The Quaternary formations of India:

Upper Siwaliks / Narmada basin / Thar Desert / Peninsular India / Coastal Regions

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“Thar Desert”

The state of Rajasthan has four major physiographic divisions:

 the western desert,
 the Aravalli hills,
 the eastern plains, and
 the south-eastern (Hadoti) plateau.
o The Aravalli range lies diagonally across the state, and acts as the climatic and
geomorphic boundary of the desert.
o The western desert, the area lying to the N and NW of the state, is the arid and
semi-arid bioregion which is known as the Great Indian Desert or the Thar Desert.
 N lies the Sutlej basin.
 Bounded by the Aravalli range by E and SE.
 The Rann of Kutch and the plains of Kathiawar on the S.
 The Indus basin on the E.
o The region is dominated by aeolian bed-forms of different dimensions, including
the sand dunes. The thickness of aeolian cover can range from 1m to 100m.
o As in other deserts, the genesis of aeolian bed-forms in the Thar is the result of a
delicately balanced relationship between the strength and the duration of wind,
sediment supply, rainfall, vegetation cover and land surface conditions.
o Observations of the stratigraphy of many aeolian bed forms in the Thar Desert and
its wetter eastern margin suggest that the deposits are not unequivocally aeolian,
but contain sediments contributed by fluvial, aeolian and even lacustrine processes.

Studying Paleoenvironment:
o In general, the major aeolian features that provide clues to paleoenvironmental
changes are those that accrete over a sufficiently long period of time, and have
some degree of stability. The best places to find these are the desert margins,
where minor perturbations can result in either stabilization and paedogenesis or
reactivation.
o The best keepers of sufficiently long records:
 The naturally stabilised and free-forming high sand dunes
 Dunes formed around major obstacles
 The thick aeolian sand sheet deposits
o Often the climatic changes deduced from aeolian records form a part of the global
climate change and, hence, the records could be used for studying comparative
evolution of sand seas in different hemispheres of the world.

Quaternary geology:
Studies by the Geological Survey of India suggest that the Quaternary sedimentation
in western Rajasthan occurred in three large basins on Precambrian and Mesozoic
rocks. Each of these basins is several hundred km long and up to 300 m deep.
Scholars like Bajpai (2000), examined the sub-surface stratigraphy in the Luni basin
and reported up to 300 m thick sedimentation that occurred in graben depressions in
the south central Thar.
Quaternary surficial deposits in the Thar are of Fluvial, Aeolian and Lacustral origin,
and they lie unconformably over the Precambrian basement. The maximum thickness
of the deposits recorded in wells and bore holes is over 100m.
Based on extensive observation in Nagaur district in particular and the desert in
general the deposit can be divided into following 3 major logical formation:
1. Didwana - Late Middle Pleistocene to Holocene
2. Amarpura – Late Middle Pleistocene to Late Pleistocene
3. Jayal – Late Tertiary to Early Pleistocene

Jayal Formation:
 Exposed over nearly 50 km between Ladnun and E Jayal in Nagaur district.
 Composed of poorly sorted, clast-supported bouldery-cobby gravel
 Lenticular patches of silty sand and cleavy silt are common.
 Lithologically it is dominated by: Ortho-quartzite sandstone & Vein quartz.
 Gneiss and sandstone are also in minor amount.
 Gravel is well rounded to rounded. It shows 2 generations of post-depositional
cementation.
 Evidence of ferricretization can be seen in quarries at Ambali (SE of Jayal). (5m
below the surface)
 Ferricrete outcrops of this formation are disconformably overlain by calcretic-zed
gravel.
 The considerable modification of the gravel beds by erosion processes and absence of
cultural material in them, points to very early age for them.
From PPT:
o In the Jayal area it occurs in the form of a continuous undulating gavel ridge
with a width of 7-10 km and a height of up to 50 m above the surrounding plain.
o The ridge is composed of poorly sorted, clast-supported bouldery-cobbly gravel.
o Lenticular patches of silty-sand and clayey-silt are common.
o The gravel is well rounded to rounded and shows two generations of post-
depositional cementation.
o Ferricretization is seen to a depth of 5 m below the surface in the quarries at
Ambali, south of Jayal.
o Ferricretized outcrops of this formation are disconformably overlain by
calcretized gravels.
o Since the Jayal gravel overlies Late Tertiary rocks and underlies Middle
Pleistocene deposits, it has to be of Late Neogene or Early Quaternary age

Amarpura Formation:
 This formation uncomformably overlies the Jayal formation.
 Comprises chiefly calcareous loam, marl and Kankar clasts.
 It is extensively exposed in low-lying area. Extended from Didwana to
Sujangarh (N), to Jenana (NW) and to Ramgarh (E).
 Its best exposure can be seem in the lime quarries of Amarpura village near
Didwana.
 Sediments are predominantly greyish-green or greenish-grey, molted and
crudely laminated.
 Upper part of the formation consists of calcretized Kankar clasts (Size: 3-6 cm,
Max thick: 2m). Early to late Middle Palaeolithic tools are found in this
horizon.
 The lower Palaeolithic artefacts which occur in this part of the formation are
usually more common just above the calcretized bands.
 The lower part of the formation is best exposed in Singvi Talav quarry near
Didwana. This locality has yielded a typical early Acheulian assemblage.
 Occurrence of early Acheulian to Middle Palaeolithic assemblages within this
formation at many localities in this area indicates that the Amarpura formation
ranges from Middle Pleistocene to late Upper Pleistocene.

From PPT:
o This formation lies unconformably over the Jayal Formation.
o It comprises calcareous loam, marl and Kankar clasts, and is extensively exposed in
low-lying areas.
o The upper part, with a maximum thickness of 2 m, consists of calcretized kankar clasts
varying in size from 3-6 cm.
o The best exposure of this formation are seen in the lime quarries of Amarpura village
near Didwana.
 o Early to Middle and Upper palaeolithic artifacts have been found in this horizon at
several localities like Mangalpura and Jenana in the Didwana area
o The calcretized kankar unit grades to alternating strata of pinkish medium to coarse
quartz sand and fine sand with grayish silty calcareous clay in between.
o Three horizontal layers of hard calcrete of 10 to 20 cm thickness occur in this horizon
in the Amarpura quarry, suggesting breaks in sedimentation.
o Lower Palaeolithic artifacts occurring in this horizon are usually common just above
these calcretized layers.
o The lower part of this formation is best exposed in the Singi Talav quarry near
Didwana where the grayish silty calcarious clay is strongly mottled and well
laminated.
o The occurrence of Lower palaeolithic to Upper Palaeolithic tools in this Formation at
various localities suggests that it was deposited over a long period of time – from the
late Middle to the early Late Pleistocene.

Didwana Formation:
 Formation consists of Aeolian and Lacustral sediments which are well and
extensively exposed in the desert.
 These deposits form the upper cover and conceal early Quarternary formations.
 Fields observations, particularly in the wells and excavated trenches around
Didwana reveal the interfingering disposition of Didwana and Amarpura
formations.
 The best exposed- in an excavation at 16R dune near Didwana (Mishra, 1987)
 The 20m deep section has been divided into 3 major litho-units based colour,
texture and occurance of calc-bands at different depth:

a) Unit I - top 80cm fine sand, yellowish brown in colour, structureless

loose fine sands, powdery calcrete nodules at a depth of 4.9 m

(I and II are clearly separated by 1st by a thick layer of coarse sand

which comprises angular to sub-angular schist, phyllite and slate
fragments and well-rounded quart and quartzite grains.)

b) Unit II –This layer is a colluvial wash. Following 3.05m deposit,

characterised by alternations of densely coalesced calcitic nodules
within a light grey loose, well sorted, calcareous fine sand forming calc
bands of 3-5 cm thickness. Sediments within are light yellowish brown
to pale brown, loose, massive, moderately sorted loamy sand.

c) Unit III – 10.9m. Brown to pale red colour, with larger calcite nodules
with the other characteristic remaining the same as in Litho-Unit2. 7-
calc-bands were observed, petrocalcic in nature.
The Litho-Unit III has yielded artefacts ranging from Lower to Upper Palaeolithic
age.
Both on archaeological and radiometric dating evidence, the Didwana formation as
revealed in 16R profile ranges in age from Middle Pleistocene to Holocene.
From PPT:
o This formation consists of two members, aeolian and lacustrine, both of which are
extensively exposed in the desert.
o The Aeolian member is distributed throughout the present limits of the Thar as well
as beyond and over much of this area it forms the upper cover and conceals the older
Quaternary deposits.
o A 19 m deep trench in a fossil dune at 16R locality in the Bangur canal near
Didwana and the dating of its profile by several radiometric technique helped in
reconstructing history of these deposits.
o Litho Unit III: The underlying sequence of 10.95 m.
 Brown to pale red in colour.
 Calcitic nodules are more numerous in this unit and are larger in size
(5-20 cm).
 In at least three horizons the sand is highly compact. Texturally the
sand is similar to that of Litho Unit II.
 Seven calc-bands of 5 to 20 cm thickness occur at different depths in
this unit.
 The calc-band at 18.60 m is pinkish and strongly indurated, and has
been classified as petrocalic in nature.
 The difference in colour between units II and III is due to mainly
absence of diffused carbonate in the latter and to aging.
The presence of calc-bands of varying thickness at different depths, associated palaeosols and
colluvial wash indicate that the dune building activity was not a continuous process; instead it was
interrupted on several occasions by humid period which led to the formation of palaeosols and
calcretes and to the stabilization of the dunes.
Chronometric results and Paleoenvironment:
Sedimentary records from several, up to 20 m deep profiles in the sandy plains
and sand dunes within and outside the desert were analysed for granulometry,
sedimentology, geo-archaeology and absolute dating through luminescence
techniques
(TL, IRSL, BGSL and GLSL). The luminescence chronometry of aeolian sand
first demonstrated by Singhvi et al (1982), has now matured as a reliable
chronometric tool (Singhvi and Krbetschek 1996).
The sites that were investigated are shown in figure 7. It may be appropriate
here to clarify that the ages based on luminescence are the burial ages and
consequently these reflect the time and climate that facilitated dune accretion.
The luminescence dates are summarized in Appendix II.
In almost all the sections that were examined, visible bedding plane records of
aeolian environment were better preserved in the upper few meters of the sand
stratigraphy, mostly as cross-bedded units, but also as some thin planar beds, or
as disturbed layers due to human activities. The preservation of bedding plane
records is better in the more dry western part. Deeper down the profiles the old
bedding plane records are obliterated due to leaching of the carbonates and finer
particles that tend to homogenize the sand strata. Some of the deep sequences
also revealed layers of colluvium or other fluvially transported sediments,
which suggested changes in the dominant sedimentation processes at those sites
(figure 8). Subtle variations in sediment compaction, grain size characteristics,
carbonate concentration, colour, etc., could also be noticed down the profiles
(figure 9). These suggested different periods of sand accumulation, followed by
periods of sand stabilization.
Human Adaptation:

In no other part of India are such drastic hydrological and climatic changes during the
Quaternary period documented as in the Thar Desert. And nowhere is the present
environment so markedly different from what it was in the Pleistocene.
Today there is no naturally occurring surface water in the desert except for short
periods during the rainy season in the Luni and its tributaries in the south and in
saline playas and other depressions in the eastern part.
Unfortunately, we have no evidence for flora and fauna for the Pleistocene but we
know from geomorphic and geologic data that except perhaps during the hyper-arid
late Upper Pleistocene (c. 25,000-13,000 B.P.) surface water in some quantity was
always available in the Thar.
Floral and faunal resource therefore must have been more abundant throughout the
Quaternary than they are today. We cannot think of large human populations indicated
by the archaeological record in the absence of such resources.

The earliest record of man's presence in the Thar consists of early Acheulian
assemblages found from several sites in the Didwana area.
Subsequently scholars have discovered similar material in several other quarries, in
the dugout earth of tanks and in regular excavations.
Because of low rainfall and the high water absorption capacity of sand mantle
erosional activity in the desert is minimal and there are virtually no natural exposures
in the ancient fluvial sediments. It will therefore be fair to assume that numerous other
Acheulian and later sites lie buried in the alluvium, often itself covered by aeolian
sands and may never be brought to light.
(Acheulian)
That the Acheulian occupation was quite extensive, is best demonstrated by the
widespread and rich occurrence of Acheulian tools on the surface of the Jayal gravel
beds. Here the main attraction for the Acheulian groups was the abundant supply of
fine grained raw materials.
The Acheulian sites so far known in the Didwana area occur buried in fine silty-clayey
sediments that were laid down in low energy fluvial or Lacustral conditions. While a
certain amount of through flowing drainage at this stage is strongly likely, there were
numerous flood plain and inter-dunal depressions which carried water seasonally, if
not perennially.
Acheulian hunter-gatherers camped along the shores of these lakes and pools and their
discarded tools were incorporated in the fine sediments being deposited in them, and
that is why they have been preserved in such a remarkably fresh condition.
In this respect the Acheulian sites of the desert are unique because elsewhere in the
country Acheulian sites and tools have been usually found in coarse fluvial sediments
associated with existing stream channels. No

None of the Acheulian sites is as yet dated chronometrically, but since the Middle
Palaeolithic material from the 16R dune is dated at the lower end to C 150,000 B.P.,
the Acheulian is likely to be considerably older and may go back to the beginning of
the Middle Pleistocene and even earlier.

(Middle Palaeolithic)

The hydrological regime which deposited the fine sediments of the Amarpura
formation continued to function, although in a steadily declining form, until the
middle part of the Upper Pleistocene. (Hydrological regime refers to variations in the state and
characteristics of a water body which are regularly repeated in time and space and which pass through phases,
e.g. seasonal)

Middle Palaeolithic people continued to occupy the same ecological niches which
their Acheulian forerunners had occupied.
Middle Palaeolithic artefacts of varying technological stages have been recovered in
large numbers in the upper part of Amarpura formation in Mangalpura and several
other quarries and tanks north of Didwana.

The climate during the late Middle Pleistocene and early Upper Pleistocene fluctuated
from arid to semi-arid, during arid episodes several generations of aeolian sands of
Didwana Formation were deposited.
During these phases populations must have shrunk in the N part of the desert and
probably moved S into relatively less arid Luni basin.

Late Acheulian to Middle Palaeolithic assemblages have been found buried in the
cemented sandy-pebbly gravels of the Luni and its tributaries at many localities (Misra
1961, 1962, 1968).
During wetter episodes the dunes were stabilized and paleosols and calc-bands were
formed in them, Middle Palaeolithic groups camped on these stabilized dune surfaces
as revealed by the 16R excavation.
Daring these climatically favourable phases Middle Palaeolithic occupation extended
right into the harsh core of the desert as revealed by the discovery of assemblages of
this culture around and north of Jaisalmer.

(Upper Pleistocene)

The late Upper Pleistocene was a period of maximum aridity in the Thar as revealed
by the dune accumulation of Litho Unit I in the 16R profile and by sandy, halite rich
sediments in the Didwana salt lake. The drainage system of the desert seems to have
become largely defunct during this period.
The only known occupations of the Upper Palaeolithic phase come from Unit II of
16R dune and from the Budha Pushkar site in the Aravallis at the eastern edge of the
desert. The 16R occupation is dated to c 26,000 B.P. and occurs in a calcareous sandy
layer which also includes a certain amount of colluvial kankar component.
After about 25,000 B.P. conditions became hyper-arid and there is no unequivocal
evidence at present of human presence in the desert

(Mesolithic)

Just before the end of the Pleistocene, around 13,000 B.P. climate began to ameliorate.
The alternation of sandy, silty and clayey layers in the Didwana salt lake shows a
climatic regime of rapidly fluctuating rainfall, Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, with the
newly developed microlithic technology, probably first appeared at this time.
However, their major spread into the desert would appear to have taken place in the
mid Holocene (6,000-4,000 B.P.) when the salt lake sediments throughout the desert
testify to a significant increase in rainfall.
The most widespread prehistoric occupation in the desert belongs to this cultural
phase. Microliths, the typical tools of the Mesolithic period, are found on and
sometimes in numerous sand dunes throughout the desert. While the major clement in
the economy of the Mesolithic people was hunting and gathering, some groups had
taken to limited pastoralism as suggested by the faunal remains from the Mesolithic
sites of Tilwara and Bagor, the former in the west of the desert and the latter on the
Mewar plain on the eastern side of the Aravallis (Misra 1971, 1973; Thomas 1975).
In course of time pastoralism became the most suitable form of economic adaptation
to the desert environment and continues to remain so to this day.

(After 2,000 B.P)

Agriculture did not appear in the desert until about 2,000 B.P., the only exception
being the Ghaggar (Saraswati) valley in the N which was then a perennial river being
fed by the waters of the Sutlej and Yamuna river rising in the Himalayas (Misra
1984).
Even after the introduction of pastoralism and plant agriculture hunting-gathering way
of life did not disappear altogether. Small populations like those of Van Vagris, Kal
Beliyas and Naiks tenaciously cling to this pattern of subsistence and a nomadic way
of life even to this day. In their way of life, especially in that of the Van Vagris who
live almost exclusively by hunting, we can probably see a glimpse of the subsistence
and settlement strategies of the prehistoric hunter-gatherers.
The Van Vagris, numbering a few thousand, are to be found in Nagaur, Sikar, Ajmer
and Churu districts in the eastern part of the desert. Living a completely nomadic life
they move in small bands of 3 to 5 consanguineally or affinally related nuclear
families. They camp for a few days on sand dunes away from the farmers' village and
hunt a variety of small game like hare, porcupine, monitor lizard and a variety of
birds.
Large game like Nilgai, blackbuck and gazelle has become scarce and its hunting is
prohibited by law and religious sentiment. Their hunting equipment consists of nets,
traps, bow and arrow, gun and an iron-tipped long wooden stave. They sell part of the
meat to farmers to earn some cash. Engage in very little plant food collection mainly
because it is not abundant and such as is available requires elaborate processing. They
obtain the vegetable content of their diet through food bagged by their women from
farmers' homes. They have established a fine symbiotic relationship with settled
farming population. Many of the men take to protection of farmers' crops from wild
animals and birds during winter for payment in grain.

“From the field any laboratory studies of the sediments of these formation and their
pedogenic products and from observations on other geomorphic features like partially
or wholly defunct stream channels it is now possible to reconstruct a coherent story of
environmental change in the Thar region during last two million years or so and their
culmination in the present environment of the desert.
The antiquity of aeolian activities in Thar Desert is not clearly known. Pre-
Quaternary lithological sequences here reveal numerous sand beds of different
geological periods, some having distinctly aeolian signatures. One such in the lithic
sequences of the late-Jurassic
Bhadasar Sandstone near Jaisalmer consists of thick beds of fine-grained aeolian sand,
impregnated with innumerable ferricreted nodules, which suggest a near shore
deposition under a prolonged arid phase (Pareek, 1984).”
Q. Write a detail account on Miliolite formation in contexts of Stone Age sites in coastal
Saurashtra, Gujarat state. Add a note on its importance.

Saurashtra
Saurashtra is the part of Gujarat State.
From the physiographic point of view, the region is divided into the following
three distinct units: Coastal low lands / Plateau / Hilly region
Geomorphic history of the Saurashtra has been reconstructed on the basis of
erosional and depositional features preserved in the river valleys.
The prominent erosional features are cut and fill terraces, waterfalls and knick
points.
The depositional history is known through the variety of marine, estuarine,
freshwater and sub-aerial formations preserved at a number of places in the
form of miliolites, alluvial fills, oyster beds etc.
Among these formations, the miliolite appears to be important from the point
of view of geochronology, archaeology and paleoenvironmental studies.
On the basis of well and bore-hole data available from some of the rivers, it
appears that during the early Quaternary, the rivers in the Peninsula were
flowing 10-15 m below the present beds. There is evidence for the habitation
of Lower Palaeolithic man during this period at the sites of Umrethi and
Junagadh.
The basal bouldery/pebbly gravel laid down by rivers incorporate artefacts of
Lower Palaeolithic industry.
‘Coastal Saurashtra and Miliolites’
Miliolite rocks in Saurashtra comprise a distinctive quaternary carbonate
deposit in Gujarat due to their patchy distribution.
 They're granular
 medium to fine-grained
 well-sorted rocks
 with no marine megafossil.
According to some scholars these rocks represent reworked ancient biogenic
beach sands generated during regressive faces of middle Pleistocene high sea
that lasted till late upper Pleistocene.

Dating:

The earliest Quaternary formations in southern Saurashtra, are represented by

fan gravels yielding one of the earliest traces of man in Western India.
The early part of the late Pleistocene is characterised by major transgressive
phase, represented by the miliolite (M-I) formation.

The Miliolite and other coastal formations are intertwined with the Palaeolithic
objects' chronology in Saurashtra.

Stratigraphical evidence available in the southern coastal strip of Saurashtra

shows that the Miliolite is post-Dwarka and post-Gaj formations of late Tertiary
age. Geomorphological and archaeological studies carried out by Sperling and
Goudie suggested that the bulk of inland Miliolite is of late Pleistocene age. A
few C14 dates on Miliolite rocks, randomly collected, gave a time bracket of
30,000-14,000 years B.P

Detailed geological and geomorphological studies of Verma and Mathur

revealed two coastal situations, Miliolite and Chaya, occurring in inland and
coastal situations and relatively dated to early and late Pleistocene respectively

The miliolite is not a suitable material for dating by C-14.

Scholars have assigned considerable antiquity to miliolite-I occurring at
Umrethi and Adi Chadi-no-Wao, and dated Lower Palaeolithic tools to the
Middle Pleistocene as they occur in gravel representing a low (-20m) sea level
phase of the mid Pleistocene.
Sites:

The Quaternary record is well preserved in the Saurashtra Peninsula along with
the archaeological evidence. In Saurashtra, Lower Palaeolithic artifacts were
discovered at
 Umrethi,
 Adi Chadi Wao,
 District Junagadh and Samadhiala,
 District Bhavanagar.
On the left bank of the Hiran river: Amrethi
A trench about 500 m long and 30 m deep was dug for the construction of a
dam.
The stratigraphy observed here is as follows:
 At the base lies the Deccan Trap basalt. This is unconfirmably overlain
by a 2 m thick stratum of channel gravel, heterogeneous, unsorted with
sub-rounded pebbles, moderately consolidated and cemented with
Calcium Carbonate.

 The latter is about 20 m thick, well consolidated, com- pact and

intercalated by fluvial sands and silts in the lower portion and by thin
chalky lenticular bands in the upper portion of the section.

Observations:
 The river Hiran has cut its present channel through the miliolite and has
subsequently deposited a thin (« 3 m) reddish brown (5 YR 6/3) alluvium
against it.
 The miliolite shows cross-stratification with a dip angle of 20°-30°.
 Wedge-shaped planar cross stratification is also visible at certain places.
 Three unrolled Lower Palaeolithic tools were discovered from the basal
fluvial gravel.

The other interesting section was observed at the base of the Junagadh hills.
A well has been dug about 1425 AD in the miliolite (or- mation) and is known
as Adi Chadi Wao.
Observations:
 A compact, hard finely cross-bedded miliolite formation with a dip angle
20°-30° and 36 m thick, rests unconformably on a bouldery gravel.
 The gravel is 2 m thick, unsorted, heterogeneous and cemented with
sub-rounded boulders and pebbles of basalt and crypto- crystalline silica.
 A single artefact on basalt was recovered from this basal bouldery gravel

These (4) tools are mainly the product of stone hammer technique, although
the final finishing and retouching was done by cylinder hammer technique.
It is impossible to comment on the culture, only on the basis of four Lower
Palaeolithic tools.

From PPT:
Coastal Miliolite of Saurashtra
o They are buff coloured, granular, medium to fine grained well sorted rocks devoid of
any marine megafossils.
o Miliolite consists of sand-sized bioclasts cemented by sparitic calcite.
o These rocks represent reworked ancient biogenic beach sands generated during
regressive phases of Middle Pleistocene high sea that lasted till late Upper Pleistocene.
o These has developed during 200 to 50 kyr.
o Miliolites are overlain by a shell limestone of Late Pleistocene to Holocene age which
was called the Chaya Formation.
o Earlier schollars had assigned this formation to marine origine.
o However, later it was realized two different context for it.
 a marine deposit represented by coastal miliolite
 the inland findings are the result of Aeolian process.
o An oscillatory regression of this high strandline, synchronised with the gradual onset of
the last glacial stage marked by increasing aridity progressively exposed beach and
littoral sands to strong south-westerly onshore winds.
o The winds lifted these coastal sands in instalments by the combined processes of
traction, saltation and suspension, depositing them as dunes and sand sheets far from
the coast in the landward areas over pre-miliolite topography.
o These aeolian accumulations, marked by arid phases, were stabilised during the
subsequent humid phases.
o Although, in general, the active transportation and deposition of these bioclastic
carbonate sands suggest aridity over a long time span from Middle to late Upper
Pleistocene, there are some indications of intervening semi-arid or sub-humid phases
characterised by erosion and/or weathering of miliolite rocks suggestive of fluctuations
in the Paleoclimate
‘Peninsular Saurashtra’
The foregoing account of sedimentary deposits and geomorphic events has
shown that the relationship between the land and sea has changed
considerably during Quaternary in Saurashtra Peninsula and available evidence
indicates the base level changes to be in the range of -15 to +50 m.
Available data on Palaeolithic cultures in Saurashtra helps us to understand a
man-land relationship during various cultural stages.
The evidence for the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic cultures in stratified
context was obtained for the first time at the site of Rojadi now renamed as
Srinathgsdh (Sankalia, 1965).
A detailed investigation of prehistoric cultures in their environmental contexts
has been undertaken in recent years in the three major river valleys of
Saurashtra:
 Bhadar
 Hiran
 Kalubhar
Besides these major investigations, the occurrence of stone-age tools has been
reported at the following localities in Saurashtra:
 Rojadi
 Sejakpur and Fala
 Kotda Rangpur,
 Thoriali and Sherdi
 Dhrangadhra

Major portion of the Saurashtra still remains unexplored. However, the

available evidence is clearly indicative of the occupation of this region by Early
Man since Lower Palaeolithic times.
The earliest evidence for the human occupation as mentioned earlier comes
from the sites of Umrethi and Junagadh in southern Saurashtra.
The Early Man occupied The slopes of the Girnar hills in southern Saurashtra prior to
the first major Quaternary marine transgression.
o On the basis of typo-technology, this industry appears to be of Early Acheulian
tradition.
o On stratigraphic ground this industry represents earliest human cultures in this
part of western India dating back to mid-Pleistocene.
The evidence for late Acheulian culture has been obtained at a number of localities
from the alluvial fills of Late Pleistocene period as follows:

 Central Saurashtra-Rojadi, Jetpur etc.,

 Eastern Saurashtra-Samadhiyala, Rajpipa etc.,
 Northern Saurashtra-Dhrangadhra, Wadhwan etc.
(These lower Palaeolithic sites are located quite inland, some 50 to 60 km from the present
coast on the planation surface of 50-70 m elevation.)

Early man seems to have occupied first the foothill region of Gir hill ranges in the
southern Saurashtra during mid-Pleistocene period and then moved towards central,
N and E parts of the Peninsula during subsequent times.
The Middle Palaeolithic culture shows widespread distribution throughout
Saurashtra. The sites are not only confined to the foothill region but also found on
the situated 20-30 km inland at an elevation ranging 20-25 km.
The tools of this culture are confined to calcrete-gravels of late Pleistocene period.
The Mesolithic and Harappan sites are found all over the Saurashtra both in the
inland region and all along the coast.

Conclusion:
To sum up, it is evident from these observations that inland plateau region lying
between 10-80 m elevations was the major culture area during Palaeolithic times.
The highlands and coastal lowlands appear to have been avoided and are thus
Palaeolithically sterile. There seems to be a coastward shift during Mesolithic and
Harappan times.
The Saurashtra Peninsula has thus provided evidence for a continuous cultural
development from Prehistoric to Early Historic times. This region, therefore, appears
to be the most preferred landform in all the ages because of the favourable
environments prevailing at the time of its occupation by Early Man such as congenial
semi-arid climate, suitable physiographic setting in the form of sparsely forested
gentle plateau, availability of suitable raw material and abundant game.
“Deccan Upland”

o The quaternary sediments of this region are mainly of fluvial origin.

o These are occasionally associated with Palaeolithic tool assemblages and
mammalian fossils.
o Total five litho units have been recognised from Godavari, Bhima and Krishna
river valleys-
 Bori Formation (BRF)
 Godavari Formation (GDF)
 Upper Bhima Formation (UBF)
 Chandanapuri Formation (CPF)
 Post-Black soil Formation (PBF)

Bori Formation:
o (2-8 m thick) Exposed in Kukdi river valley near Bori village, Pune district,
Maharashtra.
o High sinuosity lithofacies sequence.
o The sediment: It is fine textured, dark brown silty clays and gravels.
o Associated with volcanic ash (tefra) of 1 to 1.5 m thickness.
o The tefra is found within the fissured clay deposit.
o Has a disconformable relationship with the overlying gravel bed. It contains Lower
Acheulian lithic assemblage.
o Tefra has been dated to 1.4 myr B.P. by the K/Ar dating method.
o However, 39Ar/40Ar dating method has dated it to 0.7 myr B.P.

The Godavari Formation:

o Represented by high level gravels resting unconformably on rocky benches.
o These gravels occur at elevation from 6 to 30 m above the present bed level of the
rivers.
o In some cases it lie beyond the reach of the present-day flood levels.
o These are observed on the Krishna, Bhima and Godavari rivers and their
tributaries.
o These are earliest Quaternary alluvial formations to be preserved as terrace
gravels.
o It suggests a braided system of low sinuosity channels.
o Absence of datable material
Upper Bhima Formation:
o Rests against the Godavari Formation.
o The most ubiquitous of all the Quaternary deposits.
o Representing a major aggradational phase.
o It has thickness of 5 to 30 m.
o Two Litho units are identified:
 Lower coarse grained unit and
 An upper fine grained unit.
o The first is pebbly-cobbly gravel which is overlain by cross-bedded pebbly-sandy
gravels.
o Acheulian artefacts are frequently found in this deposit.
o Th/U dates of indurated sandstones from Nevasa, Bori and Yedurwadi are dated
between 300 and >350 kyr B.P.
o The second unit characterizes predominantly by sandy-pebbly gravel and yellow-
brownish bedded sandy silt.
 It has an average thickness of 8 m.
 It rests disconformably on the Lower coarser unit.
 It has yielded Middle Palaeolithic, Upper Palaeolithic and Epi-Palaeolithic
artefacts and fossilised animal bones, shells and drifted wood.
 The C-14 dates confirms it belongs to Terminal Pleistocene.
 The lower coarse members comprises point-bar deposits and the upper fine
sediments are indicative of overbank deposition associated with high floods.

Chandanapuri Formation:
o Having maximum thickness of 6 m.
o Represented by colluvial deposits in the foothill zones of the valleys.
o It comprises pale yellow-brown sandy silts and pebbly-sandy gravels.
o The basal part contains angular unweathered rubble of baswalt.
o Th/U dates of the kankar nodules suggest the date of 75-14 kyr B.P.
o The upper part has weathered into vertisols (80 cm to 1 m).
o The Post-Black soil formation (PBF)
o It is a weakly calcretised dark brown sandy silt with gravel lenses at the base and
fine alterations of sand and silt typical of overbank accretion.
o Five major fluvial phases are identified during the Late Quaternary in the Deccan
Upland:
 Pre-aggradational incision phase,
 Ante-Holocene aggradational phase,
 Early-Holocene rejuvenation phase,
 Holocene alluviation phase and
 Late Holocene incision phase.
Observations:

o The different basins have responded differently to climatic change.

o In spite of the difference in response, the timing of changes between basins
suggests synchronicity.
o It has been suggested that the main phase of Late Pleistocene aridity occurred
between 26-14 ka B.P. with a major shift in the climate at 14 ka B.P.
o The period from 14 to 8 ka was a period of frequent shifts in climate.
o The most humid period was between 8-4 ka B.P.
o The most important factor affecting the response of the river to climate appears to
be the amount of discharge generated by the catchment areas.
o Rivers with larger catchments or catchment areas in humid regions generating
larger discharges responded to the Late Pleistocene aridity with aggradation.
o And have been incising the “Older Alluvium” during most of the Holocene.
o On the other hand, rivers with smaller catchment areas or without it in the present
humid zone lack significant Late Pleistocene alluvium.
o The highly seasonal rainfall results in highly seasonal discharges in the rivers.
o Most of the geomorphic work is done during the flood events.
o Processes of erosion and deposition that occur continuously during the non-flood
period are rare.
o A large part of the alluvial record therefore is produced during floods and this is
well illustrated by the geoarchaeological record.
o The highly seasonal rainfall results in highly seasonal discharges in the rivers.
o Most of the geomorphic work is done during the flood events.
o Processes of erosion and deposition that occur continuously during the non-flood
period are rare.
o A large part of the alluvial record therefore is produced during floods and this is
well illustrated by the geoarchaeological record.
Ghataprabha Basin

Ghataprabha originates on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats at an altitude of

about 950 m AMSL. From Kolhapur district. Basin includes parts of Kolhapur district,
MH and Bijapur and Belgaon district of Karnataka.
It is a major southerly tributaries of Krishna.
The average gradient of the river from the source to its confluence with Krishna is
1.45 m per km.
The major irregularity in the course of the river is marked by a waterfall of 60 m
height at Gokak in Belgaum district.

Three main geological formations are present : Archaeans / Kaladgis / Deccan traps.
Archaeans: Occupy a small portion in Lower reaches of the valley and are made up of
complex series of metamorphic rocks like shists, phyllites, quartzite and granite
gneisses.
Kaladgi: The rocks of this series are confined to middle and lower reaches of the
valley. Made up of quartzite, sandstones, limestone, shale and conglomerates.
Deccan Trap: It covers the major portion of upper and middle reaches of the basin.
These are represented by the varieties of basalts and intrusive dolerite dykes of the
Cretaceous-Eocene period. Traps are almost horizontally bedded lava flows.

Other formations are laterite and Quaternary deposits.

The Western Ghats also called Sahyadris, running NW-SE.
Field Studies:
Laterites
In the Ghataprabha region, planation surface occurring at elevation between 950-800
m and 650-550 m have been capped by it.
Laterite have developed on Deccan Trap in the source region on higher plantation
surface and on Kaladgis in the present semi-arid region around Bagalkot on lower
plantation surface.
Alluvial Formations
The region has preserved sedimentary deposits of fluvial origin. They are confined to
the present river channels and are not more than 10-12m thick and 1-1.5 km in laterite
extent on either banks.
The exposed alluvium is divisible into:
Older Alluvium / Sub-Recent Alluvium / Younger Alluvium
Older one occurs as discontinuous patches and is made up of calcreted yellowish
brown silt associated with pebbly and sandy gravels. Younger Alluvium consists of
less calcareous clayey silt associated with sandy pebbly gravels
Palaeolithic Sites
o Around 40 lithic industries were brought to light from different parts of the Ghataprabha
basin and surroundings of it.
o Sites can be classified in two groups: Alluvial sites / Surface Sites
 Alluvial – Artefacts, fossils and occupation floors are associated with reverine
deposits.
 Surface – Cultural materials are found at the surface and not within or beneath
sediments deposited by some geomorphic agencies.

o The evidence for Lower Palaeolithic industry was obtained from 21 sites in the region.
o Majority of site- between Mudhol and Bagalkot towns- where good development of
quartzite formations of the Kaladgi.
o Alluvial sites were found throughout the basin. The sandy pebbly gravels occurring at the
base of the older fills have yielded tools of Lower Palaeolithic Acheulian industry.
Anagwadi is unique among these, and has provided ample evidences of Lower
Palaeolithic industry of mid-Acheulian tradition.
o A large no. of surface sites lacking geological context were also located in the same
region, but confined to pediment surfaces occurring at the foot of the Kaladgi hills. These
rich Acheulian surface sites are essentially in situ occurring in relatively undisturbed
context and represented open air occupation-cum-factory sites.
o Evidence of succeeding Middle Palaeolithic industry comes from around 38 sites in the
basin situated in different reaches of the basin.
From PPT:
o The sandy pebbly gravels occurring at the base of the older fills have yielded tools of
Lower Palaeolithic Acheulian industry.
o 1 to 1.5 m thick deposit of detrital laterite.
o Overlying this is 0.5 – 0.6 m thick artefact-bearing pebbly conglomerate bed supported by
matrix of silt and sand and bound by ferruginous cementing agent.
o The pebbly gravel is overlain by 3 m. of dark silt over which rests 3 m of re-deposited
gravel.
o The study conducted by A. Baptista, etc. (2018) identified 4 Litho units
o Younger most unit formed of 3 – 5 m thick alluvial fill terrace comprising dark brown
silty-clay and devoid of any evidence of calcretization.
o This unit, of Holocene origin, can be found on either bank of the Ghataprabha and
developed as an inset terrace into the underlying late Pleistocene yellowish brown sandy-
silt (1.5 m thick) rich in calcretes and occurring in isolated patches.
o Below this unit is an expansive deposit of low angle colluvial matrix based gravel (0.5 – 3
m thick) that extends for about 3 km2.

o This deposit appears to rest unconformably on the weathered sandstone and quartzite of
the Kaladgi series.
o It is reddish brown in colour comprising blocks pebbles of quartzite and ferricrete.
o This fill is poorly consolidated by ferruginous material and its matrix is dominated
by ferricrete pebbles, nodules, pellets and silty-sand, while completely devoid of
calcrete clasts.
o Morphologically, this feature seems to resemble a colluvium fan.

o Underlying this unit was the clast heavy ferruginous pebbly conglomerate (0.4 – 0.6 m
thick) which yielded Acheulian artefacts.

o Ferricrete in General – either in the form of the colluvial matrix, detrital gravels,
weathered clasts, or the cementing agent in the artefact-bearing conglomerate – has been
observed across the landscape.
o Although the region around Anagwadi can be presently classified as a semi-arid zone, this
type of ferricretisation can take place only in humid environments favouring retention of
iron rich materials and complete removal of calcium, potassium, etc. and partial removal
of silica.
o The artefact-bearing conglomerate, free from any form of calcretization is therefore a
relict feature in the present day landscape and can act as an important proxy indicative of
abundant water in the landscape promoting ferricretisation.
Dhansi Formation:
o This formation comprises red sandy silt, yellowish brown silty sand, and
medium to coarse grained yellow sand and cross-bedded fine to medium grey
sand. This formation is primarily distinguished by very high degree of
oxidation and occurrence of soil VII on it.
o It shows reverse polarity at Dhansi, mixed polarity near Chorbaretha and
naormal at Burhi Narmada Section.
o Therefore, Lower and Middle Pleistocene boundary is suggested for this
formation.
Surajkund Formation:
o This formation comprises yellow silty clay, steel grey silty clay, brownish silty
clay, brown fine sand, brown silt, gravel and conglomerate.
o It shows normal polarity of Brunhes epoch. It has been dated to Middle
Pleistocene age.
o The Homo errectus skull found at Hathnora occurs within this Formation.
Baneta Formation:
o This formation consists of calcareous brown silt and fine sand with lenses of
charcoal-bearing red slilty sand, calcareous brown silt, grey and dark grey
carbonaceous clay, coarse sand, gravel and conglomerate.
o Age Upper Pleistocene
Hirdepur Formation
o It comprises grey homogenous calcareous silts, interlayered sequence of grey
calcareous silts and sand, coarse sand, gravels and conglomerates.
o It shows less oxidation than the older formations as indicated by the colour
index. It is charectorised by grey colour, and high degree of calcification.
o Age Upper Pleistocene
Bauras Formation:
o The Bauras Formation comprises light grey to Dark grey interlayered sequence
of silt and sand, Coarse to medium sand and unconsolidated Gravel.
o Age Middle Holocence