Crestal Bone Level Alterations in Implant Therapy: August 2011

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Crestal Bone Level Alterations in Implant Therapy
Chapter · August 2011

DOI: 10.5772/16477 · Source: InTech
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16
Crestal Bone Level Alterations

in Implant Therapy
Theofilos Koutouzis
University of Florida, College of Dentistry, Department of Periodontology
United States
1. Introduction
Tooth restorations using implant-supported prostheses for functional and esthetic
rehabilitation of patients has become an established and widely used treatment modality in
modern dentistry. Preservation of peri-implant bone is one important factor for success. The
quantity and quality of the bone surrounding an implant not only affect implant
osseointegration, but also influence the shape and contour of the overlying soft tissues,
which are important for the esthetic outcome of treatment. Therefore, assessment of peri-
implant marginal bone levels has become an integral part of the evaluation of the implant
patient. Different evaluation protocols and success criteria based on marginal bone level
changes have been described in the literature. Radiographic techniques including panoramic
tomography and intra-oral radiography using long cone parallelling techniques have been
widely used to monitor marginal bone levels at implants and diagnose interproximal bone
loss (Kullman et al. 2007). Here the distance from a fixed reference point (e.g. implant
shoulder or implant–abutment junction) to the inter-proximal bone level is recorded at
baseline and monitored longitudinally. In numerous studies baseline radiographs are taken
at the time of prosthesis installation, where any marginal bone level changes which
occurred at the period between implant installation and prosthesis installation are not taken
into account. While a panoramic tomograph allows the entire implant to be visualized
limitations including image resolution and distortion are well known (Åkesson et al. 1993,
De Smet et al. 2002). Further limitations of conventional radiography include the inability to
monitor facial and lingual/palatal bone levels, low sensitivity in the detection of early bone
changes and the underestimation of bone loss (Brägger et al. 1988, De Smet et al. 2002).
Recently, multi-slice computer tomography (CT) and cone beam volume imaging have been
used in implant dentistry offering the advantage that osseous structures can be represented
in three planes, true to scale and without overlay or distortion (Mengel et al. 2006).
2. The effect of surgical protocols on crestal bone level alteration

The evolution of implant dentistry has lead to treatment protocols and approaches that
differ substantially to the ones that utilized at the initial stages of implantology. Treatment
modifications on stages of implant surgery, load timing and implant placement in grafted
sockets have been introduced and utilized extensively the two last decades. In addition
factors related to treatment planning such as inter-implant, tooth-implant distances and
380 Implant Dentistry  A Rapidly Evolving Practice
supra-crestal, crestal and subcrestal placement of the implant-abutment interface can have
effects on crestal bone level alterations around implants.
2.1 One versus two-stage implant surgery

One stage implant surgery refers to placement of a healing abutment following implant
installation that remains transmucosally and exposed to the oral cavity following
replacement of the mucoperiosteal flaps (Figure 1). In contrast, during two-stage implant
surgery a cover screw is placed following implant installation and the implant is completely
submerged following suturing of the flaps. Three to six months later the implant is
uncovered with a second surgical procedure and a healing abutment is placed allowing the
peri-implant mucosa to heal.
Fig. 1. Healing abutment remains transmucosal at the one-stage implant surgery

The effect of one-stage and two-stage implant surgery on peri-implant mucosa and crestal
bone level changes have been evaluated in both experimental and clinical studies.
Abrahamsson et al. 1996 in an animal study compared the morphology and the composition
of the transmucosal tissue for 3 different implant systems (Astra Tech, Brånemark,
Straumann), using either a two-stage (Astra Tech, Brånemark ) or one-stage technique
(Straumann) over a six-month period. The epithelial and connective tissue components had
similar dimensions and composition. All 3 groups exhibited bone loss of around 0.5 mm, the
epithelium height was around 2 mm (slight variation among groups, 1.6-2.3 mm) and the
connective tissue was roughly 1 mm. The connective tissue consisted of 86% collagen and
8% fibroblasts, where the collagen fibers were parallel to the surface of the implant. These
histological observations suggested that the soft tissue seal has the same characteristics
using these implants systems. Similarly, in a following study (Abrahamsson et al. 1999) no
histological and radiographical differences were found between implants of one system
(Astra Tech) placed with different installation techniques (one-stage vs two-stage).
Although there is a large number of clinical studies and reports for implants placed with
one-stage or two-stage surgical techniques, there are few studies which directly compare
Crestal Bone Level Alterations in Implant Therapy 381
these two techniques. Åstrand et al. 2004 in a split-mouth clinical study compared implants
placed with one-stage (ITI, TPS solid screws) and two-stage (Brånemark) surgical technique
supporting maxillary screw-retained fixed partial dentures for 3 years. No statistically
significant differences were found between the implants studied (regarding bone level
changes and survival rates), except for the frequency of periimplantitis, which was higher
for the ITI implants. Similar findings were reported in another clinical study comparing
implants placed with one-stage (ITI, TPS hollow screws) and two-stage surgical technique
(Brånemark) supporting mandibular fixed partial dentures over a 3 year time period
(Momberg et al. 2001). After 3 years, the cumulative success rates were 97.9% and 96.8% for
the Brånemark and ITI systems, respectively. Kemppainen et al. 1997 with a parallel group
design study compared Astra Tech implants placed with a two-stage surgical technique
versus ITI hollow cylinders placed with a one-stage surgical technique for single tooth
replacement for 1 year. Again, there were no statistically significant differences in failures
and marginal bone level changes between the implant systems and surgical protocols after 1
year of function (mean marginal bone loss was 0.13 mm for Astra Tech implants and 0.11
mm for ITI implants).
It appears that using one-or two-stage surgical techniques have no clinically significant
effect on success, survival rates and marginal bone levels. However, one has to consider that
the one-stage technique has less morbidity for the patients since it involves a single surgical
procedure, but the two-stage surgery might offers greater potential for soft tissue
management.
2.2 Load timing and marginal bone level changes

Healing associated with oral endosseous titanium implants is based on osseointegration or
‘functional ankylosis’ (Brånemark et al. 1969). It has been advocated that after implant
placement, surgical sites should be undisturbed for at least 3-6 months to allow uneventful
wound healing, thereby enhancing osseointegration between the implant and the bone
(Adell et al. 1981). The rational behind this approach is that implant micro-movements
caused by functional forces during wound healing may induce fibrous tissue formation
rather than bone contact, leading to clinical failure (Adell et al. 1981). Micromovements of
more than 100m were reported to be sufficient to jeopardize healing with direct bone to
implant contact (Brunski 1993).
Interestingly, several experimental studies have shown that immediate loading of
endosseous titanium implants will not necessarily lead to fibrous tissue healing (Henry et al.
1997, Piattelli et al. 1997, 1998, Romanos et al. 2001, Nkenke et al. 2001, 2003). In fact some
data have demonstrated that early loading increased bone to implant contact when
compared to unloaded controls (Piattelli et al.1998, Romanos et al. 2001). In addition several
clinical studies investigating the efficacy of immediate loading protocols (Esposito et al.
2009, Nkenke et al. 2006, Weber et al. 2009) suggested that immediate loading of endosseous
implants might be a realistic protocol in various jawbone regions. However, from the
available clinical studies it is not possible to draw definitive conclusions regarding exclusion
and inclusion criteria for immediate loading, threshold values for implant stability that
permit immediate loading, nor bone quality needed for immediate loading. Moreover,
evaluations of implants subjected to immediate loading have been reported mainly on the
basis of implant survival without mentioning marginal bone level changes. Evaluation of
marginal bone level changes around implants subjected to immediate loading is more
frequently reported for single tooth replacements rather for fixed and complete partial
dentures.
The definition of immediate functional loading which was suggested in Consensus
Conference Meetings (Aparicio et al. 2003, Cochran et al. 2004) relate to an implant-
supported restoration, which is placed in occlusion with the opposing dentition within 48 h
from implant placement. In this context, a critical evaluation of publications in the field of
single-tooth replacement is required. Thus, despite the use of an immediate or early-
cemented crown restoration on an implant, functional loading was applied after an
additional period of healing in several studies (Ericsson et al. 2000, Chaushu et al. 2001,
Andersen et al. 2002, Malo et al. 2003, Norton 2004, Ottoni et al. 2005). There are a few
studies on immediate functional loading of implants used for single-tooth replacement
(Calandriello et al. 2003a, 2003b, Cannizzaro & Leone 2003, Glauser et al. 2003, Lindeboom
et al. 2006). The majority of these studies were prospective cohort studies and included
between 20 and 50 subjects/implants. Cannizzaro & Leone 2003 compared 23 single-tooth
implants that were subjected to immediate loading along with 24 implants whose loading
was delayed. No implants were lost in the test and control groups at the 2 year follow-up.
The radiographic examination revealed that 91.3% of the test implants and 87.5% of the
controls showed a marginal bone loss of 1 mm, while 8.7% of the test group and 12.5% of the
controls demonstrated marginal bone loss that varied between 1 and 2 mm. Thus, the
percentage of implants that had 1 mm of marginal bone loss was higher in the control group
than in the test groups. Calandriello et al. 2003a evaluated 20 implants used for single-tooth
rehabilitation which were exposed to immediate loading. At the 12-month re-examination,
no implants were lost and the mean marginal bone loss was 1.22 mm. In a subsequent
prospective multicenter trial, Calandriello et al. 2003b evaluated immediate functional
loading of implants used in single-tooth replacement in the molar segments of the mandible.
The survival rate recorded at 6 months was 100%, and the overall marginal bone loss was
1.0 mm. Glauser et al. 2003 analyzed 20 implants used for single-tooth replacement with
immediate functional loading. No implant loss was recorded at the 12-month evaluation
and the mean marginal bone loss was 1.2 mm.
Koutouzis et al. 2011 evaluated the outcome of immediately loaded implants placed with
the osteotome technique for single tooth replacements over a 12-month period. Twenty
patients in need of oral prosthetic rehabilitation that included single implant placement in
the anterior-premolar position participated in this prospective trial. A modified implant
installation procedure with an under preparation of the implant bed using the osteotome
technique and immediate loading of the implant was performed (Figure 2). Out of the 22
implants placed in 20 patients one implant failed to integrate (4.5%) and was therefore
removed 3 months following implant installation. The mean marginal bone loss from the
time of implant placement to the 6-month examination was 0.08 mm, while 0.19 mm loss
was observed from the time of implant placement to the12-month examination. The amount
of marginal bone loss reported in this study was smaller compared to immediate loaded
single implants placed with a conventional site preparation (Calandriello et al. 2003a,2003b,
Glauser et al. 2003).
In conclusion the current literature suggests that immediate loading does not promote
marginal bone loss for implants replacing single teeth. Importantly the majority of marginal
bone level changes occur during the first 3-6 months of loading with no significant
alterations thereafter.
Fig. 2. Implant placement with the osteotome technique and immediately loaded
2.3 Marginal bone level changes around implants placed in grafted sockets.
Following tooth extraction, bone modeling and remodeling characterize the healing of the
extraction socket (Carlsson et al. 1967, Araujo & Lindhe 2005) where a reduction in both the
height and the width of the alveolar ridge can occur (Pietrokovski & Massler 1967, Johnson
1969, Schropp et al 2003). In an attempt to preserve alveolar bone and to optimize implant
installation, several materials have been used to augment the residual extraction socket.
In experimental animal studies, it was demonstrated that several of the biomaterials used
were incorporated in newly formed bone, maintained as inactive fillers and slowly resorbed
during host tissue remodeling (Araujo et al. 2001, Carmagnola et al. 2002, Cardaropoli et al.
2005). Multiple human histological studies evaluating socket preservation procedures have
also described the presence of residual biomaterials for various healing periods (Becker et al.
1998, Artzi et al. 2000, 2001, Iasella et al. 2003, Carmagnola et al. 2003). It was reported that
the implanted particles were entrapped in dense connective tissue and thus, potentially
interfere with normal extraction healing. This was further exemplified in two human clinical
and histologic studies (Becker et al. 1996, 1998) where it was reported that extraction sockets
filled with demineralized freeze-dried bone allograft (DFDBA) or freeze-dried bone allograft
(FDBA) resulted in retention of graft particles in the fibrous connective tissue and interfered
with the healing of the extraction socket. Similar findings were observed by Carmagnola et
al. 2003 where extraction sockets were filled with deproteinized bone xenograft (DBX). The
authors of this study reported that healing was comprised by increased amount of
connective tissue and small amounts of newly formed bone surrounding the graft particles.
Conversely, other studies have reported more favorable histologic outcomes for extraction
sockets filled with DFDBA, bioactive glass and DBX (Iasella et al. 2003, Froum et al. 2002,
Barone et al. 2008).
Several clinical studies (Artzi et al. 2000, 2001, Iasella et al. 2003, Lekovic et al. 1997,1998,
Nevins et al. 2006) utilizing biomaterials to augment socket healing have reported smaller
changes in ridge dimensions compared to non-grafted controls thus enhancing the
possibility of implant installation in adequate bone volume and in desired positions.
However, these studies do not describe implant survival nor implant success rates following
the socket preservation procedures. In a systematic review (Fiorellini & Nevins 2003)
evaluating dental implant survival rates, the authors concluded that implant survival was
similar between implants placed in native bone and implants placed in sites previously
treated with ridge augmentation and preservation techniques. Notably, none of the 13
studies included in the analysis reported on survival rates of implants placed following
socket preservation techniques.
There is limited information regarding crestal bone level alterations for implants placed in
sockets preserved with various biomaterials. A recent study (Koutouzis et al. 2010)
retrospectively compared bone level changes around implants placed in post extraction
sockets augmented with DFDBA to implants placed in native bone (Figure 3). The overall
survival rate from baseline to the last follow-up visit was 100% for both groups. The mean
marginal bone loss was a mean of 0.15 mm for both groups at the 12 month follow-up. There
were no significant differences regarding the percentage of implants and implant surfaces
demonstrating marginal bone loss.
Fig. 3. Clinical photos of tooth #9 A) prior to extraction, B)immediately following extraction,

C) following DFDBA and collagen membrane placement, D) 4 months following extraction.
Radiographs of implant at the same site 1) at implant installation and 2) one year following
implant installation.
In conclusion grafting extraction sockets with various types of biomaterials has a beneficial
effect on preserving the dimensions of the edentulous ridge. Although there is variation in
histologic findings from animal and human studies regarding the composition of the sites
that healed following grafting procedures. This variation may reflect differences in the
potential of different grafted materials to regenerate extraction sockets, differences in
surgical techniques, the use of barrier membranes and/or differences in healing time.
Although there are reports showing that implant survival is similar between implants
placed in native bone and implants placed in sites previously treated with ridge
augmentation and preservation techniques there is very limited information regarding
marginal bone level changes around those implants. From the results of one study it can be
concluded that implants placed in post extraction sockets augmented with DFDBA
exhibited minimal amount of marginal bone loss, similar to implants placed in native bone.
2.4 The effect of tooth-implant and inter-implant distances on marginal bone level
changes
Studies on Brånemark implants placed adjacent to teeth revealed that the inter-unit distance
is a risk factor to consider with respect to marginal bone loss at the adjacent tooth (Esposito
et al. 1993, Andersson et al. 1998, Thilander et al. 2001). In these studies there was a large
variation in bone loss between subjects and that the recorded bone loss differed significantly
between anterior and posterior tooth regions. Furthermore, from radiographic examinations
of young individuals who received their single implant therapy during adolescent,
Thilander et al. 2001 reported 1.4-2.2 mm bone loss between crown cementation and 10-year
follow-up at adjacent teeth to single implants placed in incisors position. On the other hand,
Esposito et al. 1993 found that the increased bone loss at adjacent teeth was confined to the
time period before loading and that no increase in bone loss was detected following the
period of functional loading. The latter finding is supported by data from Cardaropoli et al.
2003 and Chang et al. 2010 showing a lack of a relationship between the inter-unit distance
and longitudinal marginal bone loss at the proximal tooth surface next to an implant. The
later study evaluated implants with a micro-threaded conical portion (Astra Tech).
The horizontal distance between two implants may have an influence on the maintenance of
the proximal bone crest level (Figure 4). It was shown in experimental and clinical studies
that the inter-implant bone crest level shifted apically when the inter-implant distance
decreased. Based on observations made in a cross-sectional study, Tarnow et al. 2000
accredited the more apically located position of the bone crest between implants with less
than 3mm of inter-implant distance to the lateral component of the vertical bone loss to the
first thread that is common at implants with an external hex design. The proposed
explanation, however, was not supported by a 3-year longitudinal study of the same type of
implants (Cardaropoli et al. 2003), in which multivariate analysis failed to identify lateral
bone loss as a significant factor for longitudinal reduction of the inter-implant bone crest
level. Furthermore, animal studies revealed no significant difference in mid-proximal bone
crest resorption in relation to the horizontal distance between implants designed with a
Morse cone connection and platform switching (Novaes et al. 2006 a & b, de Oliveira et al.
2006). It has been claimed, based on observations of implants placed in the tibia of rabbits,
that closely placed implants may favor bone growth between implants (Hatley et al. 2001).
However, whether maintenance of the mid-proximal bone crest level may be related to the
design of the implant-abutment interface needs to be documented in longitudinal studies.
Fig. 4. Radiographs of implants at #4 and #5 position placed with an inter-implant distance

less than 3mm. Note the marginal bone loss between implant installation (A) and prosthesis
delivery (B).
Taken together one can conclude that the marginal bone level at teeth adjacent to single
implants with a micro-threaded conical portion is not influenced by the horizontal and
vertical tooth-implant distances. However, this statement cannot be supported for implants
with an external-hex design. Loss in height of the mid-proximal bone crest in the inter-
implant areas is influenced by the bone loss at the two bordering implants and the
horizontal inter-unit distance, although no such relationship is evident for the proximal area
between an implant and the adjacent tooth.
2.4 Position of the fixture/abutment interface in relation to the alveolar crest and
marginal bone level changes
The location of the fixture/abutment interface (FAI) can be placed in various positions in
relation to the alveolar crest (crestal, supracrestal, subcrestal) (Figure 5). The location of the
FAI can be of major importance when the goal is to construct aesthetic restorations.
Placement of the FAI in a more apical position can create an ideal emergence profile for the
prosthetic construction (Buser & von Arx 2000).
Fig. 5. Radiographs of implants placed with the FAI at A)subcrestal, B)crestal,

C)supracrestal in relation to the alveolar crest
Subcrestal position of the FAI has been reported to have a negative influence on marginal
bone level changes in a few animal studies (Jung et al. 2008, Hermann et al. 2000, Todescan
et al. 2002, Pontes et al. 2008). In an experimental study in dogs Hermann et al. 2000
reported that placement of two-part implants with the FAI 1 mm below the crestal bone
resulted in pronounced crestal bone loss following 6 months of healing. In this study the
authors used custom-made implants with a FAI micro-gap of 50 m. Similarly, Jung et al.
2008 reported that the greatest amount of bone loss occurred in implants placed with the
FAI 1mm below the bone crest compared to implants placed with FAI 1mm above or at the
level of the bone crest. In this study, implants with non-matching implant abutment
diameters were utilized. However, the amount of crestal bone loss was smaller compared to
that found in the study by Hermann et al. 2000. In a similar animal experiment, Todescan et
al. 2002 evaluated the healing around implants (Brånemark System) that were placed either
1 mm above, level with or 1 mm below the crestal bone. Here it was reported that the first
marginal bone to implant contact was located between 1.6 mm and 2.5 mm apical to the FAI
with the shortest implant contact distance associated with implants that were placed in the
subcrestal position. Similar findings have been reported by Pontes et al. 2008 where they
placed implants with the FAI at the bone crest, 1 mm and 2 mm apical to this position.
Following 4 months of healing all implant groups had the first bone to implant contact
apical to the FAI. None of these animal studies reported bone formation above the FAI when
implants are placed in a subcrestal position. In contrast to the previously described studies,
few animal experiments (Welander et al. 2009, Weng et al. 2008) have reported a more
favorable outcomes for implants in a subcrestal position with bone formation close to or
even above the FAI. Welander et al 2009 observed osseointegration coronal to the FAI when
placing implants with the FAI 2 mm subcrestally. The test implants in this study had a
surface modification extending to the implant margin that included the shoulder part of the
implant and a conical interface between the abutment and the implant. Similar findings
were reported by Weng et al. 2008, showing that implants with subcrestal position
presented bone growth onto the implant shoulder in nearly all histological sections.
Implants utilized in this study contained a reduced abutment diameter in relation to the
fixture diameter, a Morse taper implant-abutment connection, and a microstructured surface
treatment which included the cervical collar and extended onto the implant shoulder.
The effects of altered vertical implant positioning in patients were reported by Hämmerle et
al. 1996. Here one-stage transmucosal implants were placed with the border between the
rough/smooth surface 1 mm subcrestally. This group of implants was compared to implants
placed according to the manufacturer’ s recommendation with the rough/smooth border
positioned precisely at the alveolar crest. The implants in the subcrestal group lost a mean of
2.26 mm of clinical bone height during the first 12 months, and the control implants lost 1.02
mm during the same time period. The authors concluded that subcrestal placement of
implants with smooth/polished collars should not be recommended.
There is limited information from clinical studies for subcrestal placement of two-part
implants. In a recent case series Donovan et al. 2010 reported that subcrestal placement of
dental implants with microstructured surface treatment extending onto the implant
shoulder and with reduced abutment diameter resulted in minimal marginal loss of hard
tissues (0.11 mm). In addition, mineralized hard tissue on the implant shoulder was
demonstrated in 69% of the implants after a mean follow-up time of 14 months. However, in
this study grafting of the remaining osseous wound defect between the bone crest and the
coronal aspect of the fixture was performed subsequent to implant placement. A subsequent
study (Koutouzis et al. 2011) reported on the same patient population and evaluated the
effect of bone grafting of the defect between the bone crest and the coronal aspect of the
implant for implants with reduced abutment diameters placed non-submerged and in
subcrestal positions (Figure 6).
Records of 50 consecutive patients treated with subcrestally placed dental implants grafted
with a xenograft (Group A) and 50 consecutive patients with subcrestally placed dental
implants without any grafting material (Group B) were reviewed. The mean marginal loss of
hard tissues was 0.11 ± 0.30 mm for Group A and 0.08 ± 0.22 mm for Group B. Sixty nine
percent of the implants in Group A and 77% of the implants in Group B demonstrated hard
tissue on the implant platform. There were no statistical significant differences between the
groups regarding marginal peri-implant hard tissue loss. Thus grafting of the remaining
osseous wound defect between the bone crest and the coronal aspect of the implant has no
effect on marginal peri-implant hard tissue changes (Figure 7).
Fig. 6. Implant with a Morse taper implant-abutment connection and a microstructured

surface treatment including the cervical collar and extending onto the implant shoulder.
Fig. 7. Radiographs of an implant at #9 site of a patient in Group A: A) at implant

installation and B) 12 months following implant installation and of a patient in Group B: C)
at implant installation and C) 16 months following implant installation.
Taken together it seems that the location of the FAI can have an effect on marginal bone
level changes depending on the type of implant system used. Even though one-stage
transmucosal implants exhibit stable peri-implant bone levels when the FAI is located
supracrestal and the border between rough and smooth surface is located at the alveolar
crest it seems that placement of the border between the rough and smooth surface below the
bone crest can lead to marginal bone loss and it is not recommended. Placement of the FAI
in subcrestal position has been documented to have positive effect on marginal bone levels
for implants with reduced abutment diameter in relation to the fixture diameter, a Morse
taper implant-abutment connection and a microstructured surface treatment which includes

the cervical collar and extends onto the implant shoulder.
3. The effect of fixture-abutment interface (FAI) design on marginal bone level

changes
Early bacterial colonization of implant surfaces and peri-implant tissues can occur within
minutes after implant installation (Fürst et al. 2007). When a prosthetic abutment is
connected to a fixture, a microgap is created between the components. Microorganisms may
grow into this fixture-abutment interface microgap (Quirynen et al. 1993, 2006, Callan et al.
2005) and establish a bacterial reservoir resulting in an area of inflamed soft tissue facing the
fixture-abutment junction (Ericsson et al.1995). The presence of an FAI microgap in close
relation to bone may thus have a role in the development of peri-implant inflammation and
bone loss (Persson et al. 1996, Herman et al. 1997, 2001, King et al. 2002, Piatelli et al. 2003).
Prevention of microbial leakage at the fixture-abutment interface is a major challenge in the
construction of two-piece implant systems in order to minimize inflammatory reactions and
to maximize peri-implant bone stability.
Microbial penetrations along the internal part of dental implants have been reported in
some in vitro studies utilizing implants with different fixture-abutment interface geometries
devoid of mechanical loading (Quirynen et al. 1994, Jansen et al. 1997, Tesmer et al. 2009,
Aloise et al. 2010). For instance, Quirynen et al. 1994 demonstrated that when fixtures with
an external hex design and abutments were assembled and installed in a liquid blood
medium inoculated with oral microorganisms, bacterial invasion of the fixture-abutment
interface microgap was detected. Similarly, Jansen et al. 1997 reported microbial leakage of
thirteen different implant-abutment combinations using E.coli as indicator bacteria. Among
the different implant-abutment combinations an implant with an internal connection and a
silicon washer demonstrated the fewest cases of leakage. Tesmer et al. 2009 evaluated the
potential risk for invasion of A. actinomycetemcomitans and P. gingivalis at the fixture-
abutment interface of implants with Morse-taper internal connection. Fixtures and
abutments were assembled and allowed to incubate in a bacterial solution of A.
actinomycetemcomitans and P. gingivalis for five days. They reported that three of the ten
implants evaluated developed one colony-forming unit (CFU) for A. actinomycetemcomitans,
whereas zero of ten samples developed CFUs for P. gingivalis. Similar results have been
reported from Aloise et al. for implants with Morse-taper internal connection. In this
experiment they utilize a different evaluation method were the internal part of the implants
were inoculated with S.Sanguinis and then implants connected to the respective abutments.
Following total immersion of 10 implants with Morse-taper internal connection in a sterile
solution for 14 days, only two implants showed evidence of bacterial leakage.
There is limited information from in vitro studies evaluating microbial contamination of the
fixture-abutment interface microgap under loading conditions. Steinebrunner et al. 2005
used a 2-axis chewing simulator to apply a 120N force for a total of 1200000 cycles. They
reported statistically significant differences between five implant systems with respect to
number of chewing cycles and bacterial leakage. Specifically, implants with a tri-channel
internal connection showed bacterial leakage at significantly higher numbers of chewing
cycles compared to implants with external hex, implants with internal connection and a
silicon washer, and implants with internal hex with friction fit connection. Koutouzis et al.
2010 utilized an in vitro dynamic loading model to assess the potential risk for invasion of
oral micro-organisms into the fixture-abutment interface microgap of dental implants with
different fixture-abutment connection characteristics. In this experiment twenty-eight
implants were divided into two groups (n=14/group) based on their microgap dynamics.
Group 1 was comprised of fixtures with internal Morse-taper connection that connected to
standard abutments. Group 2 was comprised of implants with a four-groove conical internal
connection that connected to multi-base abutments (Figure 8). The specimens were
immersed in a bacterial solution of Escherichia coli and loaded with 500,000 cycles of 15 N in
a wear simulator. Following disconnection of fixtures and abutments, microbial samples
were taken from the threaded portion of the abutment, plated and cultured under
appropriate conditions. The difference between loosening and tightening torque value was
also measured. One of the 14 samples in Group 1 and 12/14 of samples in Group 2
developed multiple colony forming units (CFU) for E.coli. Implants in Group 1 exhibited an
increase in torque value in contrast to implants in Group 2 that exhibited a decrease. This
study indicated that differences in implant design may affect the potential risk for invasion
of oral micro-organisms into the FAI microgap under dynamic loading conditions.
The effects of FAI design on marginal bone level changes have been analyzed in several
animal studies that have been also reported results on the effect of the position of the FAI.
Those studies have been discussed extensively in a previous section of this chapter. In
Fig. 8. A) Standard straight abutment of Group 1. B) Implant with internal Morse-taper

connection of Group 1. C) Multibase abutment of Group 2. D) Implant with a four-groove
conical internal connection of Group 2. E) Specimen wheel with implants and abutments of
Group 1. F) Specimen and Agonist wheels. G) Specimen and Agonist wheels immersed in
the bacterial solution.
summary it seems that the design and location of the FAI can have an effect on marginal
bone level changes. Placement of the FAI in subcrestal position has been documented to
have positive effect on marginal one level only for implants with reduced abutment
diameter in relation to the fixture diameter, a Morse taper implant-abutment connection and
a microstructured surface treatment which included the cervical collar and extended onto
the implant shoulder.
The results of animal studies on the effect of FAI design on marginal bone level changes
have been confirmed in clinical studies. Based on observations of the performance of
implants with an external hex connection Albrektsson et al. 1986 observed 1mm peri-
implant bone loss during the first year of function, followed by an annual loss <0.2mm after
the first year in service as a criteria for implant success. Albrektsson & Isidor 1993 also
proposed criterion for implant success where they suggested an average peri-implant
marginal bone loss of less than 1.5 mm the first year after insertion of the prosthesis and less
than 0.2 mm annual bone loss after that as a standard for successful therapy. However more
current studies utilizing two-piece implant systems with an altered horizontal relationship
between the fixture diameter and the abutment diameter, report minimal marginal peri-
implant bone loss (Wennström et al. 2004, 2005, Norton 2006). The positive effect of this
design known as platform shifting is explained by an increased distance of the FAI from the
crestal bone creating an establishment of increased biologic width reducing the risk of
inflammatory induced bone loss in cases of peri-implant submucosal bacterial colonization.
In a 5-year prospective study Wennström et al. 2005 reported mean bone level changes from
the time of crown placement to the first year follow up of 0.02 mm measured on implant
level. Norton et al. 2006 reported an average of marginal bone loss of 0.65 mm from implant
therapy in 54 patients where the implants had been in function for 37 months. In further
clinical studies (Koutouzis & Wennström 2007, Koutouzis et al. 2010) utilizing dental
implants with an altered horizontal relationship between the fixture diameter and the
abutment diameter minimal marginal bone level changes have been observed even in
conditions where the FAI were placed subcrestally.
Taken together the results of in-vitro studies show that differences in implant design may
affect the potential risk for invasion of oral micro-organisms into the FAI under non-loading
and dynamic loading conditions. Implants with internal Morse-taper connection have the
highest potential to prevent bacterial contamination of the FAI interface. The results from
animal studies demonstrate that implants with reduced abutment diameter in relation to the
fixture diameter, a Morse taper implant-abutment connection and a microstructured surface
treatment which included the cervical collar and extended onto the implant shoulder can
maintain stable peri-implant bone levels even when the FAI is placed in a subcrestal
position. These results are in line with clinical studies showing that implants with reduced
abutment diameter in relation to the fixture diameter and a Morse taper implant-abutment
connection exhibit less marginal bone loss compared to implants with an external hex
connection at least at the earlier stages of healing (the interval of implant installation to
prosthesis installation).
4. The effect of loading on marginal bone level changes

It has been suggested that biomechanical overload is one of the major determinants for late
implant failure (Esposito et al. 1998a). The biomechanical aspects of the relation between the
applied load, the supporting capacity of the prosthesis, implant and characteristics of the
alveolar bone seem to be essential for the long-term outcome of the treatment.
Based on investigations of biomechanics in the implant-supported fixed prosthesis, two
main types of loading of the anchorage unit were suggested to be considered: (i) axial force
and (ii) bending moment (Rangert et al 1989). The axial force was suggested as most
favourable as it distributes stress more evenly through the implant, while the bending
moment exerts stress gradients in the implant as well in the bone. Bending moment can be
produced from axially applied forces when a cantilever extension is used, but non-axial
applied forces can also induce bending movement. The extent of the bending moment is
dependent on the distance from the point of occlusal contact to the abutment-fixture
junction, which forms the lever arm for the bending moment induced by the non-axial force.
4.1 Laboratory and animal studies

Laboratory tests utilizing finite element analysis demonstrated that, when applying lateral
or oblique loads, the highest stress concentration occurs at the marginal part of the implant
(Borchers & Reichart 1983; Clelland et al. 1993, 1995; Papavasiliou et al. 1996; Holmes &
Loftus 1997; Kitamura et al. 2004). With regard to the biological effects of such stress
concentrations, however, animal experiments revealed conflicting results. Barbier &
Schepers 1997 studied the effect of axial and non-axial loading conditions induced by either
a bilaterally supported fixed partial dentures (FPDs) or a cantilever FPD on two implants.
Based on the histological observations, non-axial loading for 7 weeks gave rise to a more
dynamic remodeling of the surrounding cortical and trabecular bone tissue. Therefore, the
authors extrapolated that a longer experimental period of loading could have resulted in
marginal bone loss. Similarly, using a rabbit tibia model, Duyck et al. 2001 reported that
dynamic excessive loads perpendicular to the implant axis caused crater-like bone loss
around the marginal part of the implant. The hypothesis that excessive dynamic load can
trigger bone resorption through the induction of micro-damage in the bone may also be
supported by observations made by Isidor (1996, 1997), who demonstrated that excessive
occlusal load in a lateral direction caused implant failure due to loss of osseointegration in
five out of eight implants during an 18-month observation period. However, it was also
observed that the bone crest remained at a position close to the margin of the implant
without signs of triangular-shaped bone craters. The latter observation corroborates findings
made in several other experimental studies (Hürzeler et al. 1998; Miyata et al. 1998;
Gotfredsen et al. 2001a, 2001b, 2001c, 2002; Heitz-Mayfield et al.2004) which demonstrated
no detrimental effect on the marginal bone following excessive loading. In the most recent of
these studies (Heitz-Mayfield et al. 2004), the effect of excessive oblique load on
osseointegration of implants placed in beagle dogs was examined. Single crowns in
supraocclusion with the opposing maxillary teeth were connected in one side of the
mandible, while no crowns were placed on the implants in the contra-lateral side. The
authors reported that no differences were found in clinical, radiographic or histological
parameters between implants in supra-occlusion and unloaded controls after the 8-month
experimental period.
In summary, it is obvious that conflicting results with regard to the effect of various loading
conditions have been reported from animal experiments. The majority of the studies
involving unfavourable loading conditions failed to confirm that excessive loading will
cause marginal bone loss and/or loss of osseointegration.
4.2 Clinical studies

Limited clinical data are available in the literature regarding the possible influence of
loading characteristics, such as magnitude and direction, on the marginal bone stability
around implants. The assessment of the loading characteristics has been performed mainly
through factors related to patient characteristics (parafunctional activity, bite force),
prosthesis characteristics (cantilever length, height of the suprastructure, material of the
suprastructure) and implant location characteristics (position in relation to occlusal level). In
the interpretation of the available data one has to consider the difficult task to quantify the
magnitude and direction of bite forces applied by the patient in relation to the
biomechanical capability of the bone as well as the lack of appropriate controls.
Quirynen et al. 1992 reported that excessive marginal bone loss (more than 1 mm) after the
first year of loading and/or fixture loss correlated well with the presence of overload due a
lack of anterior contact, the presence of parafunctional activity and osseointegrated full fixed
prostheses in both jaws. The data were generated from 84 patients having fixed total
dentures in one or both jaws or overdentures. These participants had been selected from a
group of 467 consecutive treated patients. However, the retrospective nature of the study
with a very heterogeneous material and a large range in follow-up time may limit the
validity of the findings. Parafunctional activity and bite force in relation to marginal bone
loss was evaluated in a series of studies (Lindquist et al. 1988, 1996) involving patients with
mandibular fixed total dentures. Using data from 3-6 years of follow-up Lindquist et al. 1988
reported that both poor oral hygiene and tooth clenching were associated with marginal
bone loss. Smoking habits were not assessed in this report. Interestingly, analyzing data
from 12-15 years of follow-up of the same cohort, Lindquist et al. 1996 reported that
smoking and poor oral hygiene had a significant influence on marginal bone loss, and that
factors such as maximal bite force and tooth clenching were of minor importance.
Studies in humans have documented an increase in vertical loading as a result of inclusion
of cantilever extension. Falk et al. 1989 studied naturally occurring axially directed forces on
implants supporting cross arch mandibular prostheses with bilateral posterior two-unit
cantilevers. The authors found that 70% of the forces were placed on the cantilevers and 30%
on the fixture-supported segment of the prostheses. Limited data have been reported
regarding the possible influence of prosthesis related factors such as cantilever extension on
marginal bone stability around implants. Lindquist et al. 1988 reported that seven patients
with long cantilevers (15 mm) showed more bone loss than 6 patients with short
cantilevers (15 mm). However the difference was small (0.95 mm vs 0.61 mm) and only
observed in the medial fixture sites. The authors analysed the same material after 15 years of
follow-up (Lindquist et al. 1996) and found that the length of the cantilever segment was of
minor importance but that smoking and oral hygiene had significant effects on the amount
of peri-implant bone resorption. Naert et al. 1992 reported data derived from examinations
of 103 complete fixed total dentures in 91 patients. The authors concluded that after 3-years
of follow-up the length of the cantilever extension did not have a significant influence on the
rate of marginal bone loss around the supporting implants.
The clinical studies referred to (Lindquist et al. 1988, 1996, Naert et al. 1992) indicate that
cantilever extensions might not jeopardize the stability of peri-implant bone level in a
complete fixed total denture situation. However, these reports do not provide information
whether in an FPD, supported by a few implants, the load exerted on the cantilever
extension may cause undue bone loss.
Romeo et al. 2003 studied the effect of cantilever extension on the prognosis of fixed partial
dentures and marginal peri-implant bone stability. The overall cumulative implant survival
rate was 97% for an observation period of 1-7 years. Slightly greater bone loss was reported
for implants close to the cantilever compared to implants more distant to the cantilever (0.82
mm vs 0.69 mm). The authors also reported that for every 1 mm increase of cantilever length
there was a 0.099 mm increase in bone resorption around the fixture closest to the cantilever
extension. In a retrospective study, Wennström et al. 2004 assessed whether the inclusion of
a cantilever extension increased the amount of marginal bone loss at fixed partial dentures
(FPDs) over a 5-year period of functional loading. The cohort comprised of 45 periodontally
treated and well maintained partially dentate patients. Comparison between FPDs with and
without cantilever extension was performed at FPD, implant and surface level and revealed
no statistical significant differences at any level, but that jaw of treatment and smoking had
a significant influence on peri-implant bone level change on the FPD level.
The influence of the height of the supra-structure on marginal bone loss has also been
evaluated (Naert et al. 2001, Wennström et al. 2004). Naert et al. 2001 in a multivariate
analysis of potential factors influencing marginal bone loss around implants supporting
FPDs reported that long abutments significantly increased the amount of bone loss in the
first 6 months, but not thereafter. Wennström et al. 2004 on the other hand found that the
height of the supra-structure failed to significantly influence bone loss on the FPD level but
had an effect on the most posterior implant in the FPD. In this context it should be noted
that the mean height of the supra-structure was significantly greater for patients having
FPDs with cantilever extension as well as for fixed partial dentures placed in the maxilla
than in the mandible.
Clinical trials designed to evaluate the potential influence of oblique loading direction in
relation to the implant axis on peri-implant bone stability are few. Aparicio et al. 2001
reported data derived from examinations of 29 maxillary FPDs in 25 patients supported by
101 Brånemark implants, 59 inserted in an axial and 42 in a tilted direction. No significant
difference in marginal bone level change between tilted and axial positioned implants could
be observed over the 5 years of follow-up. This finding is in large supported by observations
made by Krekmanov et al. 2000 and Calandriello &Tomatis 2005. Balshi et al. 1997 evaluated
in a 3-year study the performance of angulated abutments used to compensate for a non-
ideal implant inclination, where no increase in failure rates with the use of angulated
abutments was observed. In a more recent study Koutouzis & Wennström 2007
retrospectively analyzed the potential influence of implant inclination on marginal bone loss
at freestanding, implant-supported, fixed partial dentures (FPDs) over a 5-year period of
functional loading. The cohort was comprised of 38 periodontally treated, partially dentate
patients with a total of 42 free-standing FPDs supported by implants of the Astra Tech
System. Mesio-distal inclination of the implants in relation to a vertical axis perpendicular to
the occlusal plane was measured with a protractor on standardized photographs of the
master cast (Figure 9).
The two tail quartiles of the distribution of the implants with regard to the implant
inclination were defined as axial-positioned (mean 2.41º; range 0 º –4.1 º) and non-axial
positioned implants (mean 17.11 º; range 11 º –30.1 º), respectively. For FPDs supported by
two implants, both the mesial–distal and buccal–lingual inter-implant inclination was
measured. The 5-year mean bone level change amounted to 0.4mm (SD 0.97) for the axial
and 0.5mm (0.95) for non-axial-positioned implants (P>0.05). For the FPDs supported by
Fig. 9. Illustrations describing the photographic process for performing implant inclination
measurements. (A) upper and lower casts in occlusion, (B) upper cast with guide pins
abutment pick-up in place and (C) the final image produced by superimposing image b on
image a, (D) mesio-distal inter-implant inclination measurements and (E) bucco-lingual
inter-implant inclination measurements.
two implants, the mean inter-implant inclination was 9.21 º in the mesial–distal direction and
6.71 º in the buccal–lingual direction. Correlation analysis revealed lack of statistically
significant correlation between inter-implant inclination (mesial–distal and buccal–lingual)
and the 5-year bone level change. This study failed to support the hypothesis that implant
inclination has an effect on peri-implant bone loss.
In conclusion, the findings of this 5-year study involving moderately tilted implants, as well
as those reported by others who have clinically investigated the influence of more extreme
non-axial loading on peri-implant bone level stability at implants of different design and
surface texture (Balshi et al. 1997; Krekmanov et al. 2000; Aparicio et al. 2001; Calandriello &
Tomatis 2005), indicate that a tilted position of the implant does not render an increased risk
for bone loss during functional loading.
There are several aspects to consider when evaluating the outcomes of the clinical studies on
the effect on loading parameters on marginal bone level changes including the retrospective
nature of the majority of the studies, the lack of appropriate controls and the difficult task to
quantify the magnitude and direction of bite forces. Within the limitations of the literature
one can conclude that excessive loading forces and implant/prosthesis characteristics that
can contribute to unfavourable loading conditions such as cantilever units, height of the
prosthesis and angulation of the dental implants have limited effect on marginal bone level
changes over time.
5. The effect of patient related factors

Patient selection is a fundamental part of the dental implant treatment plan. Patient related
factors such as oral hygiene, smoking, diabetes, susceptibility to periodontal diseases and
type of peri-implant mucosa have been evaluated in the literature with respect to their effect
on the degree of marginal bone level changes. In addition peri-implantitis has been
identified as a major etiologic factor for marginal bone level changes and recent studies have
explored epidemiological aspects of this condition.
5.1 Oral hygiene

In a prospective clinical study, Lindquist et al. 1997 reported an association between poor
oral hygiene and peri-implant bone loss after 10-years of follow-up. Poor oral hygiene had a
greater influence on marginal bone loss in smokers than non-smokers. For patients with
poor oral hygiene, smokers had nearly three times the amount of bone loss than non-
smokers. Ferreira et al. 2006 in a study analyzing risk variables in a Brazilian population,
reported that presence of plaque and periodontal BOP at >30% of sites were associated with
increased risk of peri-implant mucositis and peri-implantitis. The association between the
full-mouth plaque score and peri-implantitis was dose dependent.
5.2 Smoking
The effect of cigarette smoking on the peri-implant soft and hard tissues has been documented
in a number of studies. Strietzel et al. 2007 published a systematic review with meta-analysis,
including 35 papers, to investigate if smoking interferes with the prognosis of implants, with
and without augmentation procedures. The authors reported that smoking is a significant risk
factor for failure of dental implant therapy and augmentation procedures accompanying
implantations. This systematic review also included studies reporting on the influence of
smoking on peri-implant marginal bone changes. Multiple studies have demonstrated a
significant increase in peri-implant marginal bone loss in smokers compared with non-
smokers (Haas et al. 1996, Lindquist et al. 1996, 1997, Carlsson et al. 2000, Feloutzis et al. 2003,
Karoussis et al. 2004, Penarrocha et al. 2004, Wennström et al. 2004, Galindo- Moreno et al.
2005, Nitzan et al. 2005, Schwartz-Arad et al. 2005). Additional studies which have addressed
risk indicators associated with peri-implant disease report a significant association of smoking
with peri-implant mucositis, marginal bone loss and peri-implantitis (Roos-Jansåker et al.
2006a, Fransson et al. 2008). Chung et al. 2007 reported, significantly more bone loss in
smokers in a retrospective study of 69 patients, including seven smokers followed between 3
and 24 years. Similarly, Deluca et. Al (DeLuca & Zarb 2006) showed that peri-implant bone
loss was associated with a positive smoking history using a long-term retrospective study.
5.3 History of periodontitis

Tooth restorations using implant-supported prostheses for rehabilitation of patients who
have experienced loss of teeth due to periodontitis has become an established and widely
used treatment modality in modern dentistry (Figure 10).
A pertinent question in relation to implant therapy in patients susceptible to periodontal
disease is whether this group of patients may also demonstrate an elevated risk for peri-
implant tissue infections and subsequent marginal loss of hard and soft tissues. Only limited
data are available on the outcomes of implant therapy in periodontitis-susceptible patients.
In one study of 75 patients, Ellegaard et al. 1997 presented follow-up data (varying from 3 to
84 months) where the patients after initial periodontal treatment received prosthetic
reconstructions supported by implants. The authors indicated that periodontally
compromised patients can be successfully treated with dental implants. Nevins & Langer
1995 reported an overall implant survival rate of about 97% in a 1–8-year follow-up study of
59 patients whose periodontal disease had been categorized as refractory.
Fig. 10. #9 extracted due to loss of periodontal support and development of periodontal
abscess and replaced with a dental implant
Less favorable outcomes of implant treatment in periodontal patients was reported by
Brocard et al. 2000. In this multicentre study over a 5-year period the overall cumulative
implant survival rate was reported to be 95% (success rate 94%) but implants placed in
patients previously treated for periodontal disease showed a success rate of only 89%.
In a systematic review of prospective and retrospective cohort studies with at least a 5-year
follow-up comparing the outcomes of implant treatments in partially edentulous
individuals with periodontitis-associated and non-periodontitis-associated tooth loss, Schou
et al. 2006 identified two studies one with 5-year follow-up (Hardt et al. 2002) and an other
with 10-year follow-up (Karoussis et al. 2003). In these two studies a combined total of 121
implants were placed in 33 patients with previous tooth loss due to periodontitis and 183
implants were placed in 70 patients with non-periodontitis associated tooth loss. The
endurance of the supra structures after 5 years was not significantly different when
comparing these two groups. In addition, the survival rate of the implants was not
significantly different, but a significantly increased peri-implant marginal bone loss was
observed in patients with previous tooth loss due to periodontitis. Peri-implantitis, defined
as probing depths of 5 mm or more, bleeding on probing, and radiographic signs of
marginal bone loss was a more common finding in individuals with a periodontitis
background than in individuals where the teeth before the implant treatment were extracted
for other reasons.
All together these data indicate a potential risk for marginal bone loss in patients susceptible
to periodontal disease.
5.3 Diabetes
While the association between diabetes and implant loss has been addressed in systematic
reviews by Kotsovilis et al. 2006 and Mombelli & Cionca 2006 there is limited information
describing the effect of diabetes on marginal bone level changes. Ferreira et al. 2006 in a
recent cross-sectional study including 212 non-smoking subjects in a Brazilian population
investigated the presence of risk variables for peri-implant infection. At the time of
examination, all implants had been in function between 6 months and 5 years. Glycemic
data at the time of implant surgery were gathered from participant medical records. For all
subjects diagnosed with diabetes at the time of surgery as well as for those who reported
having the disease at the time of evaluation, a new exam was requested. Diabetes mellitus
was diagnosed if an individual had fasting blood sugar >126 mg/dl or had been taking anti
diabetic medicine over the past 2 weeks. The prevalence of peri-implant mucositis and peri-
implantitis were 64.6% and 8.9%, respectively. The prevalence of periodontitis in these
subjects was 14.2%. In multivariate analyses, the risk variables associated with increased
odds for having peri-implant disease included: gender, plaque scores, and periodontal BOP.
In addition presence of periodontitis and diabetes were statistically associated with greater
risk of peri-implantitis. The results showed that poor metabolic control in subjects with
diabetes was associated with peri-implantitis (Ferreira et al. 2006).
5.4 Presence of keratinized mucosa

It has been suggested that the presence or absence of keratinized mucosa may alter the
resistance of peri-implant region to plaque-induced tissue destruction. In fact Warrer et al
1995 using an animal model reported that the absence of keratinized mucosa around dental
endosseous implants increases the susceptibility of the peri-implant region to plaque-
induced tissue destruction.
There is a limited number of clinical studies evaluating the influence of keratinized mucosa on
marginal bone level changes. Mericske-Stern et al. 1994 followed for 5 years 66 ITI implants
placed in the mandible of 33 edentulous elderly patients. The implants served as overdenture
anchorage. Approximately 50% of the implants had been installed into the lining of the
mucosa. The peri-implant mucosal tissue was maintained healthy during the whole
observation period, and no or minimal loss of attachment was observed. Wennström et al.
1994 evaluated the soft tissue conditions at implants in relation to the width of masticatory
mucosa. The results showed that 24% of the sites were lacking masticatory mucosa, and an
additional 13% of the implants had a width of less than 2 mm. Mobility of the facial marginal
soft tissue (i.e., lack of an attached portion of masticatory mucosa) was observed at 61% of all
implants. No differences in the clinical parameters examined were found between sites with
and without an "adequate" width of masticatory mucosa. Multiple regression analyses
revealed that neither the width of masticatory mucosa nor the mobility of the border tissue
had a significant influence on (i) the standard of plaque control or (ii) the health condition of
the peri-implant mucosa, as determined by bleeding on probing. Hence, the study failed to
support the concept that the lack of an attached portion of masticatory mucosa may jeopardize
the maintenance of soft tissue health around dental implants.
Bengazi et al 1996 evaluated alterations in the position of the peri-implant soft tissue
margin, occurring during a 2-year period after insertion of fixed prostheses. Apical
displacement of the soft tissue margin mainly took place during the first 6 months of
observation. Lingual sites in the mandible showed the most pronounced soft tissue
recession, decrease of probing depth, and decrease of width of masticatory mucosa. The
statistical analysis revealed that lack of masticatory mucosa and mobility of the peri-implant
soft tissue at time of bridge installation were poor predictors of soft tissue recession
occurring during the 2 years of follow-up. It was suggested that the recession of the peri-
implant soft tissue margin might be the result of a remodelling of the soft tissue in order to
establish "appropriate biological dimensions" of the peri-implant soft tissue barrier ( i.e., the
required dimension of epithelial-connective tissue attachment in relation to the faciolingual

thickness of the supracrestal soft tissue). The role of keratinized mucosa in peri- implant
disease was studied by Roos- Jansåker et al. (2006b) who examined 218 patients treated with
titanium implants. A multivariate analysis of potential explanatory variables for peri-
implant mucositis and peri-implantitis was made, where no association between the absence
of keratinized peri-implant mucosa and peri-implant disease was found.
From animal experiments there is limited evidence demonstrating differences regarding the
soft tissue seal between masticatory and lining mucosa. Evidence from longitudinal
retrospective and prospective clinical trials shows that, with adequate plaque control, there
is no difference in the prognosis for maintaining a healthy functioning soft tissue seal as
judged by clinical measures.
5.5 Peri-implant disease and epidemiology

Peri-implant disease is a collective term for inflammatory reactions in the tissues
surrounding an implant (Zitzmann & Berglundh 2008). Peri-implant mucositis is used to
describe the presence of inflammation in the mucosa at an implant with no signs of loss of
supporting bone. Peri-implantitis in addition to inflammation in the mucosa is characterized
by loss of supporting bone. Detection of inflammation in the peri-implant mucosa requires
the use of periodontal probing to identify bleeding and/or suppuration. For the assessment
of peri-implantitis detection of marginal bone loss in radiographs is also needed (Figure 11).
It is important though to distinguish between bone remodelling that occurs early after
implant installation and the loss of supporting bone that may be detected at implants during
function.
Fig. 11. Crater-form bone loss on radiographs (A) and clinical (C) and deep pocket with BoP
and suppuration are the main characteristics of peri-implantitis lesions
Zitzmann & Berglundh 2008 performed a literature review in order to describe the
prevalence of peri-implant diseases. Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies on implant-
treated subjects with implants exhibiting a function time of at least 5 years were considered.
The prevalence of peri-implant mucosa was evaluated in two studies (Roos-Jansåker et al.
2006 and Frannson et al. 2008). Roos-Jansåker et al. 2006 reported that peri-implant
mucositis (BoP and no bone loss) occurred in about 79% of the subjects and 50% of the
implants. In the study by Fransson et al. 2008, BoP was found in >90% of the implants
without a history of bone loss. The prevalence of peri-implantitis was addressed in five
publications that represented three subject samples with average function times of 9–11
years (Karoussis et al. 2004a, Brägger et al. 2005, Fransson et al. 2005, 2008, Roos-Jansåker et
al. 2006). Peri-implantitis was found in 28% and ≥56% of subjects and in 12% and
43% of implant sites, respectively.
From the data available it seems that peri-implant disease is a very common problem
although it is unfortunately addressed in very few studies. Careful selection of patients,
effective recall program and early diagnosis are key factors for successful long term results.
6. Conclusions
Implant therapy success is dependent on other factors apart from successful
osseointegration, where preservation of peri-implant bone is one of them. Marginal bone
level changes are multi-factorial and only with careful considerations of the biological
principles of the peri-implant soft and hard tissues, as well as the appropriate selection of
implant type and position, can a functional and esthetic treatment result be achieved.
From the surgical factors that have been reviewed there is substantial evidence to support
that using one-or two-stage surgical procedures have no clinically significant effect on
success, survival rates and marginal bone levels. In addition several studies have shown
that immediate loading does not promote marginal bone loss for implants replacing single
teeth and that the majority of marginal bone level changes may occur during the first 3-6
months of loading with no significant alterations thereafter. However, no recommendations
regarding patient inclusion, exclusion criteria, surgical techniques and implant
characteristics can be made from the reviewed studies for immediate loading protocols.
Grafting of extraction sockets is beneficial in terms of limiting the dimensional changes of
the alveolar ridge following tooth/teeth extraction. Several biomaterial and surgical
techniques have been described, but no substantial evidence exists in order to support a
specific technique as the most efficient. In addition there is variability on the histologic
findings which may be a reflection of differences between biomaterials, surgical techniques
and stages of healing. Although it is difficult to directly compare biomaterials among
studies utilizing histologic evaluation, the majority of the grafting materials are
osteoconductive and particles are always found in biopsies following different time
intervals. Information that is commonly lacking from many histologic studies is the
proportion of the particles that are in contact with new vital bone or embedded in loose
connective tissue. Despite the fact that are several reports on the survival of implants placed
in grafted sockets there is very limited information regarding marginal bone level changes.
One study reporting on implants placed in sockets grafted with DFDBA showed minimal
amount of marginal bone loss, similar to implants placed in native bone. It is obvious that
more studies are needed in order to evaluate the benefit of grafting extraction sockets and
the long term effect on implant survival.
Implant positioning is a major part of implant treatment planning and should be based on
careful evaluation of each individual case. Implant position can have an effect on marginal
bone level changes depending on the type of implant design used. Several studies have
shown that the marginal bone level at teeth adjacent to single implants with a micro-
threaded conical portion is not influenced by the horizontal and vertical tooth-implant
distances. However, this statement cannot be supported for implants with an external-hex
design. Loss in height of the mid-proximal bone crest in the inter-implant areas is influenced
by the bone loss at the two bordering implants and the horizontal inter-unit distance, while
no such relationship is evident for proximal areas between implant and tooth. While this
statement has been based and confirmed from studies using implants with an external hex-
design it still remains controversial for implants with different internal connection designs.
Implant positioning also refers to the location of the FAI in relation to the alveolar crest
(depth of implant placement). The majority of the available implant system manufacturers
recommend placement of the FAI at the level of the alveolar crest (crestal) or above that
level (supracrestal), depending on the design of the implant system. In clinical reality
though, it is not uncommon that part of the FAI has to be placed in a subcrestal position due
to anatomic variations of the implant sites. In addition placement of the FAI in a more apical
position can create an ideal emergence profile for the prosthetic construction. In addition,
the location of the FAI can have an effect on marginal bone level changes depending on the
type of implant system used. Placement of the FAI in subcrestal position has been
documented to have positive effect on marginal bone level for implants with reduced
abutment diameter in relation to the fixture diameter, a Morse taper implant-abutment
connection and a microstructured surface treatment including the cervical collar and
extending onto the implant shoulder. The main explanation for why this FAI design favors
preservation of marginal bone levels even in the subcrestal locations is the prevention of the
microbial leakage into the internal part of the implant and the lack of abutment micro-
movement during functional loading. Despite the positive findings of subcrestal implant
placement it still remains unknown the ideal depth of the FAI in relation to the alveolar
crest.
The effect of loading on marginal bone level changes has been a matter of controversy over
the years. Most of the data supporting a positive effect of loading on peri-implant bone loss
is coming from laboratory studies that do not take into consideration the biologic response
of the bone and are poorly mimicking the biologic reality. Although many animal and
clinical studies exist supporting that factors contributing to excessive loading are not related
to the marginal bone level changes, there are still basic biomechanic principles which are
still valuable on the long term success of implant therapy.
Apart from surgical factors and factors related to the implant design, patient selection is a
fundamental part of the dental implant treatment plan. Studies suggest that there is a
positive effect of poor oral hygiene with marginal bone loss and this relationship is dose
depended. This observation stresses out the importance of supportive periodontal therapy
for dental implant candidates. Similar findings have been reported for smoking, history of
periodontal disease and uncontrolled diabetes.
At last it is apparent that peri-implant disease is not only a clinical reality but also is very
common, specifically in populations that do not receive regular supportive periodontal care.
Treatment of peri-implant disease although it seems to be possible it might be invasive and
can lead to compromised functional and esthetic outcomes. In addition there are several
aspects of the treatment of peri-implant disease that there are not adequately studied and
understood. With the continuous introduction of implants with novel characteristics it will
be very difficult to evaluate the effect of those innovations in the development and
treatment of peri-implant disease. Thus, prevention of peri-implant disease by an
appropriate supportive periodontal care program is essential for the long term success of
implant therapy.
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Crestal Bone Level Alterations in Implant Therapy

Chapter · August 2011

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Crestal Bone Level Alterations

2. The effect of surgical protocols on crestal bone level alteration

2.1 One versus two-stage implant surgery

Fig. 1. Healing abutment remains transmucosal at the one-stage implant surgery

2.2 Load timing and marginal bone level changes

Fig. 3. Clinical photos of tooth #9 A) prior to extraction, B)immediately following extraction,

Fig. 4. Radiographs of implants at #4 and #5 position placed with an inter-implant distance

Fig. 5. Radiographs of implants placed with the FAI at A)subcrestal, B)crestal,

Fig. 6. Implant with a Morse taper implant-abutment connection and a microstructured

Fig. 7. Radiographs of an implant at #9 site of a patient in Group A: A) at implant

taper implant-abutment connection and a microstructured surface treatment which includes

3. The effect of fixture-abutment interface (FAI) design on marginal bone level

Fig. 8. A) Standard straight abutment of Group 1. B) Implant with internal Morse-taper

4. The effect of loading on marginal bone level changes

4.1 Laboratory and animal studies

4.2 Clinical studies

5. The effect of patient related factors

5.1 Oral hygiene

5.3 History of periodontitis

5.4 Presence of keratinized mucosa

required dimension of epithelial-connective tissue attachment in relation to the faciolingual

5.5 Peri-implant disease and epidemiology

Fiorellini, J. P. & Nevins, M. L. (2003). Localized ridge augmentation/preservation. A

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