METHODS OF FOOD

PRESERVATION
A. REMOVAL OF MICROORGANISMS
- The dust and dirt adhering to the raw material contain
microorganisms and by applying various pre-treatment/
cooking methods, number of microorganisms can be reduced
considerably. Such steps include:

1. Washing
2. Trimming ingredients
3. Discarding dirt
4. Filtering
5. Centrifugation
6. Sedimentation
B. MAINTENANCE OF ANAEROBIC CONDITIONS/PACKAGING
- Packaging food in a vacuum environment, usually in
an air-tight bag or bottle results in anaerobic environment.

- As bacteria need oxygen for survival, the vacuum

environment in the package slows down the spoilage by
them.
C. DRYING (control of water content)
- Drying is one of the oldest and the simplest method of
preserving food.
- It refers to removal of water from the food.
- Dried foods are compact and lightweight; do not
require refrigeration and last much longer than the fresh
foods.
- Dried foods should be stored in airtight containers to
prevent moisture from rehydrating them and allowing
microbial growth.
- Dried foods are preserved because the available moisture
level is so low that the microorganisms cannot grow and
enzyme activity is also controlled.
- water from the interior of the material diffuses to the
surface.
Drying Methods
1. Sun Drying- Sun-drying takes heat from sun rays but it is a
slow process involving risk of contamination and spoilage.
- The limitation for sun drying is
availability of climate with a hot sun and a dry atmosphere.
2. Mechanical/artificial drying
- the drying of foods through the use of controlled
conditions of heating, with the forced circulation of air.
- advantage because all fruits and vegetables can be
dried all year round
3. Freeze drying
- Freeze-drying is a form of dehydration in which the
product is first frozen and then water is removed under
vacuum as vapor by sublimation.
- The principle behind freeze drying is that under
certain conditions of low vapor pressure, water in the form
ice evaporates as water vapor directly without turning into
liquid phase.
- The advantage is that the food structure and
nutritional properties are better conserved but the
equipment and its maintenance is costly.
D. FOOD CONCENTRATION

- involves a preservative action of reduction in water activity

(aw) and development of osmotic pressure, which retard
the microbial growth and enzymatic reactions.

- It is usually done for many reasons like:

i. reduction in volume and weight
ii. Reduction in packaging
iii. Storage and transport costs
iv. Better microbial stability
v. convenience
Difference of Moisture Content and Water Activity
D. FOOD CONCENTRATION cont……

1. Use of High Sugar

Sugaring- a strong sugar solution about 68% or more

draws water from the microbial cells and thus, inhibits the
growth of microbes.
 Principle of Preservation by Sugar

- Sugar attracts all available water and water is

transferred from the microorganisms into the concentrated
sugar syrup. The microflora is dehydrated and cannot multiply
further.
Note….
- The critical concentration of sugar
required to prevent microbial growth varies with the type of
microorganisms and the presence of other food constituents.
- This level of water activity is sufficient to inhibit
mesophilic bacteria and yeast but does not check mold
attack.
Sugar
- may also provide an indirect form of preservation by
serving to accelerate accumulation of antimicrobial
compounds from the growth of certain other organisms.

e.g. the conversion of sugar to ethanol in wine by

fermentative yeasts or the conversion of sugar to organic
acids in sauerkraut by lactic acid bacteria.
IS LOWER CONCENTRATIONS OF SUGAR EFFECTIVE?

- maybe effective but for short duration unless the

foods contain acid or they are refrigerated.
-The critical concentration of sugar required to prevent
microbial growth varies with the type of microorganisms and
the presence of other food constituents.
IMAGES OF PRODUCTS ON HIGH SUGAR
Difference between jelly,
jam and
marmalade……….?????
PECTIN
- a natural component of fruits, forms a gel only in the
presence of sugar and acid.

- is a carbohydrate found in fruits.

- Pectin is a general term describing the group of

polysaccharides found in fruits acts as a cementing substance
between cell walls and is partially responsible for the plant’s
firmness and structure.
Pectic substances:
There are three groups: Protopectin, Pectin (pectinic
acids), Pectic acid.

Protopectin: is a large insoluble molecule found in immature

fruit As the fruit ripens, enzymes convert protopectin to the
more water-soluble pectin.
Pectin (pectinic acids): the stage of ripeness affects pectin
concentration, and it is the pectin extracted from ripe fruits
that is used to gel jams and jellies
Pectic acid: As fruits continues to ripen and becomes overripe
,all the pectin gradually turns to pectic acid When juice is
extracted from fruits, pectic substances can sometimes cause it
to cloud
 Heating also converts pectin to pectic acids by hydrolyzing
the chemical bonds holding the molecules together, causing
the texture of the fruit to become soft and eventually mushy.
Mechanisms:
- when sugar is added, pectin precipitates out and
forms insoluble fibers- this process is aided by lemon juice or
acid.
- the insoluble fibers produce a mesh-like structure that
traps the fruit juice or other liquid, much like a sponge
absorbs water. This enables a gel to form.
* Pectin molecules bind a liquid into a solid
by bonding together and forming a network that traps the
liquid in interstices
*egg box structure

* Acid is necessary for pectin to form a gel. It allows the

pectin molecules to come together and form the eggbox
structure that will entrap liquid.
2. Salting or curing
- Salting is being done in case of meat and fish
preservation since ancient times.

- Salting preserves the food by drawing moisture from

the meat through osmosis and makes it unavailable for
microbial growth and enzyme action.
- Salt’s ability to decrease water activity is thought to
be due to the ability of sodium and chloride ions to associate
with water molecules
- Osmosis works by drawing water across a cell
membrane so that both sides have an equal amount of
saltiness or salinity.
 Diffusion and Osmosis

Diffusion- is the net movement of molecules from areas of

high concentration to areas of low concentration of that
molecule.
- the movement of particles from high to low
concentration is called “moving down the concentration
gradient”
e.g. put a drop of food coloring into a glass of water and see how it
behaves……………………….?????????

Molecules will continue to diffuse like this until they reach

equilibrium, or until there are equal concentrations of that
molecule throughout the whole medium.
- This is why the food coloring particles disperse until the
water is the same color all the way through.
Osmosis - is a specialized type of diffusion that describes the
movement of water molecules.
- occurs when you have a membrane with unequal
concentrations of water molecules on either sides. Water
molecules will diffuse across the membrane until equilibrium
is reached.
What will happen if you put an egg in a water…………………..??
How about if it will be soaked in a salt water……………………..??
In a glass of water, the inside
of the egg is going to have
a lower concentration of water.
Water is going to cross the
membrane into the egg and
make it swell.

But in corn syrup or salt water,

the concentration of water is
higher inside the egg. So in this
case, water is going to leave the
egg and make it shrivel up.
TYPES OF SALTING

Assignment:

Kench Salting
Brine Salting
Dry Salting
Fermented-Salting
 Salt’s Role in the Prevention of Microbial Growth

- Salt is effective as a preservative because it reduces

the water activity of foods.
- Salt’s ability to decrease water activity is thought to
be due to the ability of sodium and chloride ions to associate
with water molecules.
- Adding salt to foods can also cause microbial cells to
undergo osmotic shock, resulting in the loss of water from the
cell and thereby causing cell death or retarded growth.
- some microorganisms, salt may limit oxygen solubility,
interfere with cellular enzymes, or force cells to expend
energy to exclude sodium ions from the cell, all of which can
reduce the rate of growth
 Salt’s Role in Fermentation to Preserve Foods
- Salt commonly plays a central role in the fermentation of
foods.
( Fermentation is a common process for preserving foods, in
which fresh foods are transformed to desirable foods that can be
preserved for longer periods of time than their fresh counterparts
due to the actions of particular types of microbes)
- fermented products owe many of their characteristics to
the action of lactic acid bacteria
- Salt favors the growth of these more salt-tolerant,
beneficial organisms while inhibiting the growth of undesirable
spoilage bacteria and fungi naturally present in these foods.
- Salt also helps to draw water and sugars out of plant
tissues during fermentation of vegetables.
- This water aids fermentation by filling any air pockets
present in fermentation vats, resulting in reduced oxygen
conditions that favor growth of lactic acid bacteria. The release of
water and sugars also promotes fermentation reactions in the
resulting brine, increasing the rate of the fermentation process
 Salt’s Role in Baked Goods
- Salt is also responsible for fermentation control and
texture in yeast-raised breads
- Salt reduces yeast activity by reducing water activity
and damaging the membrane of the yeast cells. If too much
salt is used, doughs may rise too slowly. However, if too little
is added, fermentation may proceed too quickly or “wild”
fermentations may occur, resulting in doughs that are gassy
and sour with poor texture.
- Salt can also interact with gluten, one of the major
proteins in flour responsible for the texture of baked goods,
to ease the handling of dough during processing. The result of
this interaction reduces the stickiness of the dough
Chemistry of BAKING
2 wheat proteins-
Prolamins- gliadins

Glutelins- glutenins
- are largely responsible for the elastic properties of
gluten once it is formed

Albumins and the globulins- other proteins present in flour

The formation and properties of gluten

- gluten does not exist as such in the wheat grain or the

flour milled from it.
BUT
- formed through…….

- hydration of the proteins with water and the input of

energy to the flour–water mixture are the key factors that
contribute to the formation of gluten.

*the viscoelastic nature of gluten plays a critical role in the

development of the cellular structures that characterize bread
and fermented products.
Starch- a carbohydrate which also contained in the
endosperm

- In the manufacture of bread, the function of starch is

mostly concerned with the absorption of water, which leads
to swelling as the temperature rises, particularly during
baking.

The absorption of water by the starch, and the input of heat,

encourages a process referred to as gelatinisation.
- During the absorption of water, the starch granules
swell and the bonds holding the polymers together begin to
weaken.
- Thus, the process of gelatinisation of starch granules
may be seen as the progression from a relatively ordered
structure to a totally amorphous one.
The role of sugar in baking
Fats

Bread and fermented goods

- Stabilization of gas bubbles incorporated into the
dough, which leads to improvement to the gas-retention
properties of the dough

- Inhibition of gas-bubble coalescence, which leads to

finer (smaller cell size) crumb structure in the baked product

- A contribution to crumb softness at higher levels of

addition.
 Cakes
- Enhancement of air incorporation during batter
preparation
- Inhibition of gas-bubble coalescence, which leads to
finer (smaller cell size) crumb structure in the baked product
- A contribution to crumb softness at higher levels of
addition
 Laminated products
- Improvements to product lift by slowing down the
diffusion of steam between dough layers.

Biscuits and cookies

- Contribution to biscuit aeration

Pastries
- A reduction in moisture migration in composite pastry
products (Cauvain and Young, 2000)
FAT AS SHORTENING
ACTION OF FAT ON AIR
BUBBLES
Leaveners
Leavening is the production or incorporation of gases in a
baked product to increase volume and to produce shape and
crumb texture.

Leavening agents is a term used to indicate a source of gas

that causes a dough or batter to rise or spring.

Three types of leavening agents in baking; water, yeast, and

chemicals (Harold, C., et. al., )

Hard wheat flour- used in bread,

-is usually leavened with yeast because of the
protein content and gluten formation.

soft wheat flours- used in products like cakes

-is usually leavened with chemical leavens
Yeast and chemical leaveners are used independently, but
occasionally a combined system provides the desired result.

e.g. -saltine crackers and pretzels

- undergo yeast fermentation, but the primary
reason is to generate flavor and dough conditioning.
- The subsequent sheeting action removes much
of the gas that is generated, and chemical leavens are
required to provide lift during the bake.
Chemical Leaveners

Chemical leavening systems produce C02 by one of two

means: (1) chemical decomposition through the application
of heat or (2) a reaction of an acid with a base.
Baking powder- comprises a mixture of (usually) sodium
bicarbonate and a food-grade acid used to provide a source of
carbon dioxide gas.
Biological Leaveners

Yeast
- Baker’s yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is used to
produce carbon dioxide in the manufacture of bread, rolls and
other fermented products.

Fermentation is the process by which yeast acts on sugars, which

can be added sugar or sugar produced by enzymatic hydrolysis of
wheat starch, and changes them into carbon dioxide gas and
alcohol.

The optimum temperature for fermentation lies between

27 and 38°C; yeast ferments best at 35°C (Schunemann and Treu
1984).
During
processing, doughs are traditionally proofed, or
allowed to ferment twice. This not only results in an
increase in dough volume, but also develops characteristic
fermented-yeast favors.

As yeast ferments, it forms a number of compounds including

organic acids, alcohols, aldehydes, esters, and ketones.
compounds generated during fermentation act as dough
conditioners and increase dough extensibility by relaxing the
gluten.

Using yeast in bakery products has two main advantages, a

distinctive flavor and dough conditioning.

Using certain ingredients in excess-such as the salt that is added

for flavor-may limit yeast growth.
Enzymes

- Enzymes are proteins with very specific functions that

are found widespread in nature.
- commonly used to; to modify dough rheology in the
manufacture of pastry and biscuits, to change product
softness in cake making, and for the reduction of acrylamide
formation in bakery products.

e.g.- Alpha-amylases- used to improve the gas-retention

properties of fermented dough.
- also an anti-staling effect.
Proteolytic enzymes- Their action is on the proteins of
wheat flour: they reduce gluten elasticity and thereby reduce
dough or paste shrinkage after moulding and sheeting.
baked-product structures may be described as being sponges:
that is, they have a cellular structure composed of solid
material – the cell walls – through which are interspersed air
spaces – the cells.
The formation of cellular structures

2 mechanisms in the formation of the foam:

1. based on the formation of a protein network
2. relies on the presence of fats and emulsifiers

- In both cases the foam is created through the

incorporation of small bubbles of air which must remain
trapped and stable within the dough or batter.
How cell-structures in baked-product are formed?
- underlies on the relationship between the gases that
are encountered in the dough or batter.

- The air bubbles that are mixed into the dough or

batter are comprised of a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen.
- nitrogen remains chemically inert but plays a
major physical role in breadmaking.
- oxygen in the air bubble plays a lesser role in
the production of cakes.

- carbon dioxide- third gas that enters the dough

system
 - In baking, carbon dioxide cannot form a gas bubble of
its own and would normally escape to the surrounding
atmosphere.

- However, the air bubbles that are trapped in the

dough or batter provide nucleating sites for the carbon
dioxide and the diffusion of the gas into the bubbles provides
the basis for expansion that is seen in fermentation and
baking.
THE PEARSON SQUARE

- The Pearson square is a method that processors can

use to calculate the amounts of two components that should
be mixed together to give a final known concentration.

- For example, it can be used to calculate the amounts

of fruit pulp and sugar to make a jam.
Example: You wish to produce a fruit jam with a final sugar
content of 68%. The only available ingredients is Apple puree
with 15% sugar and mixed sugar with 100% conc.

Example: Determine the two types of meat that must be

blended together to give a desired fat content 0f 30%. Cow
meat consisting if 10% fat and 25% pork fat.

Example: you wish to develop a protein rich meal with 14%

protein content. The available ingredients are Soybean
powder with 45% determined protein content and Powder
fish meal with 10% protein.
E. THERMAL PROCESSING or Heat Processing
- application of heat
- inactivates enzymes
- Kill microorganisms. Most bacteria are killed in the
range 82-93°c. Spores are not
destroyed even by boiling water at 100°c for 30 min.
- To ensure sterility (total microbial destruction,
including spores), a temperature of 121°c must be maintained
for 15 min or longer.
E. THERMAL PROCESSING cont……
a. Heat Processing using steam or water
Blanching, Pasteurization, Heat Sterilization, extrusion

b. Heat processing using hot air

Dehydration, Baking and Roasting

c. Heat processing using hot oils

Frying
d. Heat processing by direct and radiated energy
dielctric, ohmic, infrared
a. Heat Processing using steam or water

Blanching- to destroy enzyme activity in many vegetables and

fruits, prior to further processing.
- Not a sole method of preservation; A pre-treatment
- mild heat treatment (90C) for few minutes
principles- Blanching removes trapped air (e.g., in
broccoli florets) and metabolic gases within vegetable cells
and replaces them with water, forming a semi continuous
water phase that favors a more uniform crystal growth during
freezing.
Types: Steam and water blanching
Steam Blanchers
Normally food material carried on a mesh belt or
rotatory cylinder through a steam atmosphere, residence
time controlled by speed of the conveyor or rotation.
- Often poor uniformity of heating in the multiple layers
of food, so attaining the required time-temperature at the
center results in overheating of outside layers.
Hot Water Blanchers
- Includes various designs which hold the food in hot
water (70 to 100°C) for a specified time, then moves it to a
dewatering/cooling section.
- In blanchers of this type the food enters a slowly
rotating drum, partially submerged in the hot water.
Pasteurization
- Pasteurization is a relatively mild heat treatment in
which food is heated to <100°C.
- As unit operation in food processing it can be used to
destroy enzymes and relatively heat sensitive micro-
organisms (e.g. non spore forming bacteria, yeast and
moulds). In this regard is it used to extend shelf life by several
days e.g. milk or months e.g. bottled fruit.
Different methods of pasteurization

Low Temperature Long Time (LTLT) Pasteurization- the

temperatures used for pasteurization are reduced to 63°C and
held for 30 minutes.

High-temperature short-time (HTST): typical conditions of

71.5oC and hold for at least 15 sec before cooled to 10C

Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT): 138oC for at least 2 seconds;

extreme pasteurization that kills all microorganisms for
keeping milk in a closed, sterile container at room
temperature
Heat Sterilization
- Unlike pasteurized products where the survival of
heat resistant microorganisms is accepted, the aim of
sterilization is the destruction of all bacteria including their
spores.

- Relatively long shelf-life (i.e., more than six months) in

a hermetically sealed container without other supplementary
preservation measures.
Extrusion
- is the process by which a block/billet of metal is
reduced-in cross section by forcing it to flow through a die
orifice under high pressure.
F. COLD PROCESSING (removal of heat)
- Lowering temperature of food
- Decreases the rate of enzymatic, chemical and
microbial reactions in food.
- Storage life is extended
E. RADIATION
- ionizing radiation
- inactivate microorganisms in food
- destroy storage pests
- Inactive enzymes

Various methods
- Infrared radiation
- Ultraviolet radiation
F. ATMOSPHERE COMPOSITION
- removal of oxygen
- inhibits O2-dependant enzymatic and chemical
reactions
- inhibits growth of aerobic microorganisms

Various methods are

a. Paraffin wax
b. Nitrogen backflushed bags (e.g. potato chips)
c. controlled atmosphere
d. vacuum packaging of fresh food (cured meats)
G. FERMENTATION
- specific microorganisms are used (starter cultures)
- facilitates desirable chemical changes
- produce acids, alcohol that will prevent growth of
undesirable microorganisms
- produce antimicrobial substances
H. ADDITION OF CHEMICALS
Various chemicals uses are-
a. Organic acids (acetic, citric, tartaric acid)
b. Inorganic acids (HCl, phosphori acids)
c. Antimicrobial agents
a. Sodium propionate (mold inhibitor)
b. Sodium benzoate (antibacterial)
c. Sugar and salts (high concentrations)
I. SMOKING
- • Contains preservative chemicals (eg. formaldehyde)
from the burning wood
• Heat also helps destroy microorganisms
• Heat dries the food