Key Engineering Materials Vols 264-268 (2004) pp 2395-2398 Online: 2004-05-15

© (2004) Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland

doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.264-268.2395

Raw Material Characteristics And Technological Properties Of Some

Medieval Glazed Ceramics And Tiles In Anatolia
1 2 3
Ş. Demirci , E. N. Caner - Saltık , A. Türkmenoğlu
S. Özçilingir- Akgün2, Ö. Bakırer2
1
Department of Chemistry, Middle East Technical University, 06531, Ankara, Turkey
2
Materials Conservation Laboratory, Department of Architecture, Middle East Technical University,
06531, Ankara, Turkey
3
Department of Geological Engineering, Middle East Technical University, 06531, Ankara, Turkey

Keywords: Medieval ceramics, glazed pottery, glazed tile, sgrafitto decoration

Abstract. Byzantine and Seljuk cultures are two important overlapping periods in Anatolia during
medieval times. Both cultures had special significance in the production of glazed pottery. In
architecture, Seljuk culture had further expanded the use of ceramics as glazed tiles in the buildings.
The Seljuk glazed tiles were mainly of mosaic and plain tile types. Only monochrome opaque
turquoise and monochrome transparent violet-black coloured tiles were examined in this study. The
pottery pieces studied represent the deep bowls with fine sgrafitto decorations coming from three
archaeological sites namely Ephesus-Byzantine, Iznik-mixed and Korucutepe-Seljuk sites.
The potsherds and tiles were analysed to determine the characteristics of body, slip and glaze parts
in terms of raw materials composition and firing temperature using various analytical techniques.
In addition, the physical properties and the ultrasonic velocity values of the body parts were
examined. The results show that tiles are more porous, less dense and have lower ultrasonic velocity
values than those of pottery bodies. Tile bodies have moderately vitrified matrix with large sized
(~500 µm) particles of quartz added as temper and composed of low-calcareous clay. Temper
aggregates do not seem to be used in the potteries.In the tiles, there is no slip between glaze and the
body. Monochrome black glaze is alkaline glaze. Manganese and iron are the efficient elements in
the development of violet-black tones. The monochrome turquoise glaze is tin-opacified lead- alkali
glaze, copper being the efficient element in turquoise colour. The potteries were all glazed over a
slip having an illitic clay composition together with quartz. Potteries from Ephesus Byzantine site
are high lead glazes, while the ones from Korucutepe Seljuk site are lead alkali glazes. Iron is the
efficient element in the colouring of yellow, honey and brown coloured glazes while iron and
copper are the efficient elements in the colouring of green glazes.

Introduction
Byzantine and Seljuk cultures are two important overlapping periods in Anatolia during medieval
times. Both cultures had special significance in the production of glazed pottery as sgraffito
decorated deep bowls [1]. The deep bowls under consideration are intensely decorated and it is
assumed that they are not produced for everyday use, yet their functions are not clarified (Fig. 1).
The use of glazed ceramics in Anatolia was expanded to architecture during the Seljuk period, as
glazed tiles in the decoration of both religious and civil architecture. The Byzantines or Romans in
Anatolia, on the other hand, were mainly characterized by their frescoes and floor mosaics.
The Seljuk glazed tiles were mainly of mosaic and plain tile types either opaque monochrome
coloured as white or turquoise or decorated with the underglaze colours of dark blue, turquoise, and
black [1-4]. The main goal of this study is to understand the pottery and tile technology in
medieval Anatolia, to make comparisons between Byzantine and Seljuk pottery productions, to
make comparisons of the tile technology with the pottery ones. In addition, the knowledge obtained
from this study may help to better understand these materials which may help to their conservation
studies in the future.

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2396 Euro Ceramics VIII

Materials and Methods

The glazed pottery pieces were collected from archaeological sites Ephesus, Iznik and Korucutepe .
Ephesus potsherds were associated to the Byzantine culture, whereas Korucutepe to the Seljuk
culture. But the potsherds coming from Iznik may belong to one or to the other.
The glazed tile samples were collected from 13th century Seljuk period monuments namely Sivas
Gök Medrese and Tokat Gök Medrese .
The bodies of the ceramics were examined for their basic physical properties according to RILEM
standards [5] and for their mechanical properties by ultrasonic velocity measurements using a
Pundit Plus instrument with its probes, transmitter and receiver of 220 kHz.
Body, slip (if any) and glaze parts of the ceramics were analysed separately to identify mineral
phases and other inclusions by optical microscopy and XRD analyses. Complementary analyses for
morphology and microstructure were done by using a Jeol JSM-5400 Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM) coupled with EDX system.

Results and Discussion

The physical properties of the potteries as bulk density and porosity were in the ranges of 1.70-1.90
g/cm3 and 20-30 % by volume respectively. For the tile bodies, the bulk density and porosity were
in the ranges of 1.50-1.78 g/cm3 and 40-46% by volume respectively.
The ultrasonic velocity of the potsherd bodies varied in the range of 1500-1800 m/s.
The degrees of vitrification of the bodies were examined by SEM images as seen in Figures 2 and 3.
Ultrasonic velocities of vitrified pottery bodies (Fig.2) were higher than that of the moderately
vitrified ones, the corresponding values being around 1800 m/s and 1500 m/s respectively. The
ultrasonic velocity of the tile bodies that were moderately vitrified (Fig. 3) was much lower than
that of potteries, being about 800 m/s.
Raw Materials Characteristics of Bodies. The pottery bodies were homogeneous in grain size
and fell into the fine-grained and semi-fine grained range. However, they all contain some larger
rock fragments. The texture and mineral composition of the tile bodies studied were quite similar
and showed homogeneous distribution. The common feature of the tile bodies is the presence of
fractured quartz particles in large sizes together with smaller sized unfractured quartz particles in
the moderately vitrified matrix. The fractured quartz particles were more likely added as temper to
the tile bodies, whereas no temper seems to be added to the pottery bodies.
The colour of the bodies seemed to be related with calcium and iron content as well as oxidizing
and reducing firing and cooling conditions [6-8].
In the potteries, when the body was low or moderately calcareous (CaO content being 3-5 % or
less), the colour of the body was dark brown, gray, black or red depending on the iron oxide content
and firing conditions. If calcium oxide content was moderate, the body was dark brown or black in
reducing firing conditions and red in oxidizing conditions. When the body was calcareous, CaO
content being 8-11% or more, the colour of the body was red, light red or light gray depending on
the level of iron oxide and firing conditions. In the red coloured bodies the predominant iron oxide
mineral was haematite. In the reducing conditions, the colour of the body became blackish red or
dark gray in moderate iron oxide and CaO content where the predominant iron oxide mineral was
magnetite.
In the tiles, the colour was light red and EDX analyses of this study showed low iron oxide (Fe2O3)
and moderate CaO contents being 0.7 and 6.7 % respectively.
The pottery bodies that had calcareous clay were well vitrified as seen in Fig. 2. The ones that had
low calcareous clay were moderately vitrified. The tile bodies studied had low or moderately
calcareous clays and were moderately vitrified (Fig. 3).
Firing Temperature of Bodies. The estimation of firing temperature could be done by the
examination of vitrification, and mineral phases. Moderately vitrified potteries could be fired at 750
– 800 °C. XRD data of them showed the presence of illite and haematite, whereas the vitrified
 Key Engineering Materials Vols. 264-268 2397

potteries could be fired at around 850 °C that was supported by the presence of gehlenite along with
illite in the XRD patterns.
Tile bodies have higher SiO2 content than the pottery bodies, being around 74%. Firing temperature
of such a siliceous and moderately vitrified body could probably be higher than the potteries. Since
presence of quartz predominates in their XRD patterns, high temperature phases, if any, could not
be identified in the tile bodies.
Pottery Slips. The slip parts of potteries were white and opaque in thin sections. Their thickness
varied from 70 to 200 microns. EDX and XRD results indicated that the slip is most probably a
mixture of illitic clay and quartz.
Glazes of Pottery. The thickness of the glazes was in the range of 50 to 200 microns. Potteries
from Ephesus Byzantine site are high lead glazes (~40-60% as PbO) while the ones from
Korucutepe Seljuk site are lead-alkali glazes (~12-24% as PbO). Iron is the efficient element found
in the colouring of yellow, honey and brown coloured glazes. Iron and copper are the efficient
elements in the colouring of green glazes of Korucutepe Seljuk potteries. Oxidation states of iron
are related with the kiln conditions and firing process.
Glazes of Tiles. The Seljuk tiles examined were glazed with monochrome transparent violet-
black and monochrome opaque turquoise colours without using a slip. Monochrome transparent
violet-black glazes were alkaline glaze (Na2O being 22.5%). Manganese and iron are the efficient
elements in the development of violet-black tones. The monochrome opaque turquoise glazes are
tin-opacified lead-alkali glazes, copper being the efficient element in turquoise colour. Tin-
opacified lead-alkali glazes and alkali glazes have high thermal expansion coefficient and should
normally be used in conjunction with the bodies having similar high thermal expansion coefficients
[9]. Seljuk tiles having these types of glazes had the bodies with high amounts of quartz tempers
that produced compatibility between the body and the glaze.
In conclusion, there are considerable differences between the glazed pottery and the building tiles of
the Seljuk period in terms of raw materials characteristics, preparation technologies and final
products. The glazes they have prepared were lead-alkali glazes for the pottery and tin-opacified
lead-alkali glazes and alkali glazes for the building tiles with the compatible bodies. The compatible
bodies were produced by the use of quartz tempers. These aspects show their high competence in
glazed ceramic technology. The Ephesus Byzantine pottery differs from the Seljuk ones, since they
have used only high lead glazes. In a way, overlapping and the succeeding Seljuk culture seems to
have contributed to the evolution of the ceramic technology in Anatolia.

References
[1] Ö. Bakırer: The Medieval Pottery and Baked Clay Objects in Korucutepe". In: van Loon, M.(ed)
Korucutepe III: Final Report on the Excavation of the University of Chicago, California and
Amsterdam in the Keban Reservoir, Eastern Anatolia 1968-1970 (Studies in Ancient
Civilization), (1980), p. 189-219.
[2] A. Pasinli, S. Balaman,. Türk Çini ve Keramikleri: Çinili Köşk, ( A Turizm, Istanbul 1992)
[3] R. Arık, Anatolica, Annuaire International Pour Les Civilizations De L’Asie Anterieure,
No.XVIII, (1992), p. 101-118.
[4] R. Arık, Sanatsal Mozayık, Year I, No.II, (1995), p. 18-27.
[5] RILEM, Materiaux et Construction, 13(73), 8 (1980), p. 173-253.
[6] T. Pradell, J. Molera, M. Garcia – Valles, M. M.Vendrell – Saz, In Proc., European Meeting on
Ancient Ceramics, Ed., Vendrell M., Molera J., Garcia M. and Pradell T., (1994), p. 239-245.
[7] J. Molera, T., Pradell, N. Salvado and M. Vendrell-Saz, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 84(5), (2001), p.
1120-1128.
[8] Ş. Demirci, E. N. Caner-Saltık, A. Türkmenoğlu, H. Böke, Archaeometry 98, Proceedings of the
31st Symposium Budapest, April 26-May 3, 1998, Eds, E. Jerem, K. T. Biro, (2002), p. 513-518.
[9] M. S. Tite, I. Freestone, R. Mason, J. Molera, M. Vendrell-Saz and N. Wood, Archaeometry, 40,
2 (1998), p. 241-260.
2398 Euro Ceramics VIII

Fig. 1. A piece of Byzantine pottery with Fig. 2. SEM micrograph of the body
sgrafitto decoration. belonging to a Byzantine honey coloured
glazed potsherd showing vitrification.

Fig. 3. SEM micrograph of the body

belonging to a turquoise coloured Sivas
Gök Medrese tile showing moderate
vitrification.
Euro Ceramics VIII
10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.264-268

Raw Material Characteristics and Technological Properties of some Medieval Glazed Ceramics and
Tiles in Anatolia
10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.264-268.2395

DOI References
[7] J. Molera, T., Pradell, N. Salvado and M. Vendrell-Saz, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 84(5), (2001), p. 120-1128.
doi:10.1111/j.1151-2916.2001.tb00799.x