimental value of the strong coupling “constant” αs decreases as a
function of the transferred momentum Q. Reprinted with permission from M. Tanabashi et
al. (Review of Particle Physics), Phys. Rev. D, Vol. 98–1, p.155 (2018). Copyright (2018) by
the American Physical Society

gluon being emitted by one of the two quarks:

e+ e− → q q g → jet, jet, jet . (6.62)

The emission rate is calculated exactly by QCD.

The last point, but also one of the most important, is the supporting evidence of
QCD by scattering of high-energy leptons by nucleons. Apart from supporting the
evidence of physical existence of quarks, these experiments show that the coupling
constant αs is not really a constant, but decreases when the momentum transferred
by the scattering process increases, as shown in Fig. 6.29. From the practical point
of view, quarks inside protons and neutrons behave more and more as free particles
when probed by electrons and neutrinos at higher and higher energies. This effect
is predicted by QCD and is called asymptotic freedom. The consequences of this
running constant are important. At energies lower than about 1 GeV the value of
the coupling is αs ≈ 1 and it is not possible to use perturbation theory. Other
approaches, like lattice calculations, can be used, or models, like the “bag model” of
the proton. However, at high energies, when the momentum transferred is large with
respect to the relevant scale of the order of the proton mass, we can use perturbation
theory and Feynman diagrams, like we do at all energies for the other interactions.
The main consequence for this intrinsic difficulty of dealing with the strong inter-
action at low energy is that in Nuclear Physics we are limited to a phenomenological
6.19 Solutions 145

description of bound states of many nucleons, which results in several models for
the atomic nucleus, as we’ll see in the next chapter.

6.18 Problems

6.1 Calculate the ratio between the electromagnetic and the gravitational force
between a proton and an electron.
6.2 Write all the possible Feynman diagrams at tree level corresponding to a decay
of a Z 0 vector boson into fermion–antifermion pairs, taking into account that
flavour changing decays of this particle are not present. The mass of the Z 0 is
91.1876 ± 0.0021 GeV/c2 , the mass of the top quark is 174 GeV/c2 . Comment
on a possible decay of Z 0 to tt. Neglecting all fermion masses with respect to
the mass of Z 0 , we can assume to first approximation that the phase space
density is the same for all decays. As also the matrix element is the same,
calculate the branching fraction of Z 0 to c c and to hadrons. Compare these
values with those reported in Table 4.2.

6.19 Solutions

Solution to 6.1 Gravity and electrostatics have the same functional dependence
on distance, so the ratio is the same at all distances. From Eq. (6.1), the ratio
between the two forces is
FG GN me mp 4π 0
R= =
FEM Q2e
= 6.674 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2 × 9.109 × 10−31 kg × 1.673 × 10−27 kg×
× 4 × 3.14 × 8.854 × 10−12 F m−1 /(1.602 × 10−19 C)2

Considering that a Farad is F = s2 C2 m−2 kg−1 , the dimensional analysis gives

m3 kg−1 s−2 kg kg s2 C2 m−2 kg−1 m−1 C−2 = dimension-less,

as expected. For the orders of magnitudes:

−11 − 31 − 27 − 12 + 2 × 19 = −81 + 38 = −43

146 6 Introduction to Particle Physics

and for the numerical value

6.674 × 9.109 × 1.673 × 4 × 3.14 × 8.854/2.57 = 4400

So the ratio between these two forces between an electron and a proton, at any
distance, is 4.4 × 10−40.
Solution to 6.2 The possible decay vertices are:

Z 0 e+ e− ; Z 0 μ+ μ− ; Z 0 τ + τ − ; Z 0 νe ν e ; Z 0 νμ ν μ ; Z 0 ντ ν τ ;

Z 0 uu; Z 0 dd; Z 0 cc; Z 0 ss; Z 0 bb; Z 0 tt;

The last diagram corresponds to a legitimate vertex, but the phase space for this
decay is zero because the mass of the Z 0 is lower than the mass of the top quark,
so this decay does not occur. The Feynman diagrams corresponding to decays to
quarks have to be multiplied by the number of colours. In total there are 6 + 15 =
21 diagrams with non-zero phase space. In the approximation of this problem,
all these processes are equally possible; therefore the branching fractions to cc
is expected to be 3/21 = 14.3%, the branching fraction to hadrons is expected
to be 5 × 3/21 = 71.4%. The corresponding values in Table 4.2 are 12.03% and
69.91%, in quite a good agreement for this simplified calculation. This simple
calculation also explains qualitatively how the width of the z0 depends on the
number of light neutrinos, as shown in Fig. 6.2: with more processes available
and equally possible, the lifetime decreases, increasing the width.

Bibliography and Further Reading

G. Barr, R. Devenish, R. Walczak, T. Weidberg, Particle Physics in the LHC era (Oxford University
Press, Oxford, 2016)
A. Bettini, Introduction to Elementary Particle Physics (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
2014)
S. Braibant et al., Particles and Fundamental Interactions (Springer, Dordrecht, 2012)
K. Gottfried, V. Weisskopf, Concepts of Particle Physics, vol. 1 (Oxford University Press, Oxford,
1984)
A. Kamal, Particle Physics (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2014)
B.R. Martin, Nuclear and Particle Physics (Wiley, Hoboken, 2009)
B.R. Martin, G. Shaw, Particle Physics (Wiley, Hoboken, 1992)
D. Perkins, Introduction to High Energy Physics (Addison Wesley, Boston, 1987)
B. Povh et al., Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts (Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 2015)
M. Thomson, Modern Particle Physics (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2013)
Chapter 7
Introduction to Nuclear Physics

7.1 Introduction

Atomic nuclei are extended objects (Fig. 7.1), like the neutrons and protons of which
they are made: we can measure their size, while fundamental particles, like electrons
and quarks, behave as point-like objects.
The force which binds together the nucleons within a nucleus is the strong
nuclear interaction, the same that binds together quarks to form baryons and
mesons. However, this force is now acting on a longer range and it can be pictured
as being a residual force that is left after forming the bound states of quarks,
which are the nucleons. Using an analogy, the nuclear strong force is similar to
the electromagnetic attraction which binds together two neutral atoms to form a
molecule. In our case, two colourless nucleons are bound together to form a nucleus.
Of course, the interaction is completely different in the two cases.
The simplest stable bound state of two nucleons is the deuteron, which is made
of a proton and a neutron, as shown in Fig. 7.2. The presence of the proton stabilises
the neutron, making it energetically unfavourable to undergo a beta decay. The next
simplest nuclide is the triton, or tritium nucleus, with two neutrons and one proton:
3 H. It is unstable and has a lifetime of 12.3 years, decaying β to 3 He, which is

stable. The next simple nuclide is 4 He, which is extremely stable and is also known
as α particle. At the opposite end, we have nuclides which are made of a very
large number of nucleons: an example is Uranium, which contains 238 nucleons.
Different models are used to describe, to various levels of approximation, these
systems, which are made of a number of nucleons ranging between 2 and 240.
Unlike what occurs for atoms, where the energy levels can be precisely calculated,
each of the nuclear models is successful to explain some features, but not all.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018 147

S. D’Auria, Introduction to Nuclear and Particle Physics,
Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93855-4_7
148 7 Introduction to Nuclear Physics

Fig. 7.1 Pictorial

representation of a nucleus,
made of neutrons and
protons. Clearly, it is only a
way to represent it and we
don’t have to take it literally

Fig. 7.2 Pictorial

representation of a deuteron,
bound state of (pn). It is a
stable nuclide, an isotope of
Hydrogen 2 H. Heavy water
has one deuterium atom
replacing hydrogen.
Deuterium is not an element
but is occasionally indicated
with D, and heavy water with
HDO

7.2 The Q-Value of a Reaction

The Q-value is defined as the difference between the kinetic energy of the final
system and the kinetic energy of the initial system:

Q = Ek (final) − Ek (initial) (7.1)

In a generic reaction A + B → C + D, we can write the energy conservation as:

mA c2 + KA + mB c2 + KB = mC c2 + KC + mD c2 + KD (7.2)
7.2 The Q-Value of a Reaction 149

where KX indicates the kinetic energy of the particle X. Rearranging:

KC + KD − KA − KB = Q (7.3)

Q = mA + mB − (mC + mD ) (7.4)

We therefore derive that the Q-value is the mass difference between the initial
and final states (note the inverted order with respect to the kinetic energy). As a
consequence, an elastic scattering A + B → A + B has Q = 0. An example
of elastic scattering is Compton scattering. A decay can occur spontaneously only
if Q > 0. Of course, this is not the only condition: also electric charge, total
angular momentum, and other quantum numbers have to be conserved. Reactions
with Q > 0 transform mass into kinetic energy; reactions with Q < 0 transform
kinetic energy into mass. An example of the latter is the creation of pairs of top
quarks in proton–proton collisions. The proton mass is ≈ 1 GeV/c2 , and the top
mass is mt ≈ 174 GeV/c2  mp . These reactions are “endothermic” or “endo-
energetic”, and they require a large kinetic energy to create a pair of particles with
large mass.
We define the threshold energy for a reaction to occur as the minimum kinetic
energy required to the initial particles, when the product particles have zero kinetic
energy. If the particles in the initial state have a lower value of kinetic energy, the
reaction cannot take place.
In this case:

KA + KB = (mC + mD ) − (mA + mB ) (7.5)

As an example, photons can interact with matter by creating an electron–positron

pair, in the presence of a nucleus (to conserve momentum):

γ + (A, Z) → e+ + e− + (A, Z) (7.6)

The photon has no mass, so all its energy is kinetic. The threshold of the reaction
above is

Kγ = 2me = 2 × 511 keV (7.7)

In decays where A → C + D and KA = 0, the requirement of Q ≥ 0 translates into

mA ≥ mC + mD , (7.8)

that is, the mass of the parent must be larger than the combined mass of the
daughters. The Q-value is connected mathematically to the factor ρf the phase
space density of the final states, Eq. (6.9).
150 7 Introduction to Nuclear Physics

7.3 Atomic Nuclei Phenomenology

One of the properties to look for at first is the nuclear size and the nuclear
density. We’ll address some stability issues and review one model of the atomic
nucleus, before showing some nuclear reaction of practical interest. The size of
the nuclei is experimentally measured by means of scattering experiments, which
probe the nucleus with particles. These can be either α or electrons accelerated to
medium or high energies up to a few MeV. The nuclear size, as it appears from
the electromagnetic interaction, is measured experimentally by electron–nucleus
scattering, which is sensitive to the electrical charge density. The nuclear radius
R turns out to be

R = 1.21A /3 ;
1
R in fm (7.9)

Assuming that nuclei have a spherical shape, their volume is V = 4/3πR 3 = 7.42A
(fm3), and their density is 0.13 nucleons per fm3 . It is quite constant for 55 ≤ A ≤
209. To probe the nuclear density, as seen by the nuclear force, other particles can
be used as “projectiles”: π ± , π 0 or neutrons. Various models of atomic nuclei can
be used, depending on the experiment and on the quantity being measured, like the
black disk in a model and the optical model. The mass of nuclei is expressed in
terms of the atomic mass unit, which is defined to be 1/12 of the mass of an atom of
12 C. We should note explicitly here that the mass of the electrons is included in this

unit. The a.m.u. is

u = 931.4940 MeV/c2 = 1.6605389 × 10−27 kg. (7.10)

The mass of an atom, as determined experimentally, is less than the sum of the
masses of its components:

M(Z, N) < Z(mp + me ) + Nmn (7.11)

− B ≡ M(Z, N) ≡ M(Z, N) − Z(mp + me ) − Nmn (7.12)

We call M the mass deficit; when multiplied by c2 , we obtain the total binding
energy B: if we want to separate completely all nucleons, we need to provide an
energy equal to the binding energy. The interesting quantity is the binding energy
per nucleon B/A. Its experimental value is plotted for stable nuclides in Fig. 7.3 as a
function of A. On average, the value of B/A is between 7 and 9 MeV per nucleon. It
increases for small nuclides, has a maximum for 56 Fe, then decreases. The nuclides
in the raising part of the curve can, under appropriate conditions, fuse with other
small nuclides and emit energy; in this case, we have a nuclear fusion. The nuclides
at high A can gain energy if they split into smaller nuclides; this is why, we have
nuclear fission.
7.4 The Liquid Drop Model 151

Binding Energy /A (MeV)

8
7
6 Stable Nuclides
5
4
3
2
1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Number of nucleons (A)

Fig. 7.3 Binding energy per nucleon as a function of the mass number A = Z + N for stable or
long-lived nuclides. Nuclides with low A and low binding energy per nucleon can undergo a fusion
reaction, under appropriate conditions, to increase A and move towards higher binding energies.
Conversely, nuclides with high A, when splitting into two nuclides with lower A, can increase the
binding energy per nucleon in each of the daughter nuclides. Fission and fusion processes have
Q > 0 for high and low A, respectively. It is worth noting that 4 He, or α particle, has a binding
energy of 7 MeV per nucleon, making it a very stable nuclide (data from IAEA Nuclear Data
Section)

7.4 The Liquid Drop Model

A spherical object with uniform density can be thought as resembling a liquid drop
in the absence of gravity. We can use this model to describe nuclei and calculate
their mass with the semi-empirical mass formula of Bethe–Weizsäcker1 as the sum
of six terms: the first is just the sum of the mass of components, while the other five
represent the binding energy:

M(A, Z) = mi − a1 f1 + a2 f2 + a3 f3 + a4 f4 + f5 (7.13)
  2
= Z(mp + me ) + Nmn − aV A + aS A 3 + (7.14)
− 13
+ aC Z 2 A + aA (A − 2Z)2 A−1 + f5 (7.15)

where the numerical values in MeV are

aV = 15.76; aS = 17.81; aC = 0.711; aA = 23.7 (7.16)

1 After Hans Bethe (1906–2005) and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, (1912–2007). Both were from

Germany, Bethe moved to Manchester, Bristol (UK) and later to Cornell, USA, because of racial
laws.
152 7 Introduction to Nuclear Physics

The single terms are

• a mass term from the constituents: Z(mp + me ) + Nmn ;
• a volume term, which is negative and proportional to A; it accounts for the
average binding energy between a nucleon and its immediate neighbours.
• a surface term, which is positive and proportional to A2/3 , accounts for the
nucleons at the surface, which have fewer neighbours and therefore are less
bound. If the radius is proportional to A1/3, the surface of the sphere is
proportional to A2/3. Together with the next Coulomb interaction term, the
surface term limits the maximum value of A for stable nuclei; this surface term
gives the name to the model, it is like the surface tension of a liquid drop.
• the Coulomb term accounts for the mutual repulsion of protons; it is positive, as
it decreases the binding energy, and is proportional to Z 2 A−1/3 . This term is the
potential energy of a sphere of radius r0 A1/3 with a uniform charge +Ze. The
theoretical value for ac = 0.714 MeV matches remarkably well the experimental
value in Eq. (7.16).
• the asymmetry term: nuclei tend to be stable when Z ≈ N (Fig. 7.4) so the term
is

(Z − A/2)2
f4 = aA
A

Fig. 7.4 Segrè chart of the 140

stable nuclides: they tend to Stable Nuclides
have N ≈ Z for low Z ≤ 20,
while heavier elements tend 120
to have a slight neutron
excess. This plot, together
with Figs. 7.5 and 7.6, is the
100
Number of neutrons N

experimental basis of the

asymmetry term in the
semi-empirical mass formula
(data from IAEA Nuclear 80
Data Section)
N=Z
60

40

20

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Number of protons Z
7.5 Beta Decays 153

• the pairing term: inside a nucleus, nucleons tend to form pairs (nn) and (pp)
with opposite spin. Thus, nuclides with Z even and N even have more binding
energy than nuclides where there is an odd number of either or both nucleons.
Only four nuclides with both Z and N odd are stable, while 167 stable nuclides
have both Z and N even. The term in the formula will be positive for A, N odd,
zero for even–odd or odd–even, and negative for both A, N odd. This term has a
purely empirical value of

f5 = ±12A− /2 MeV/c2 (+for odd-odd); f5 (even,odd) = 0

1
(7.17)

7.5 Beta Decays

The pairing term in Eq. (7.17) (Figs. 7.5 and 7.6) explains why some nuclides
undergo β decays: the total energy is lower, or the binding energy is higher, if a
neutron is replaced with a proton: in this case, we have a β − -emitting transition;
when a lower-energy state is reached by replacing a proton with a neutron, the
nuclide decays emitting a β + . The decay

p → n + e+ + νe (7.18)

in which

u → d + e+ + νe (7.19)
Mass Excess [MeV/c 2]

-74
-76 A = 111

-78
-80
-82
-84
-86
-88
-90
44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52
Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te
Atomic Number Z

Fig. 7.5 Mass excess, which is minus the mass deficit, for the isobars with A = 111. These are all
even–odd or odd–even nuclides, for which the pairing term is zero. The circles are the experimental
values, the parabola is the calculation of the semi-empirical mass formula (SEMF). The arrows
indicate beta decays: arrows towards the left hand side represent β + decays (Z  → Z − 1), arrows
towards the right-hand side represent β − decays (Z  → Z + 1). Data from IAEA Nuclear Data
Section, plot modified after B.R. Martin, Nuclear and Particle Physics
154 7 Introduction to Nuclear Physics

Mass Excess [MeV/c2]

-76
A = 102
-78

-80

-82

-84

-86

-88

-90
40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49
Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd
Atomic Number Z

Fig. 7.6 Mass excess (or minus mass deficit) for the isobars A = 102. The experimental values
now lay on two parabolas, and therefore the pairing term was introduced. Open circles represent
(Z, N) even–even nuclides, filled circles represent (Z, N) odd–odd nuclides. Both 102 Ru and 102 Pd
are stable nuclides. β − transitions are indicated with a dashed arrow, and β + transitions with a full
line. 102 Rh can undergo both transitions. Out of all the stable nuclides, only four have odd numbers
of both protons and neutrons

is perfectly “legal” from the point of view of conservation laws. It has the same
matrix element |Mif |2 as the “standard” beta decay:

d → u + e− + ν e (7.20)

but it is not energetically allowed, or in other terms the phase space density of the
final state is zero. It occurs sometimes in nuclei, when the nucleus, as a whole,
would reach a lower-energy state by replacing a proton with a neutron (Fig. 7.7).
Another possible process is electron capture (Fig. 7.8): it may happen that one
of the electrons which are closer to the nucleus is captured by it and the following
reaction occurs:

p+ + e− → n + νe . (7.21)

In this case, the atom is left in an excited state: an atomic energy level has become
available, because one electron has been captured by the nucleus. When other
electrons occupy this level they emit energy in the form of X-rays. The reaction
at quark level is

u + e− → d + νe (7.22)
7.6 Double Beta Decay 155

electron

Mass Excess [MeV/c2]

-74
-76 A = 111
+
W antineutrino -78
d
-80
u
-82
-84

Time -86
-88
+ neutrino
-90
44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52
Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te
Atomic Number Z
W+ positron
u

Time

Fig. 7.7 Feynman diagrams at the quark level for the β − (upper left) and β + decays (lower
left). The two decays have almost identical Feynman diagrams, and therefore they have the
same value for the matrix element Mif . To determine whether the nuclide is stable or decays
β − or β + , we have to calculate the energy variation related to this transition which is shown
in the plot on the right-hand side. Isolated neutrons undergo β − decays, because they have
a mass which is slightly larger than the sum of the proton, electron and neutrino mass, i.e.
the Q-value of the decay reaction is > 0. Protons are stable, because the β + decay is not
energetically allowed, having a Q-value < 0. Inside a nucleus, the transition rate depends on
the Q-value of the reaction at nuclear level, which depends on the pairing factor in the SEMF

Fig. 7.8 Schematic representation of electron capture in the reaction 7 Be + e− →7 Li + νe

7.6 Double Beta Decay

Double beta decay can occur in even–even nuclei when the decay (A, Z) →
(A, Z + 1) is energetically forbidden, but (A, Z) → (A, Z + 2) is energetically
allowed, as shown in Fig. 7.9. It is an extremely rare decay because two almost
independent transitions have to occur at the same time. It was observed for the first
time in 1987, in the decay
82 −
34 Se →82
36 Kr + 2e + 2 ν e (7.23)
156 7 Introduction to Nuclear Physics

Mass Excess [MeV/c2]

A = 82
-68
-70
-72
-74
-76
-78
-80
-82
33 34 35 36 37 38 39
As Se Br Kr Rb Sr Y
Atomic Number Z

Fig. 7.9 Mass excess for the isobars with A = 82. The values for 82
34 Se and 35 Br are −77.594
82
2 82 82 −
and −77.496 MeV/c , respectively, so the decay 34 Se →35 Br + β + ν e is not allowed

and it has been observed in the decay of ten other nuclides since then. Double
electron capture has not been observed directly, but there is indirect evidence of
it in geochemical samples. It may be possible in
102
Pd + 2e− →102 Ru + 2 νe (7.24)

This transition is energetically allowed, as shown in Fig. 7.6, while 102 Pd cannot
decay to 102Rh.

The category of fermions which are their own anti-particles is named after
Ettore Majorana (b. 1906, ?), who first advanced the hypothesis of their
existence. He went missing in March 1938, during or after his boat trip from
Palermo to Naples, Italy.

Neutrinoless double beta decay has never been observed: it may be possible
if neutrinos are Majorana particles. This category of particles refers to massive
fermions which are their own anti-particles. In the case of neutrinoless double
beta decay, the electron energy spectrum would be a characteristic single-energy
line. The neutrinoless double beta decay, if exists, would violate the lepton number
conservation (Eq. (6.46)) in the sector of charged leptons.
7.7 Other Models 157

7.7 Other Models

Other models for the nucleus are the Fermi gas model, the shell model and the
collective model.
In the Fermi gas model, nucleons are considered as non-interacting particles.
Their mutual interaction is replaced by the resultant of their attraction, which
forms a potential well and keeps nucleons inside a sphere of radius R0 , as shown in
Fig. 7.10. These non-interacting nucleons are subject to the Fermi statistics, which
gives the name to the model, and, therefore, to the Pauli exclusion principle. Let’s
start considering neutrons only: any quantum state, or energy level, in the well can
be occupied by two neutrons, with opposite spin. The same is valid for protons.
Now, while the wells of the two types of nucleons are not required to have the
same depth, it is assumed that they have the same radius. In addition, the proton
potential has a different shape, to account for the electrostatic repulsion outside the
well. Nucleons occupy all available energy states, up to a level EF , which is called
“Fermi energy level”.

EF z

R0
R0
x

Fig. 7.10 A representation of the potential well for protons in the Fermi gas model. Protons
are considered as non-interacting and are confined inside a sphere of radius R0 , the potential
well is one-dimensional along the polar coordinate ρ; all available states are occupied up to
(p)
the energy EF . The Coulomb potential 1/ρ is sketched for ρ > R0
158 7 Introduction to Nuclear Physics

V
Neutron well Proton well

(p)
(n) EF
EF

R0
R0

Fig. 7.11 The potential well for neutrons (left) and protons (right) in the Fermi gas model:
all states are occupied up to the same energy level, but the depth of the two potential wells
may be different

In a stable nucleus, this energy is required to be the same for protons and
neutrons, as shown in Fig. 7.11, where the two wells are shown side by side, with the
(p)
same vertical axis. When the two Fermi levels are not equal EF(n) = EF , the nuclide
will reach a stable configuration, with the same level, by undergoing a β ± decay.
The fact that at high A stable nuclides tend to have slightly more neutrons than
protons is explained with a slightly deeper neutron well. To further advance in this
model, we need to calculate how many quantum states are available, separately for
protons and neutrons, in a potential well. In Quantum Mechanics, a state occupies a
fundamental cell in the phase space. The volume of this cell is h3 = (2π h̄)3 . This is
three orders of magnitudes larger than what could be naively expected based on the
uncertainty relations x px ≥ h̄/2 (Eq. (6.2)) but it can be calculated using basic
quantum mechanics. So, the number nq of quantum states is simply

(4/3πR02 )(4/3πpF3 )
nq = 2 , (7.25)
(2π h̄)3

where pF is the momentum corresponding to the state of energy EF and the factor
of two accounts for the two possible spin orientations. Now, we assume that all
states are occupied, so in the case of protons we know already that nq = Z, and that
R0 = r0 A1/3 = 1.21 fmA1/3, so we can calculate pF :
 3
32 π 2 r03 ApF3 4A r0 pF
Z= 3
=
9 8π h̄ 3 9π h̄
7.7 Other Models 159

 
h̄ 3 9 Z h̄ 3 9 1.52 × 0.658
pF = π ≈ π= eV/(m/s) (7.26)
r0 4 A ro 8 1.21

We have used the approximation: for stable nuclides Z/A ≈ 1/2. Now, momenta are
normally measured in MeV/c, where c is the speed of light, so we need to multiply
the result above by an a-dimensional 3 × 108 to obtain
1.52 × 0.658 × 299,792,458
pF ≈ ≈ 250 MeV/c (7.27)
1.21
The proton mass is mp = 938.2720 MeV/c2 and therefore

p 250
βγ = = = 0.26 < 1
mc 928
protons inside nuclei can have quite a high momentum, but there is no need to use
relativity. The Fermi energy can be calculated as:

pF2 250
EF = = = 33 MeV (7.28)
2mp 2 × 938

The difference between EF and the top of the potential well is the binding energy B,
which for nuclides with A > 25 is about 8 MeV per nucleon, as shown in Fig. 7.3,
therefore the depth of the potential well is

V0 = EF + B = 33 + 8 = 41 MeV. (7.29)

The shell model was proposed separately by Maria Göppert-Mayer (1906–

1972), who was in Chicago, and Hans Jensen (1907–1973), who was in
Heidelberg, in 1950. They were awarded the Nobel prize in 1963.

This model can explain quite well also the asymmetry term of the mass formula.
However, there are features of nuclides that require a more refined model. It was
observed that the abundance of elements and their stability is maximum for some
particular values of Z and (A−Z): 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126. These numbers have
been called magic numbers before theory could explain them. This effect is similar
to what happens with atoms, where completely filled electronic shells correspond
to chemically stable and inactive elements, the six noble gases. Without entering
into details, qualitatively the shell model adds a spin–orbit interaction to the square
potential well of the Fermi gas model. The strong interaction between nucleons
becomes now spin-dependent, along the same lines as the electromagnetic spin–
orbit interaction, which slightly modifies the atomic energy levels. By adding a spin–
orbit term to the potential,

V = Vwell(r) + Vso (r) j · L

, (7.30)
160 7 Introduction to Nuclear Physics

V0
Fig. 7.12 The Woods–Saxon potential well for neutrons: V (r) = − r−R
(1+e a )

where j indicates the spin and L the orbital angular momentum, the model can
explain all seven magic numbers.
Further improvements modify the shape of the potential well, as shown in
Fig. 7.12. Some nuclides are extremely stable as they have both proton and neutron
shell completed, like noble gases. Te α particle is one example, at the other end of
the spectrum is the most abundant isotope of lead 208
82 Pb126 .

7.8 Alpha Decays

At this point, we can try to understand the mechanism of alpha decays. Its
quantitative explanation requires quantum mechanics. The tunnelling effect has
no equivalent in classical physics: a potential barrier of finite width can be crossed
by a particle even if its energy is lower than the potential barrier. The probability
for this process to occur depends on the width of the barrier at the energy level of
the particle. It is outside the scope of this introductory book to calculate the decay
rate with Gamov’s tunnelling, see, e.g. Martin (2009). Remaining on the qualitative
description, we first notice from Fig. 7.3 that emitting a nucleon is energetically
allowed (Q > 0) only for heavy nuclides, with Z ≥ 105. The α-emitting nuclide
with lowest A is 10552 Te. The next question is why we observe α emission and not
single neutron or single proton emission. Neutron emission by evaporation from a
nucleus, many contributions fromes from a further analogy to the liquid drop, is a
process that occurs normally, e.g. when fission fragments are produced. However,
7.8 Alpha Decays 161

it is a very rapid process, which immediately follows the formation of new nuclei.
Apart from this, there is an easier way for the nucleus to reach a lower-energy state,
and this is β decay, which transforms neutrons into protons and vice versa. Very
often, α and β emissions are competing processes, or different decay branches of
the same nuclide. Alpha decay lifetimes range from 8 × 10−7 s to 6 × 1026 s. An
alpha particle is a “doubly magic” nuclide (Z = 2, N = 2), with a binding energy of
7 MeV per nucleon, which is close to the maximum. In the collective model of heavy
nuclei, we can consider them as formed by a tightly bound core and an outer layer,
which may be modeled as a liquid drop, not necessarily spherical. For large nuclei,
a part of this outer shell can be modeled as containing an α particle. In some very
recent models also, some nuclear states of nuclides like 8 Be and 12 C are considered
as α particle condensates (see, e.g. Yamada (2012)) of, respectively, two and three
alpha particles, each α being a spin zero boson.
The alpha particle inside an unstable nucleus can be modeled as being in a
potential well (Fig. 7.13); as it is electrically charged, the potential well is like the
one of protons (Fig. 7.10), with a Coulomb barrier outside the well. We suppose that
the α is formed among the most energetic nucleons with a certain probability. If the
energy level of this alpha particle inside the nucleus is below the zero level, the α
decay will not occur. If, however, the energy level is above zero, there is possibility
of tunnelling through the Coulomb barrier. Alpha particles from a given nuclide are
emitted with a single energy, which is often a marker to identify the nuclide that has
emitted it. From the experimental point of view, the lifetime of pure alpha emitters
is linked to the energy of the alpha particle by the Geiger–Nuttall relation:

Z
log τ = a + b √ . (7.31)
Eα

Fig. 7.13 Some nuclides can

be modeled as having α V
particles as one of the
components. If the energy
level of this alpha particle is
larger than zero, it can tunnel
through the Coulomb barrier
and be emitted
162 7 Introduction to Nuclear Physics

160 Alpha emitting nuclides Alpha emitting Uranium isotopes

235 238
15
Number of Neutrons N

140
233

Log (t1/2/s)
120 10

100
5

80
0
226
60

-5
50 60 70 80 90 100 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.4 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48

Number of protons Z E-1/2 [MeV-1/2]

Fig. 7.14 Left: Segrè chart of the α-emitting nuclides: they all have A ≥ 105. Right: the Geiger–
Nuttall plot for isotopes of uranium, showing a linear relation between Log10 of the lifetime in
seconds and the inverse of the square root of the kinetic energy. Nuclides with short lifetime emit
more energetic α particles. The lifetime spans 20 orders of magnitude, while the α kinetic energy
varies within a few MeV (data from IAEA Nuclear Data Section)

This relation can be derived with Gamow’s tunnelling model (see, e.g. Martin
(2009)) and is in good agreement with data, as shown in Fig. 7.14.

George Gamow (Russia 1904, USA 1968) taught in Leningrad (now St.
Petersburgh), then moved to Europe end then to the USA, where he taught
in various universities. He is known for many contributions from α decays to
cosmology, DNA combinations and for authoring many popular science books.

7.9 Gamma Emission

Gamma rays are high-energy quanta of light. We can use the shell model to explain
such an emission, when a transition occurs between nuclear energy levels. Unlike
atomic physics, the shell model is presently unable to predict the exact energy levels,
or rather their difference, and even less so the transition amplitudes. However, a
detailed “mapping” of the experimentally measured energy levels for each nuclide
is available in public databases. Both α and β ± decays in most cases leave the
daughter nuclide in an excited state.
Subsequent transitions, or decays, to intermediate states and to the ground state
are marked by emission of one or more gamma rays. This is very similar to what
7.10 Passage of Radiation Through Matter: Neutrons 163

Fig. 7.15 Decay scheme of

60

Energy
60 Co, where both β and γ Co
transitions are indicated, in
the Energy vs Z plane

1.17 MeV

1.33 MeV

60
Ni

27 28 Z

happens in atomic physics, where light emission occurs upon transition from excited
electron states. Similarly to atomic physics, nuclear energy levels are indicated as
horizontal segments in plots where the vertical axis represents the energy and the
horizontal axis represents A or Z, as shown in Fig. 7.15. State transitions which
emit γ ’s are indicated as vertical arrows, they do not change A or Z, while α and
β emissions are indicated as arrows with a slope in the (E − Z) plane. Also, the
spin associated with the level can be indicated, together with the energy level and
the lifetime or branching fraction of the transition.

7.10 Passage of Radiation Through Matter: Neutrons

Charged particles lose their kinetic energy by ionising the atoms: they interact with
the electrons. Heavily ionising particles are either highly electrically charged, like
alphas and fission fragments, or slow, or both. They lose all their energy and are
stopped by a thin amount of solid material. High-energy, penetrating particles like
muons (μ± ) lose part of their energy with the same ionisation mechanism and are
deviated in their trajectory by the electric field of the nuclei. The Bethe–Bloch
equation (5.38) allows us to calculate the energy loss for charged particles. So far,
we have not considered neutral particles. The only two types of neutral particles
which live long enough to interact with matter are neutrinos and neutrons. Neutrons
are particularly important, because they can provoke nuclear fission. Being neutral,
they do not interact with the electrons of the atoms. They are baryons, so they have
a residual strong force and they interact with the nuclei (Fig. 7.16).
164 7 Introduction to Nuclear Physics

Fig. 7.16 Schematic

visualisation of the
interactions of neutrons with
the matter. All interactions
occur with nuclei: elastic
scattering (top), neutron
absorption (middle) and
generic nuclear reactions
(bottom)

There are three possible reactions:

• elastic scattering n + A → n + A
• capture n + A → (A + 1)
• other nuclear reactions: n + A → B + C

Elastic Scattering

In the elastic scattering process, neutrons lose their energy by transmitting part of
it to the nuclei. Both parts remain unchanged by the scattering. For kinetic energies
lower than about 1 MeV, this is the only possible scattering process, and it can
be treated mathematically just as a classical billiard balls scattering, with balls
of different mass. Neglecting the mass difference between protons and neutrons,
and the binding energy, A represents the atomic mass. We have maximum energy
transfer when the collision occurs in one dimension: the neutron bounces back, and
the nucleus recoils along the initial direction of the neutron. The heavier the nucleus,
the lower fraction of neutron energy is transmitted to it. The minimum energy
transfer is zero for extremely peripheral collisions. After one scattering event, the
neutron has a kinetic energy E which is a fraction of the initial energy E0
 2
A−1 E
≤ ≤1. (7.32)
A+1 E0
7.10 Passage of Radiation Through Matter: Neutrons 165

All energy losses within this range are equally probable. In case of scattering on
hydrogen, A = 1 after n scattering processes the neutron average kinetic energy is:

E0
< En >= . (7.33)
2n

Neutron Capture

In the capture process, the neutron remains bound to the nucleus, which now has
increased by one its mass number A+1. The atomic number is unchanged, unless, of
course, there is a subsequent beta decay. A very important neutron capture process is

n +113 Cd →114 Cd∗ →114 Cd + γ . (7.34)

This is used in nuclear reactors to control the flux of neutrons in the core. Another
example of capture, which occurs in nuclear reactors, produces radiocarbon:

n+ 13
C →14 C + γ . (7.35)

Other Reactions

Other reactions include the charge exchange scattering:

n +14 N → p +14 C (7.36)

which is the main reaction to produce radiocarbon in the atmosphere. In this case,
neutrons originate from cosmic rays and have high energy. The same reaction can
occur in a nuclear plant and in this case it has a cross section of 1.8 b, for thermal
neutrons.
In a generic nuclear reaction, anything can happen, provided that all conservation
laws are respected. Another important reaction is

n +10 B → α +7 Li∗ + γ (0.48 MeV) (σ = 3480 barn) (7.37)

The cross section for the above process, for very low-energy neutrons (Ek ≈
0.025 eV), is 3480 barn. Also, this reaction is used to remove neutrons from the
core of a nuclear plant, to control the reaction.
166 7 Introduction to Nuclear Physics

The neutron-induced fission was discovered by Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn, in 1938–1939.
Meitner was the first woman to become a full professor in physics in Germany; she had
to leave in 1938 to Sweden. Hahn was awarded the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1944; the
artificial element meitnerium 109 Mt is named after L. Meitner. The most stable isotope 278
109 Mt
has a lifetime of about 10 s.

neutron
target
nucleus fission product

neutron
incoming
neutron fission product

neutron
Fig. 7.17 A schematic representation of the neutron-induced nuclear fission. Notice that one
or more neutrons are produced, which is essential for a self-sustained nuclear reaction

7.11 Spontaneous and Induced Fission

We have a spontaneous fission when a nucleus breaks into two daughter nuclei
of approximately equal mass without any external action. As shown in Fig. 7.3, it
occurs only for some nuclides with A > 100, which reach a higher binding energy
per nucleon if they move to a lower A.
238
U →145 La +90 Br + 3n; BR ≈ 10−7 (7.38)

It is a fairly rare process, which “competes” in terms of probability, or decay

branching ratio, with α-emission. The associated production of one or more
neutrons is very important, because they can in turn start a neutron-induced fission,
which is at the basis of nuclear reactors. The neutron-induced fission is a form of
nuclear reaction, whose effect is breaking a nucleus into two or more daughter nuclei
of about the same mass; an example is
235
U + n →92 Kr +141 Ba + 2n (7.39)

Many odd-A nuclides are fissile, i.e. they have a large probability to undergo fission
when a low-energy neutron interacts with the nucleus (Fig. 7.17). This is the case
for 235U, 239Pu and 241 Pu.
Certain even-Z/even-N nuclides, like 232 Th, 238 U and 240 Pu, require energetic
neutrons to undergo a fission process.
7.12 Applications: Fission-Based Nuclear Reactors 167

Enrico Fermi (1901–1954) from Italy, was where he received the prize in 1934 for his work
on neutron-induced radioactivity. From Stockholm he moved to the USA, where he taught
at Columbia University. He designed and operated the first nuclear reactor, which reached
criticality in Chicago on December 2nd 1942. He also taught at the Universities of Rome and
Chicago. More than 25 physics effects and models are named after him (photo: courtesy of
Argonne National Laboratory)

7.12 Applications: Fission-Based Nuclear Reactors

The principle of fission reactors is based upon neutron-induced fission and an

accurate neutron balance. The most stable uranium isotopes have A = 238 and
A = 235. The former, 238U, is more abundant in nature, but the probability that
upon meeting a slow neutron it breaks into fission fragments is very small. On the
contrary, 235U only makes 0.7% of natural uranium, but the cross section for the
reaction:
235
U + n → fission fragments + Nn n (7.40)

is a factor 108 larger. The cross section depends on the neutron kinetic energy,
and it is larger for low-energy neutrons. When the energy of the neutrons is of
the same order of magnitude of the average thermal energy kT , where k is the
Boltzmann’s constant and T the temperature in K, these neutrons are called thermal
(kT ≈ 0.025 eV). The fission fragments are not unique, as many different fission
reactions can take place. They are often radioactive and most of them decay with
medium-slow lifetimes. On average, the fission fragments carry 180 MeV per
fission, the neutrons carry about 2.5% of the energy, and an additional 13% is
obtained by a later-stage decay of radioactive nuclides. This is a significant fraction
of the heat created with the fission. The kinetic energy is transformed into heat:
168 7 Introduction to Nuclear Physics

The energy loss for charged particles is calculated with the Bethe–Bloch formula,
Eq. (5.38), while neutrons lose their kinetic energy by elastically scattering, as in
Eq. (7.32), or by reacting with nuclei and producing heavy charged particles. A
cooling system, typically water-operated, generates steam for a turbine.

Boltzmann’s constant links the average energy of a gas to its temperature: k =

8.61733 × 10−5eV K−1 . It is named after Ludwig Boltzmann 1844–1906, from
Vienna.

The key point to the nuclear pile is that the fission reactions generate neutrons,
which in turn can induce fission to other 235 U nuclei. The number Nn of neutrons
generated in each fission process, Eq. (7.40), is very important to establish a chain
reaction. These neutrons are not thermal, and they carry quite a substantial amount
of energy. The cross section for a fission reaction is much larger for thermal neutron.
In order to thermalise them, a moderator has to be used. A moderator is some inert
material which absorbs energy from fast neutrons, without absorbing them. The
main process is the elastic scattering and therefore hydrogen, with A = 1, is the best
possible moderator, from Eq. (7.32). Water and graphite are used as moderators as
well as heavy water, which contains deuterium. The chemical symbol D is used for
deuterium, and heavy water is also indicated with HDO. With reference to Fig. 7.18,
we define the criticality of a chain reaction as:

number of useful neutrons produced at stage(n)

k= (7.41)
number of useful neutrons produced at stage(n − 1)

Neutrons are useful in a reactor when they don’t escape, they are not absorbed by
other material which may be present, but, after some multiple elastic scattering, they
induce a fission process. We have a self-sustained and steady reaction when k = 1.
At this point, the reactor has reached criticality. The reaction continues as long as
there is nuclear fuel (235U). We have an explosive reaction if k > 1: this is the
principle of the nuclear bomb. The reaction will not continue if k < 1; in this case,
the reactor is said to be sub-critical. In order to operate a reactor, we need to have
a way to regulate and control the number of useful neutrons. This is done thanks
to the properties of cadmium and boron, which we have seen in the reaction (7.34).
There are three stable isotopes of Cd, and 114 Cd has a neutron capture cross section
of about 2500 barn for thermal neutrons. For this reason, when cadmium rods are
inserted in the nuclear fuel, they can remove neutrons and control the criticality of
the nuclear reaction. Also, boron is used for the same purpose.
An example of fission reaction is
235
U + n →144
56 Ba +36 Kr + 2 n
90
(7.42)

In this case, the Q-value is 180 MeV. This is a small amount of energy from a
macroscopic point of view, but we need to consider the huge number of atoms in a
7.12 Applications: Fission-Based Nuclear Reactors 169

Fig. 7.18 Representation of

a chain of fission reactions, third
initiated by a neutron. stage
Different stages represent second
consecutive time intervals stage

stage

mole. In case of natural Uranium, a mole is 238 g; it contains NA = 6.02 × 1023

atoms. Of these, 0.7% are of the fissile isotope 235 U. The total amount of energy we
can obtain from them is

WT = 180 × 106 eV × 0.007 × 6.0 × 1023 × 1.6 × 10−19 J/eV = 1.2 × 1011 J

Considering that 1 J = 2.78 × 10−7 kWh, the energy above can be expressed in
a more practical unit as 3.36 × 104 kWh. This energy is mostly in the form of
heat, although some of it, about 2%, escapes as neutrinos. The efficiency to convert
heat to electric energy in nuclear plants is about 30%, obtaining 11,200 kWh. A
household in Europe uses, on average, 3600 kWh of electricity a year. This makes
a mole of natural uranium (238 g) just about sufficient for the electrical needs of
three households in Europe for a year; it is equivalent to the energy of 2200 kg of
liquefied natural gas. The total yearly production of uranium is about 6 × 104 kg at
present. It is produced as “yellow cake” oxide, or U3 O8 .
Present nuclear reactors have somehow a “standard” size to produce a maximum
of about 1 GW of electrical power. More than one reactor unit can be clustered in
the same nuclear power plant, to share services, cooling and optimise the transport
of fuel and spent fuel. At present, 450 reactor units are operating in the world
(source: IAEA, 2016), producing a maximum electrical power of 390 GW. Different
technologies are used for power plant reactors. They can be characterised by the
nature of the moderator, by the coolant, by the type of fuel and by the type of nuclear
reaction that occurs.
• Pressurised Water Reactors (PWR) They are moderated and cooled by normal
water, a schematic is shown in Fig. 7.19. The pressurised vessel avoids that
170 7 Introduction to Nuclear Physics

Fig. 7.19 A simplified diagram of a Uranium-based nuclear fission reactor, of the type PWR.
(Modified after Lilley (2001).) For safety reasons, the coolant which circulates in the reactor core
is not the same fluid which powers the turbine. The moderator is indicated as a separate element,
but in Pressurised Water reactors the same pressurised water for primary cooling also acts as a
moderator. CANDU reactors have a similar scheme, but the coolant in the primary circuit is heavy
water (HDO)

coolant water boils inside the reactor core. For this reason, there are two cooling
circuits, a primary and secondary.
• Boiling Water Reactors (BWR) only have one cooling circuit, otherwise they are
very similar. They both use enriched uranium as fuel. This means that in the
fuel rods the concentration of fissile isotope 235 U is increased with respect to the
natural 0.7%. The fuel chemical compound is UO2 .
• Heavy Water Reactors (HWR) they are moderated and cooled by heavy water
(HDO), where one atom of hydrogen is replaced by an atom of deuterium (2 H).
The CANDU (CANadian Deuterium Uranium) reactors use natural uranium
UO2 , and they can operate with a percentage of thorium. The schematics is very
similar to the BWR.
• Graphite Moderated Reactors use the same moderator as the first reactor in
Chicago. They can use either gas as a coolant (CO2 , He or N2 ) or water, as in
the case of the Chernobyl reactor.
• Breeder Reactors don’t require a moderator and produce more fissile material
than they consume. They are cooled with a molten salt, or with liquid sodium, as
in case of the Superphenix reactor, which was operated in France. Their fuel is a
mixture of 239 Pu which is fissile, and 235 U, which is fertile. The main reaction in
a Pu-U breeder reactor are
239
Pu → 3n + F1 + F2 , (7.43)
7.12 Applications: Fission-Based Nuclear Reactors 171

β β
n +238
92 U → 92 U −
239
→ 239
93 Np −
→ 239
94 Pu (7.44)

where F1 and F2 are fission fragments.

New types of reactors are being developed as “Generation IV”, where new cooling
schemes and type of fuel are being tested with the aim of improving efficiency and
safety.
Although nuclear fission reactors don’t produce directly any greenhouse gas, they
have many other inconveniences. The main problem is production of nuclear waste,
which is radioactive and has a decay time of million years. The other non-negligible
problem is proliferation of nuclear armament: fission nuclear reactors can be used
to produce nuclides which are most suitable for bombs. Other aspects are more
common to any other human activity which involves large quantities of energy:
operation safety, and protection from extreme natural events like earthquakes and
tsunamis, and human mistakes. An additional factor is the magnitude and duration
of the consequences that a possible accident would produce, which is far beyond
the worst accident which could occur in a non-nuclear plant with a similar energy
content. The consequences of the major nuclear plant accidents extended beyond the
border of single countries: the release of radioactivity reached locations which were
thousands of kilometres away from the plant, and entire cities had to be evacuated
for decades.

The two most severe accidents to nuclear plants were the Chernobyl accident,
which occurred on 26 Aprseventeen small naturalil 1986 near Pripyat, Ukraine,
and the Fukushima Daiichi accident, occurred on 11 March 2011 in Japan. The
first was due to a series of human mistakes, the second to a tsunami following
an earthquake of magnitude 9.

Nuclear waste can be divided into three categories: fission products, actinides and
activated material. Fission products contribute for a weight that is about the same, or
slightly lower, than the amount of initial fissile material. If fuel is enriched to 3.5%
of fissile uranium, from 0.7% of the natural uranium, we expect about 3% of fission
products. Some of them have a relatively short lifetime, like 131 I, while others have
a lifetime comparable to the human life. This is the case of 137Cs and 90 Sr. However,
some have a very large lifetime: 135Cs and 129 I decay in 2.3 and 15 million years,
respectively. The large flux of neutrons produced in a reactor is absorbed by the
shielding material, which, in turn, becomes radioactive. Control rods are extremely
radioactive; some tritium is produced in water, especially when heavy water is used
as a moderator. In general, the lifetime of activated materials can be kept low by
selecting low-A material and special steels for infrastructures. The third and most
important type of waste is made of actinides, i.e. nuclides with Z ≥ 89. They are
produced by neutron capture by 238U, which is the major component of fuel rods.
About 0.5% of spent fuel is fissile 239 Pu, which is mostly used in nuclear warheads.
An example of a nuclide which is present with a concentration of about 0.4% in
172 7 Introduction to Nuclear Physics

spent fuel is 236U. This is not present in nature; it has a lifetime of 2.3 × 107 years,
and it is at the start of a chain of ten decays, before ending as stable lead:

α α 228 β β β α
236
U −
→ 232
Th −
→ Ra −
→ 228
Ac −
→ 228
Th −
→ 224
Ra −
→
α α α α
→220 Rn −
→ 216
Po −
→ 212
Bi −
→ 208
Tl −
→ 208
Pb (7.45)

About 4 × 108 kg of radioactive spent fuel have been produced worldwide so far,
with a production rate of 1 × 108 kg/y.

A set of 17 small natural reactors has been discovered in Gabon, West Africa,
near the equator, in a place called Oklo, near Franceville. These reactors
operated about 2 × 109 years ago, for about one million years. They have been
discovered because the uranium ore of these mines has a lower concentration
of the fissile isotope.

7.13 The Thorium Cycle

The shortage of Uranium in some countries has revived interest in the thorium cycle,
which was abandoned in the USA in 1973. 232 Th is the only naturally occurring
isotope, for all practical purposes. It is not stable, but decays α with a half-life of
1.4 × 1010 years. It is also not fissile, but it is fertile: it can be used to “easily”
generate an isotope of uranium, which is fissile, by neutron absorption:

n +232 Th →233 Th →233 Pa →233 U (7.46)

All the decays in the chain above (Eq. (7.46)) are β − . The nuclide 233 U is fissile.
In order to take place, this reaction needs some initial nuclear chain reaction to take
place and provide the neutrons to obtain the fissile nuclides. This is an example
of a so-called breeder reactor, which produces both energy and nuclear fuel. The
advantages of thorium are that it is more abundant than uranium, and it is not as
diluted.
Also, the spent fuel has a shorter average lifetime, with respect to uranium-
based fuel, although some long-lived nuclides are also produced. The only two
active thorium-operated research reactors are in India. A recent project, the “energy
amplifier”, proposes to use a particle accelerator to sustain the criticality condition
to an otherwise sub-critical thorium-based reactor, as sketched in Fig. 7.20. One of
the advantages is the possibility to operate without initial fissile Pu, which is needed
in all other breeder reactors (Eq. (7.43)), and the other is the possibility to fission
the actinides.
7.14 Nuclear Fusion and Nucleosynthesis 173

Fig. 7.20 Schematics of the principle of an Energy Amplifier. A proton beam is used as a
spallation neutron source to sustain the fission reaction in thorium. This method can also be
used to burn actinides from spent nuclear fuel. This generator is at the stage of feasibility
study

7.14 Nuclear Fusion and Nucleosynthesis

Nuclear fusion powers the only “controlled” fusion nuclear power source so far:
the sun, and other stars. Several fusion reactions occur in sequence in the sun
and many have branches, which means that they can occur in more than one way.
The predominant reaction is called the proton–proton cycle, or pp-I: protons fuse
together to produce deuterons. Other branches of this cycle are also active (pp-II
and pp-III). A star’s temperature is much larger than the ionisation temperature
of all elements: the sun is made by a neutral plasma of electrons and nuclei.
The gravitational force holds them together, creating an enormous pressure. These
two conditions make it possible that nuclei get in close contact, penetrating the
electrostatic shield that surrounds them. The reactions in the proton–proton (I) cycle
are (Fig. 7.21):

p + p →2 H + e+ + νe Q = 0.42 MeV proton–proton fusion (7.47)

p +2 H →3 He + γ Q = 5.49 MeV proton–deuteron fusion (7.48)
3
He +3 He →4 He + 2p Q = 12.86 MeV Helium–Helium fusion (7.49)

Another fusion cycle is very important for stellar evolution: the carbon-catalysed
cycle (CNO). Carbon acts as a catalyst, meaning that it facilitates the reaction, but
carbon nuclei are not created or destroyed by the chain of reactions (Fig. 7.22):

p +12 C →13 N + γ Q = 1.95 MeV proton–carbon fusion (7.50)

13
N →13 C + e+ + νe Q = 1.20 MeV β-decay (7.51)
174 7 Introduction to Nuclear Physics

Fig. 7.21 Schematics of the e

+
pp-I fusion reaction, one of p p
p
the main reactions occurring D 3He
p
in the sun. The overall
reaction is e
4p →4 He + 2e+ + 2νe + 2γ ,
4He
+
and the total energy released p
e p
is 24.67 MeV D 3
He
p p

+ +
e e 4He
p p p e p
e

12 13 13 14 15 15 12C
C N C N O N

Fig. 7.22 The carbon-catalysed fusion reaction cycle, CNO. Carbon acts as a catalyst

p +13 C →14 N + γ Q = 7.55 MeV proton–carbon (7.52)

p +14 N →15 O + γ Q = 7.34 MeV proton–nitrogen (7.53)
15
O →15 N + e+ + νe Q = 1.68 MeV β-decay (7.54)
p +15 N →12 C +4 He Q = 4.96 MeV proton–nitrogen (7.55)

Carbon takes part in the process; it is consumed, but it is also re-generated, so we

find the same amount of carbon in the final state as in the initial state. The overall
reaction is

4p →4 He + 2e+ + 2νe + 3γ Q = 24.68 MeV (7.56)

From all the above reactions, we see that the sun is a large source of electron
neutrinos, which are called solar neutrinos. Their energy has a range that extends
up to 0.4 MeV for pp-I reactions and from 1 to 12 MeV, for the CNO reactions.
Neutrinos of this energy have a cross section of the order of σν ≈ 10−44 cm2 . They
escape from the sun, which is quite transparent to them, and relatively few of them,
for purely geometrical reasons, reach the planet Earth and only very occasionally
do they interact with matter, sometimes with neutrino detectors in underground
laboratories. By nucleosynthesis, we mean the process of formation of elements
in stars. When the proton content of stars, including the sun, is depleted, the fusion
continues with other reactions, synthetising heavier elements. The sun is a yellow
dwarf star and when its hydrogen will be consumed, in about 5 × 106 years, it
will become a red giant star, with a much larger diameter and a core which will
7.14 Nuclear Fusion and Nucleosynthesis 175

start burning helium, to form beryllium, carbon and oxygen; it will not go on
further, because the temperature and pressure will not be enough to ignite other
fusion reactions: it will become a cold white dwarf star. Stars which are more
massive continue their fusion processes, which provides less and less energy as
heavier nuclides are used for fusion, till producing nuclides with A ≈ 56. This
is the maximum of binding energy per nucleon, as shown in Fig. 7.3; above this
nuclear size, adding nucleons would decrease the binding energy and would not be
energetically favourable (Q < 0). Therefore, heavier elements cannot be produced
with normal fusion processes. When a star of a large size, about 10 times the
sun mass, has used all its fuel available to fusion, it ends up as an iron core and
no radiation to balance the gravitational attraction, which heats up the remaining
material and ignites a supernova explosion. Temperature increases above 1010 K,
and photons have enough energy to break iron nuclei, for Eγ > 2.5 MeV

γ + 56
Fe → 13 4 He + 4n (Q = 145 MeV) (7.57)

The process can continue further, to break alpha particles and create a hot plasma of
protons and electrons, which have enough energy to produce an inverse beta decay

e− + p → n + νe (7.58)

What is left is similar to a giant nucleus, with A ≈ 1057, with a radius of a few
kilometres and most of its nucleons in the form of neutrons (a neutron star). Under
certain conditions, a supernova explosion (type-II) takes place, which produces a
shock wave of neutrons and neutrinos. Models of supernova explosions predict
short time intervals during which emission of a very large neutron flux takes place.
This process forms heavier elements with two mechanisms: a sequence of neutron
captures and beta decays, starting from initial iron nuclei, or a rapid aggregation of
neutrons around an Fe nucleus, and subsequent beta decays. Emission of an even
higher flux of neutrinos of all three kinds is also predicted by some theoretical
models, and was detected in the laboratory in the last supernova explosion which
occurred in proximity of our galaxy. The sun and the solar system have emerged
from the remnants of a supernova explosion. The abundance of elements in the solar
system is shown in Fig. 7.23.

Some of the solar neutrinos reach our planet, with a flux of about ν ≈ 6.5 ×
1010 cm−2 s−1 . A very small fraction of them are detected in underground
laboratories. Some of the electron neutrinos transform into μ and τ neutrinos
during their flight. The long standing problem of missing solar neutrino flux is
now understood in terms of this phenomenon, called neutrino oscillations. The
solar neutrino problem was first observed by Ray Davis (USA, 1914–2006)
Nobel Prize 2002, using the Standard Solar Model calculations by John N.
Bahcall (USA, 1934–2005).
176 7 Introduction to Nuclear Physics

Fig. 7.23 Abundance of elements in the solar system. From K. Lodders, in “Principles and
perspectives in Cosmochemistry”, Springer (2010)

On 23 February 1987, a supernova appeared in the southern hemisphere. The

originating star was a blue super giant with originally 10–100 solar masses
located in the Large Magellanic Cloud, at “only” 167 kly (thousands of light
years) from the Earth. A burst of neutrinos was detected in three neutrinos
observatories, at 7 : 35 : 35 universal time, about 3 h before the visible light
reached the Earth, which is consistent with a flux of 1058 neutrinos in two
pulses a few seconds apart. The expected remnant neutron star has not been
observed yet.

7.15 Fusion Reactors

The induced nuclear fusion has been achieved on the Earth, but not in a sustained
way: in thermonuclear bombs the process is not under control, while in reactors
fusion only occurs for a very short time and, so far, not in a self-sustained reaction.
The main reactions are
2
H +2 H →3 He + n; Q = 3.27 MeV Helium production (7.59)
2
H +2 H →3 H + p; Q = 4.03 MeV Tritium production (7.60)
2
H +3 H →4 He + n; Q = 17.62 MeV Helium production (7.61)
7.16 Problems 177

The main problem is to beat the Coulomb repulsion between protons or tritium
nuclei. Magnetic confinement or laser-induced pressure is being used (separately)
to reach nuclear fusion in a laboratory. A laser-induced fusion lab in Livermore, CA,
has recently reached a breakthrough point: more energy was produced by the fusion
process than the energy absorbed by the fuel target. However, this quantity is far
less than the energy needed to operate the lasers.

7.16 Problems

For these problems, we need to use more decimal digits than usual, because some
of them are based on detailed calculations, involving differences between quantities
which differ by less than 1%. Some of the data needed is available in the text.
7.1 The deuteron is a (pn) bound state. Its atomic mass is 2.014101 a.m.u. (or u).
Calculate its binding energy. The mass of the proton is 1.0072764 u and the
mass of the neutron is 1.008665 u.
7.2 Repeat the calculation above using MeV/c2 for masses. The value of the
masses are: deuteron: 1875.613 MeV/c2 ; proton: 938.272 MeV/c2 ; neutron:
939.565 MeV/c2 .
7.3 The atomic mass of 24195 Am is 241.056829 u. What is its mass deficit? It decays
237
to 93 Np by emitting an α particle. The atomic mass of Np is 237.048173 u.
What is the kinetic energy of the α emitted?
7.4 In a fission nuclear reactor, a possible reaction is

n +235 U →92 140

37 Rb +55 Cs + N neutrons

How many neutrons are produced? (the baryon number is conserved).

7.5 In the above reaction, the atomic masses are

92 U) = 235.04393 u
M(235

37 Rb) = 91.919729 u
M(92

55 Cs) = 139.91728 u
M(140
M(n) = 1.008665 u

Neglecting the kinetic energy of the incoming neutron, is the reaction endo-
energetic or exo-energetic? What is the Q-value? (in MeV).
7.6 232 Th is the only naturally occurring isotope of thorium. Its half-life is 14.05 ×
109 years. What is its mean lifetime in seconds? A mole of thorium (232 g) is
made of 6.02 × 1023 atoms (Avogadro’s number).
(a) What is the activity of a mole of thorium, in Bq ([s−1 ])?
178 7 Introduction to Nuclear Physics

(b) The decay reaction is 232 Th →228 Ra + α with a kinetic energy of the
α-particle of 4.083 MeV. Suppose that all the radiation is absorbed by the
brick containing our thorium sample and transformed into heat. How much
energy per second (power) is generated?

7.17 Solutions

Solution to 7.1 As for all nuclides, the mass of the deuteron is smaller than the
sum of the mass of its components. The binding energy is equal to this mass
difference. In this calculation, care must be taken to include or not the electron
mass. This is normally included in the value of the atomic mass, but not in
the proton mass, even if it is expressed in units of u. The electron mass is
510.9989 keV/c2 , u = 931,494.0 keV/c2 , so me = 0.0005485 u.

M = MD − me − mp − mn =
= 2.0141018 − 0.0005485 − 1.0072764 − 1.0086649 = −0.0023880 u

Expressing it in MeV/c2 , we have

B = 931.4940 × 0.0023880 = 2.2244 MeV, or 1.1122 MeV per nucleon.

Solution to 7.2 When masses are given in MeV, normally electrons are not
included. In the data of this problem, it is specified that the mass of the deuteron
is given. The calculation is straightforward:

M = mD − mp − mn ;

M = 1875.613 − 938.272 − 939.565 = −2.224 MeV/c2

Solution to 7.3 The Am isotope has 95 protons and 146 neutrons. Its mass
deficit is

M = MAm = 241.056827 − 95 × (1.0072764 + 0.0005485) − 146 × 1.008665

M = −1.9516285 u

B = −Mc2 = 1.9516285 × 931.4940 = 1817.93 MeV = 7.543 MeV per nucleon

The Q-value of the reaction

241 −
95 Am → α +237
93 Np + 2 e is

Q = MAm − MAm − Mα − 2me

Bibliography and Further Reading 179

Q = 241.056827 − 237.048173 − 4.0015061 − 2 × 0.0005485 = 0.006050 u

which translates into 5.636 MeV. The largest part of this energy is converted into
kinetic energy of the alpha particle, recoiling against a 237 Np nucleus: Ek (α) =
5.485 MeV.
Solution to 7.4

n +235 U →92
37 Rb +55 Cs + N neutrons
140

Uranium has 92 protons. The number of protons and neutrons is conserved.

Protons: 92 = 37 + 55
Neutrons: 143 + 1 = 55 + 85 + N ⇒ N = 4
Solution to 7.5

Q = 1.008665+235.04393−91.919729−139.91728−4×1.008665 = +0.180926

This value is positive, the reaction is exo-energetic; it releases energy.

Solution to 7.6

τ = 14.05 × 109 × 3.1536 × 107 = 44.3 × 1016 s

A = N/τ = 6.02 × 1023/44.3 × 1016 = 1.36 × 106 Bq

P = 1.36 × 106 × 4.083 × 106 × 1.602 × 10−19 W

P = 8.89 × 10−7 W

Bibliography and Further Reading

B.R. Martin, Nuclear and Particle Physics - An Introduction, 2nd edn. (Wiley, Hoboken, 2009)
E. Mervine, Nature’s Nuclear Reactors: The 2-Billion-Year-Old Natural Fission Reactors in
Gabon, Western Africa , Scientific American July 13, 2011
Y. Oka, Nuclear Reactor Design (Springer, Tokyo, 2014)
D. Perkins, Particle Astrophysics (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2009)
P. Schuck, A. Toshaki et al., Alpha-particle condensation in nuclear systems: present status and
perspectives. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 436 (2013)
W.M. Stacey, Nuclear Reactor Physics (Wiley, Hoboken, 2007)
T. Yamada et al., Nuclear alpha-particle condensates, in Clusters in Nuclei, vol. 2, ed. by C. Beck.
Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 848 (Springer, 2012), p. 229
Chapter 8
Six Problems

8.1 Voyager Power Source

The space probe Voyager-2 (Fig. 8.1) was launched on August 20, 1977 and is still
sending data to the Earth, from a distance of 1.6 × 1010 km.
The instruments on board are powered by a thermoelectric generator, which
produces electrical power from the heat generated by the decay of radioactive
nuclides. In this particular case, the parent nuclide is 238Pu. The half-life of this
nuclide is t1/2 = 87.7 years. We can consider the electric power as proportional to
the activity of the radioactive source. The initial electric power at launch was 420
W. What is the electric power now, and at what date will the space probe generator
deliver only 10% of the initial electrical power?
Solution
First of all, we should convert the half-life into mean-lifetime:
t1/2
τ= = t1/2 × 1.443 = 87.7 × 1.443 = 126.52 years
ln 2
If you don’t remember this formula, you can calculate it quickly:
t1/2
N(t) 1
= = e− τ
N0 2

Taking logs (ln = loge ) on both sides:

t1/2
ln(1) − ln 2 = −
τ
t1/2 87.7
τ= = = 126.5 years
ln 2 0.693

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018 181

S. D’Auria, Introduction to Nuclear and Particle Physics,
Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93855-4_8
182 8 Six Problems

Fig. 8.1 The Voyager-2 space probe (NASA)

The mean lifetime is always larger than the half-life by a factor 1.4 (or ln 2 =
0.693 < 1). Now, you can calculate the electric power W as a function of time.
Let’s call A(t) the activity, we have W (t) = KA(t), where K is a constant with
the dimension of an energy. We can write this because we know that the power is
proportional to the activity.

N(t) K
W (t) = KA(t) = K = N0 e− /τ
t

τ τ
We realise that
K
N0 is simply the initial power W0
τ

W (t) = W0 e− /τ
t

Numerical calculation: 37 years have passed since the launch, so the power is
reduced by a factor exp(−37/126.5) ≈ 75%.
These days the Voyager-2 space probe has a 313-W power generator.

W (t) t10%
= 0.10 = e− τ
W0

t10%
−ln10 = − ; t10% = τ ln 10 = 126.52 × 2.30 = 291.3 years
τ
8.2 Plutonium Thermoelectric Generator 183

from the launch, which means that Voyager-2 will have 10% of its original power in
1977 + 291 = 2268 a.D.

8.2 Plutonium Thermoelectric Generator

The nuclide 238 Pu decays α with a half-life t1/2 = 87.7 years. What is the
Q-value of the decay and what is the corresponding thermal power per kilogram?
The corresponding isotopic masses (in atomic mass unit (u) or Dalton) are
M(238 Pu) = 238.04956 u;
M(234 U) = 234.04095 u;
M(α) = 4.00151 u;
1u = 931.494 MeV/c2
1 MeV = 1.6 × 10−13 J;
1 year = 3.15 × 107 s;
NA = 6.022 × 1023 mol−1 ;
Solution
From the definition of Q-value

Q = Ek (final particles) − Ek (initial particles)

we derive


initial 
final
Q= Mi − Mf

that is, it is the sum of the masses in the initial state minus the sum of the masses of
the final state.

Q = M(238 Pu) − M(234 U) − M(α)

In 1 kg of plutonium-238, there are N0 = 1000g

238g NA nuclei.
The initial activity is A = N0/τ , where τ = t1/2 / ln 2.
Assuming that all energy is converted into heat, the thermal power radiated by
1 kg of Plutonium is

1000 g ln 2
W = QA = Q NA
238 g t1/2

Explanation: Each decay releases an energy Q; we have A decays per second, so

the energy released per second (which is the required power) is W = QA.
184 8 Six Problems

Numerical calculations:

Q = M(238Pu) − M(234U) − M(α)

= (238.04956 − 234.04095 − 4.00151) × 931.494 = 6.6 MeV

1000g ln 2
W = 6.6 MeV × 1.6 × 10−13 J/MeV × 6.022 × 1023
238g 87.7 × 3.15 × 107 s
= 0.67 × 103 W

If not adequately cooled, plutonium is intrinsically quite hot, producing 670 W/kg.
Incidentally, 1 kg of plutonium has an activity of 63 × 1012 Bq = 63 TBq.

8.3 Alpha and Beta Decays

1. The nuclide 238 Pu decays α. What is the mass number of the daughter nuclide?
2. The nuclide 102 + −
45 Rh (rhodium) can decay to β (80%) and β (20%). (a) What
are the mass and atomic numbers (A and Z) of the two possible daughters? (b)
What decay process is this?
3. The nuclide 90 −
38 Sr (strontium) decays β to another radioactive nuclide which
−
also decays β . (a) Write the mass and atomic numbers (A and Z) of both the
daughter and grand-daughter nuclides. (b) What decay process is this? (c) Which
fundamental interaction is mediating this decay?
Solutions:
1. In α decays A → A = A − 4 and Z → Z  = Z − 2 because an alpha particle
(A = 4, Z = 2) is emitted. In our case, the decay is
238
Pu →234 U + α(+5.593MeV)

2. Beta decays leave A unchanged.

In case of β + , a positron is emitted, so the number of protons decreases by one:
Z → Z  = Z − 1.
In case of β − , an electron is emitted, so the number of protons increases by one:
Z → Z  = Z + 1.
In our case:
−  
102
45 Rh →102
46 Pd + e + ν e (A = 102, Z = 46)

+  
102
45 Rh →102
44 Ru + e + νe (A = 102, Z = 44)

(b) this decay process is a “branching”.

8.4 Relativistic Muons 185

3. (a)
90  
38 Sr →90 90
39 Y →40 Zr (A = 90, Z = 39; A" = 90, Z" = 40)

(b) This is a chain of β decays.

(c) The beta decays are due to the weak part of the electroweak interaction.

8.4 Relativistic Muons

The purpose of these two exercises is to make you familiar with calculations
involving relativistic formulae, in particular how to derive the γ factors from
momentum and kinetic energy of the particle. Muons are produced by cosmic rays
when colliding mostly with nitrogen nuclei in the upper atmosphere. Calculate the
mean life of a muon with an initial kinetic energy EK = 20 GeV in the “laboratory”
reference frame. Calculate also its velocity β = v/c. Having such a velocity, the
muon mean lifetime corresponds to a mean decay length. This means that if a set
of 20 GeV muons are all produced at a point A, and each of them decays at a
point D1 , D2 , D3 . . . we can calculate an average distance ADave from the average
lifetime and the muon velocity. Compare this length with the top height of the
stratosphere (50 km). The muon mass is mμ = 105.66 MeV/c2 , and the muon
lifetime (at rest) is τμ = 2.20 μs.
Solution
We can calculate γ starting from the definition of relativistic kinetic energy of a
particle :

Ek = (γ − 1)mc2

Ek 20000 (MeV)
γ =1+ =1+ = 190.3
mc2 105.66 (MeV/c2)c2

The muon lifetime, when observed from a reference frame where the muon is in
motion, is larger by the factor γ related to the velocity of the muon:

τ(lab) = γ τ = 190.3 × 2.20 μs = 418.6 μs

From the definition of γ :

1
γ =
1 − β2
186 8 Six Problems

We can square both sides, to obtain

1
γ 2 1 − β 2 = 1; β 2 = 1 − 2
γ
 
1 1
β= 1− 2 = 1− = 0.9999862
γ 190.32

We can approximate this velocity with c ≈ 3 × 108 m/s.

The mean decay length of a muon with a given velocity is the length traveled in
the mean lifetime:

cτ(lab) = 3 × 108 (m/s) × 418.6 × 10−6(s) = 125589(m) = 125 km

This value is about twice the height of the top of the stratosphere: energetic muons
can travel all the way down to ground before decaying.

8.5 Same Exercise, Starting from the Muon Momentum

In some cases, it is easier to measure the momentum of a charged particle, by

measuring the bending radius of its trajectory in a magnetic field. Suppose that we
measure the momentum p of the muon to be 20 GeV/c. What is the corresponding
gamma factor? All data are given in the problem above.
Solution
There are at least two ways to solve this: (a) to calculate the muon kinetic energy
from its momentum, and then following the previous case, or (b) calculate βγ from
the definition of relativistic momentum.
Method (a):
From the modulus of the muon 4-momentum E 2 /c2 − p2 = m2μ c2 , we derive

E= m2 c4 + p2 c2 ; This is total energy E = Ek + mc2

Ek = E − mc2 = m2 c4 + p2 c2 − mc2

= 105.662 + 200002 − 105.66 = 19.894 GeV
8.5 Same Exercise, Starting from the Muon Momentum 187

We can continue just as in the problem above: from the definition of relativistic
kinetic energy, we can calculate γ :

Ek = (γ − 1)mc2

Ek 19,894 (MeV)
γ =1+ 2
=1+ = 189.3
mc 105.66 (MeV/c2)c2

and so on. Numerically, this value is not so different from the value calculated from
a kinetic energy of the same value as the momentum. As long as the energy or
the momentum are much larger than the mass, which can be expressed in terms of
energy, in MeV/c2 , momentum and kinetic energy are good approximations of each
other.
Method (b)
The momentum of the muon along its flight direction is p = βγ cmμ so that

p 20000 (MeV/c)
βγ = = = 189.3 (8.1)
cmμ 105.66 (MeV/c2 ) c

We can now calculate β 2 from γ 2

1 1
γ2 = → 1 − β2 = 2
(1 − β )
2 γ

So, β 2 = 1 − 1
γ2
. Therefore:
 
1
β γ = 1 − 2 γ2 = γ2 − 1
2 2
γ

Now from (Eq. (8.1)), we can square both sides and obtain

p2
β 2γ 2 = = γ 2 − 1, where the last step comes from the equation above.
m2 c 2
 
p2 200002(MeV2 /c2 )
γ = 1+ 2 2 = 1+ = 189.3 .
m c 105.662 (MeV2 /c4 )c2

Comparing this value with the value of βγ obtained in (Eq. (8.1)), we can say that
β ≈ 1 and v ≈ c.
Also in this case, the proper lifetime is increased by a factor γ :

τ(lab) = γ τμ = 189.3 × 2.20 = 416.4μs .

188 8 Six Problems

The mean decay length is therefore:

l = βcτ (lab) = 3 × 108 m/s × 416.4 × 10−6 s = 124.9 × 103 m .

8.6 Chernobyl Caesium Release

In April 1985, one of the nuclear reactors in a power plant in Ukraine released, in
total, about 26 kg of 137 Cs, among many other radioactive nuclides. This was the
worst accident in the history of nuclear power plants. This radionuclide decays β −
with half-life of 30.17 years. Calculate the total radioactivity (in Bq = [s−1 ]) from
this nuclide only, which was released in the environment by the accident. Calculate
also the total Chernobyl-related 137Cs residual activity which is still present today.
A solution is given for year 2014. One year is 3.15 × 107 s, and Avogadro’s number
is NA = 6.022 × 1023 mol−1 ;
Solution
The 137 Cs lifetime is

τ = t1/2 / ln 2 = 30.17 × 1.44 × 3.15 × 107 = 137 × 107 s

We need to know how many Cs atoms were released. So, we first need to know how
many moles correspond to M = 26 kg, then multiply by the number of atoms per
mole, which is Avogadro’s number, and divide by the lifetime to obtain the activity.
The released activity is

N0 M NA 26,000(g) 6.022 × 1023 /mol

A= = = = 83 × 1015 Bq
τ MA τ 137(g/mol) 137 × 107 (s)

The disaster released 83 PBq of 137 Cs. 29 years later the residual 137 Cs activity is
29(y)
− 1.44×30.17(y)
A(t) = A0 e− τ = 83 × 1015e
t
= 83 × 1015 × 0.512 = 42 PBq

About 29 years later, the caesium activity is a little more than half the released
activity. The disaster occurred about one caesium half-life from 2014.
Name Index

B Gell-Mann, Murray, 137

Bahcall, John N., 175 Gerlach, Walter, 43
Becquerel, Henry, 2 Göppert-Mayer, Maria, 159
Bethe, Hans, 151 Goudsmith, Samuel, 42
Bloch, Felix, 83 Gross, David, 144
Born, Max, 112
Bose, Satyendranath, 117 H
Bragg, William H., 86 Hahn, Otto, 166
Brout, Robert, 119, 120 Heisenberg, Werner, 42, 106
Higgs, Peter, 119, 120
C Hilbert, David, 39
Compton, Arthur H., 79
Curie, Pierre, 2, 3 J
Jensen, Hans, 159
D
Davis, Ray, 175 K
De Broglie, Louis, 41, 42 Kajita, Takaaki, 125
Dehmelt, Hans Georg, 44 Klein, Oskar, 81, 82
Dirac, Paul A. M., 41, 109, 123
L
E Landau, Lev Davidovich, 88
Englert, Francois, 119, 120 Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon, 15, 16

M
F Majorana, Ettore, 156
Fermi, Enrico, 6, 52, 109, 167 McDonald, Arthur, 125
Feynman, Richard, 126 Meitner, Lise, 166
Minkowski, Hermann, 30
G
Galilei, Galileo, 13 N
Gamow, George, 162 Nishina, Yoshio, 81, 82
Geiger, Hans, 72, 94 Nöther, Emmy Amalie, 30, 31

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018 189

S. D’Auria, Introduction to Nuclear and Particle Physics,
Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93855-4
190 Name Index

P U
Pauli, Wolfgang, 6, 52 Uhlenbeck, George, 42
Penning, Frans M., 44
Planck, Max, 39
Politzer, David, 144 V
Pontecorvo, Bruno, 125 Van der Meer, Simon, 119
von Weizsäcker, Carl Friederich, 151
R
Röntgen, Wilhelm, 1, 2
W
Rubbia, Carlo, 119
Wilczek, Frank, 144
Rutherford, Ernest, 72, 73, 94

S Y
Sklodowska-Curie, Marie, 2 Yukawa, Hideki, 111
Stern, Otto, 43
Subject Index

A Decuplet, 139, 140

Actinides, 171–173 Detailed balance, 109, 110
Activity, 2, 3, 31, 54, 55, 61, 64, 65, 67, 68, Deuteron, 46, 147, 148, 173, 177, 178
171, 177, 181–184, 188 Direct product, 30, 31, 138
Asymptotic freedom, 144 Direct sum, 30, 31, 137
Atomic density, 73, 83 Doppler effect, 26–27, 33, 35
Atomic mass unit, 150, 183
Attenuation coefficient, 74, 77, 78, 98–100
E
Elastic scattering, 149, 164–165, 168
B Electron capture, 63, 154–156
Beta decays, 26, 52, 56, 66, 92, 128, 147, Energy amplifier, 173
153–156, 165, 175, 184–185 Equivalent dose rate, 95
Bethe–Bloch formula, 82, 84, 168 Evaporation, 160
Binding energy, 79, 151–153, 159, 161, 164, Exclusion principle, 6, 116–118, 157
166, 175, 177, 178
Bosons, 26, 104, 105, 107, 113, 116–121, 124,
126, 127, 129–132, 162 F
Branching fraction, 58, 120, 145, 146, 163 Fermi gas nuclear model, 157–159
Breeder reactor, 170, 172 Fermi level, 158
Bremsstrahlung, 88–91, 97, 99, 102 Fermions, 116–118, 120–123, 125–127, 131,
156
C Fine structure constant, 82, 109, 113
Carbon-catalysed cycle, 173, 174 First integrals, 30
Chain reaction, 168, 172 Flavour, 122, 124, 125, 130, 134–137,
Charm quark, 137 139–142, 145
Collective model, 157, 161
Condensates, 161, 179 G
Confinement, 26, 140, 141, 177 Gamma emission, 162–163
Criticality, 167, 168, 172 Gluon, 26, 105, 119, 120, 126, 127, 129,
131–133, 142–144
D Golden rule, 109
Dalton (unit), 108, 183 Gravity, 1, 103, 105, 145, 151
Decay width, 106–108 Group theory, 28–30, 45, 134–136

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018 191

S. D’Auria, Introduction to Nuclear and Particle Physics,
Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93855-4
192 Subject Index

H Positron, 5, 9–11, 46, 51, 52, 75, 123–125,

Half-life, 56, 63, 65, 172, 177, 181–183, 188 127, 141, 184
Hilbert space, 39 Positronium, 46, 123, 124, 141
Propagator, 112, 114, 126, 127
I Proportional chamber, 93
Infrared divergence, 90
Intensity, 48, 49, 67, 71, 72, 74, 77, 89, 91, 98
Q
Interval, 20–22, 32, 34, 53, 54, 62, 63, 67, 71,
Quarkonia, 141
74, 83, 84, 95, 106, 169, 175
Invariant mass, 23–25, 34, 79, 106, 119, 121
Inverse beta decay, 92, 175 R
Isomer, 4, 8, 57 Radiocarbon, 63, 64, 68, 69, 165
Isotopic spin/isospin, 134–140 Reactor, 8, 92, 165–172, 176–177, 179, 188
Red giant star, 175
K Representation, 21, 29–31, 39, 45, 46, 52, 59,
Kinetic energy, 6, 7, 9–11, 25, 26, 32, 53, 72, 125, 135–139, 142, 148, 155, 157,
82–89, 91, 143, 149, 162–165, 167, 166, 169
168, 177–179, 185–187
S
L Second quantisation, 41
Lepton number, 122, 124, 125, 130, 156 Secular equilibrium, 60, 61
Liquid drop, 151–153, 160, 161 Shell model, 157, 159, 162
Lorentz group, 29, 45, 46 Silicon detector, 93
Lorentz transformation, 15–22, 24, 29, 32, 34 Singlet state, 133–135
Spectrometer, 7, 64, 68
M Spin, 39, 41–47, 49, 104, 116–119, 123, 130,
Magic numbers, 159, 160 131, 133–135, 137–140, 153, 157,
Magneton, 47 158, 160, 161, 163
Majorana particle, 156 Spin-orbit, 49, 159
Mass formula (semi-empirical), 151–153, 159 Spin-statistics, 116
Matrix element, 127, 128, 145, 154, 155 Stopping power, 84, 85
Mean lifetime, 54, 56, 57, 62, 63, 108, 177, Straggling, energy, 87
181, 182, 185, 186 Supernova, 58, 175, 176, 187
Moderator, 169–171
Multiple scattering, 82, 87, 91
T
Thermal neutrons, 168
N Thorium cycle, 172–173
Neutron capture, 165, 168, 171 Threshold energy, 79, 149
Neutron star, 175, 176 Transient equilibrium, 60–62
Nuclear pile, 168 Transition amplitude, 109, 114, 125, 162
Triton, 147
Tunnelling, 161, 162
O
Octet state, 139
Optical model, 150 U
Uncertainty principle, 42, 111, 114
P
Pairing, 153–155 V
Perturbation theory, 110, 112, 144 Virtual process, 120
Phase space density, 108, 125, 145, 154
Photoelectric effect, 47, 48, 74–77, 92
Photomultiplier, 49, 94 X
Pion, 112, 134, 135 X-ray tube, 1, 89, 90, 96–98