Edible Forest Garden: Permaculture For The Great Lakes Bioregion, by Jay Tomczak

Edible Forest Garden
Permaculture
For the Great Lakes Bioregion
Background, Development and Future Plans for

The Michigan State University Student Organic Farm
Edible Forest Garden
Prepared by
Jay Tomczak
As part of the requirements for the

Masters of Science degree in Horticulture
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI 48824
Copyright Protected – Not to be reproduced without the permission of the Author
“We are not working with nature, we are nature working.”

This project was supported in part by the USDA Risk Management Agency.
The support is gratefully acknowledged.
Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 1

Table of Contents
Topic Page No.

Title Page 1
Table of Contents 2
Preface 3
Introduction 4
Section 1 Background Information and Literature Review 12
Agroforestry 12
Permaculture 15
Edible Forest Gardens and Multistrata Homegardens 19
Common Design Principles for Temperate Climates 21
Ecosystem Benefits 24
Literature Cited 27
Section 2 Development of the MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden 31
Plot Description 31
Design Process 32
Implementation and Cultural Practices 37
Plant Material Sources and Costs 44
Final Plant List and Figures for MSU SOF EFG 46
Section 3 Management and Maintenance Plan for the MSU SOF EFG 52
Season Plan 52
Long Term Plan 53
Section 4 MSU SOF EFG Pest Management 56
Principles 56
Practices 57
Considerations for Some Common Pests 59
Additional Literature 60
EFG Summary 62
Appendices 63
Frequently Asked Questions about the MSU Edible Forest Garden 64
EFG Permaculture Resources 69
Examples of Permaculture 56
Cultivar Plant List and Map 72
Site Evaluation for the SOF by Mark Shepard 75
Successional Brushland and Oak Savanna by Mark Shepard 83
End 95

Preface
About the time I was working with students to develop the ideas and plans for the MSU
Student Organic Farm, I was working with an off campus faith community to build a meditation and
prayer labyrinth. When walking the completed labyrinth, it was obvious that I had a hard time
slowing down – not unlike the challenge people have when it comes to slowing down for meals and
to consider “where food comes from”. Somewhere during the walking and meditating, the picture
of a food labyrinth garden worked up to the surface - concentric circular paths with gardens in
between for walkers to experience and savor the flavor.
The plot that eventually became the Student Organic Farm Edible Forest Garden was
covered in straw and wood shaving bedding for sheet composting with a food labyrinth image in
mind. I had watched the newly planted cherry trees that were part of the last experiment on that
plot struggle in the heavy clay subsoil. I had also watched the rapid growth of my own newly
planted fruit trees at home in the site I had prepared with sheet composting for two years prior to
planting. The soil was fed first, and the quack grass was given the opportunity to become soil
organic matter of a different kind.
The Edible Forest Garden that Jay Tomczak and helpers created on the site far exceeds any
picture I ever conjured in my head. While the planting is just over a year old, it is an incredible
collection of plant material with an inviting and creative layout. It is indeed an inviting food
labyrinth. Not concentric rings, but paths and pockets, spaces and guilds that will take years to
develop. It captures the imagination of most everyone that hears about it or walks through it.
If you need to see your food crops in straight lines and well protected from the competition
of other plants, you probably won’t readily understand or appreciate the Edible Forest Garden.
There is going to be a lot of competition, likely too much for some crops. But the garden is an
experiment. Not a traditional replicated and statistically valid experiment. It is however an
experiment that hopefully will nurture more questions than it answers. What happens when the soil
is not regularly tilled? Can apples or peaches on dwarfing root stocks produce fruit in this
environment? Will the predators and the “pests” stay in balance? The SOF EFG is a chance to put
many different ideas together and to see what happens over time.
Jay Tomczak came to the SOF as an undergraduate in Fisheries and Wildlife Management
and equally importantly as one of many students in the RISE specialization (Residential Initiative
for Study of the Environment). While knowledgeable and mostly self taught about survival skills,
wild edible plants, and “peak oil” issues, Jay had not yet experienced much horticulture or
permaculture. During his time at the SOF, his highly motivated self learning style, together with
mentoring from Laurie, Michelle, Emily, Jeremy and Corie, he worked to understand the Student
Organic Farm and help manage it. He also quickly became a wealth of information about
permaculture and edible forest gardening. Through his effort, Mark Sheppard and David Jacke came
to the SOF and became his mentors. He is now regarded as one of the key permaculture resource
people in Michigan.
One of the goals of the SOF is to invite people to think more about the food they eat and the
farmers who grow it. Another is to foster diversity. Jay has helped create a space that will serve
those functions for many years to come. Enjoy his summary of edible forest gardening and the story
of how it happened at the MSU-SOF.
John Biernbaum, Professor of Horticulture and SOF Co-Advisor July 2007

Introduction
This project began as more than just a Horticulture Masters of Science thesis project. In my
earliest memories as a child I had a devoted interest in edible native plant species which was
strongly encouraged by my parents. While many youth my age were focused on athletic pursuits, I
began intensively studying the indigenous skills of hunter-gatherers and dreamed of being able to
cut the umbilical cord of society and live free in my native ecosystem.
While studying Fisheries and Wildlife Management at Michigan State University I became
interested in local and global community food security. I came to the realization that I was part of
an ecological community that is in danger of becoming vanquished by improper earth stewardship
and that humanity is a vital part of that community. Recognizing that with 6.6 billion people in the
world we could not all be hunter-gatherers nor would that be desirable, I began a very personal
search for humanity's ecologically sustainable niche within the biosphere. While working with an
anthropologist named Kevin Finney I learned about the polyculture practices of indigenous peoples
and felt that the answers lay somewhere within the realm of a sustainable agriculture.
It was near the end of my undergraduate studies that I joined the MSU Student Organic
Farm (SOF) and instantly felt affirmation. Despite all of humanity's technological advances and
disconnect from the earth, we are still an “agrarian” society completely dependent on agriculture.
While working and studying with John Biernbaum and the SOF I began graduate studies focused on
permaculture. It seemed like the perfect balance. Permaculture is based on the premise that a stable,
sustainable culture cannot exist without an integrated relationship with a system of sustainable
agriculture. “We are not working with nature, we are nature working.” This realization has become
a guiding force on my path. The MSU Edible Forest Garden is the culmination of my last three
years of studies and searching.
The report that follows is intended as a resource for students at the Student Organic Farm,
for students at other college and university based food system projects, and for farmers and urban
gardeners interested in pursuing permaculture and the edible forest garden as either a commercial
production or personal use food production method. While the Section 1 Review of Literature
provides the background information in agroecology and permaculture, it does not include
information about two key factors that provide a motivation for the edible forest garden. Over the
last three years I spent great effort learning about the issues of food security and fossil fuel
depletion. Before addressing the edible forest garden, I would like to briefly address these very
important motivations.
Food Security. For me, developing an understanding of permaculture started with attempting
to understand the state of food security and the limiting factors regulating the current food system.
All species on earth require energy (e.g. solar) and resources (e.g. renewable and non-renewable) to
exist and thrive and it is the supply of vital limiting resources that regulate population growth.
The threat of hunger has been a persistent problem for humanity, and today with great surpluses of
food being produced globally, it is the restricted access to this food that plagues many poor
communities (Caraher et al 1998). More recently, some of the most well fed members of our society
are waking up to the vulnerabilities of their fossil fuel dependent meals and realizing that they too,
may soon face the realities of a food insecure world (Genauer 2006). After the inadequacy of the
industrial food system in achieving food security amidst agricultural abundance, many community
decision makers and informed citizens are realizing that a new holistic approach to food security
must be implemented (Allen 1999). Giving people food does not make a food secure community.
Creating appropriate social networks and empowering people economically is what makes a
community food secure (Delind 1994, Wekerle 2004).
The modern industrial food system converts cheap, abundant fossil fuel energy into
agricultural commodities (e.g. corn and soy). These commodities must then be heavily processed or
converted into animal food products and distributed throughout the global market before eventually
being consumed by people. This industrialized food system has traditionally focused on producing
as much food as possible, as cheaply as possible (Pollen 2006). Under traditional economic doctrine
it is believed that if massive amounts of cheap food are produced, hunger will disappear. Access to
and consumption of this food has been dealt with as a separate issue (Allen 1999). Because this
system inadequately provides access to nutritious food for low income communities, emergency
food programs based on the charity model, such as food banks, soup kitchens, food stamps and
Women Infant and Children programs (WIC) have proliferated. These charitable food organizations
are essential for responding to actual short term food emergencies. This system is inadequate
because these organizations (mainly private) are depended on to supply the long term food needs of
people in chronic poverty. Demand for this emergency food has continued to grow rapidly since the
1980's. This rise in demand for emergency food programs is attributed to the impact of large federal
cutbacks in food assistance programs and the assault on the welfare state by the Reagan and Bush
administrations (Poppendieck 1994). These programs do not adequately provide food security,
because the clients have no legal, enforceable rights to the food being provided, it is heavily
dependent on volunteers and donations, there is no mechanism for determining the location and
availability of such programs and the availability of quality food is very unreliable. Often, the
disproportional ability of minority groups to access food is not appropriately addressed. These
programs are being perpetuated due to the undermining of the welfare state (i.e. Society has become
accustomed to discretionary giving as an acceptable way to combat hunger) and the diverting of
energy of food advocacy organizations away from more considerable advances in combating hunger
and poverty (Poppendieck 1994).
The community food security and food justice movements are developing in response to the
insensibility of perpetuating emergency food programs that are responding to a never ending
emergency (Poppendieck 1994). This justice model is developing as a social movement that is
relocalizing food systems and disconnecting them from corporate control (Wekerle 2004). This is
being done buy addressing the issues from a holistic perspective on multiple scales. Advocates are
paying greater attention to regulations and policies at the federal and state level as well as the local
ordinances. Food security is being re-framed as part of a democratic and just society. Grassroots
organizations are working together with communities to reconnect them mentally, physically and
politically with their food system and their food culture. These movements are focusing on civil
society as a space for organizing policy and practices (Delind 1994, Wekerle 2004). Some
important elements are programs that allow:
z Low-income family's access to fresh, quality food (e.g. project fresh)
z Rezoning neighborhoods for community gardens which provide space for food procurement
and social networking around food culture
z Facilitating the creation of new farmers markets
z Connecting communities with small farmers and CSA's (community supported agriculture)
Placing food procurement and the sharing of local resources at the center of community life builds
and empowers communities. This will not replace emergency food programs, but rather allow them
to be used for emergencies, not long term food procurement. This frees up the energy of many food
advocacy organizations to work toward a more sustainable food system (Delind 1994).
The principles of the permaculture philosophy can be used as a framework for developing
social, economic and ecological sustainability in a food insecure community. From its conception,
permaculture has had a strong emphasis on developing relationships between communities and
agriculture for the purpose of creating a stable, secure, localized food system. Permaculture systems
seek to amend the vulnerability and destructiveness of the modern industrial food system
(Holmgren 2002). Permaculture food systems make efficient use of energy, labor and material
resources and maximize synergistic relationships and yield. Establishing increased food security in
a community requires a holistic approach. A food system can not be sustained in isolation and needs
to be integrated with a network of social, economic and environmentally sustainable practices.
Fossil Fuel Dependence. Aside from issues of food access affecting low income
communities, some food system vulnerabilities that affect food security for global society are fossil
fuel dependences. The major limiting resources regulating the current food system are non-
renewable fossil fuels which will soon become increasingly scarce and expensive. This dependence
is a threat to food security and future food supply. For most of the last 10,000 years, agriculture has
had balanced energy and nutrient cycles, which appropriated the solar energy harnessed by
photosynthesis (Chancellor and Goss 1976, Smil 1991). Taking advantage of cultural practices such
as crop rotations, green manures and draft animals allowed for humanity to live within the
regenerative capacity of the biosphere (Bender 2001, Wackernagel et al 2002). The current food
system can be viewed as a system that converts non-renewable fossil fuel energy into food (Heller
and Keoleian 2000, Pimentel and Giampletro 1994). Currently about 10 to 15 calories of fossil fuel
energy are used to create 1 calorie of food and although it only uses about 17% of the U.S. annual
energy budget it is the single largest consumer of petroleum products when compared to any other
industry. It requires about 1,500 liters of oil equivalents to feed each American per year
(Hendrickson 1996). As long as the energy resources are cheap and abundant the inefficiencies are
unimportant, however dependence on finite resources is quite a vulnerability when those resources
become scarce (Gever et al 1991).
The U.S. food system has had three main periods of change which have brought it to the
current condition of fossil fuel dependence (Gever et al 1991). The first was the expansionist period
occurring between around 1900 and 1920. In this period, increases in food production were a factor
of putting more land into production, with no real breakthroughs in technology. The second was the
intensification period, also called the “green revolution” which occurred between around 1920 and
1970. In this period technological advances allowed for the exploitation of cheap abundant fossil
fuel energy resulting in a seven fold increase in productivity (output per worker hour). Farm
machinery, pesticides, herbicides, irrigation, new hybrid crops and synthetic fertilizers allowed for
the doubling and tripling of crop production and the corresponding growth of the human population
(Gever et al 1991, Ruttan 1999). We are currently in the saturation period of agriculture
characterized by greater amounts of energy required to produce smaller increases in crop yield (i.e.
the ratio of crop output to energy input is diminishing). An ever growing amount of energy is
expended just to maintain the productivity of the current system; for example about 10% of the
energy in agriculture is used just to offset the negative effects of soil erosion and increasing
amounts of pesticides must be sprayed each year as pests develop resistance to them (Gever et al
1991, Pimentel and Giampletro 1994).
Aside from being dependent on non-renewable resources, agriculture is also rapidly
diminishing the ability of vital “renewable” resources to regenerate (Pimentel and Giampletro 1994,
Wackernagel et al 2002). Of these resources water and topsoil (humus) are most limiting. Water
scarcity associated with agriculture is typically a regional issue. In the western U.S. the Colorado
River has had so much water diverted from it that it no longer reaches the ocean and the great
Ogallala aquifer is being overdrawn at 130 to 160% its recharge rate (Pimentel and Giampletro
1994). Other problems are the vast amount of pollution associated with agricultural runoff, which
degrade aquatic ecosystems and create dead zones in the ocean (Matthews and Hammond 1999).
Approximately 90% of U.S. agricultural lands are losing topsoil above sustainable rates (1t/ha/yr)
due to erosion and the application of synthetic fertilizers actively promotes soil degradation (Gever
et al 1991, Pimentel and Giampletro 1994). Other considerations are the loss of biodiversity due to
clearing land for large monocrops as well as agricultures contribution to global climate change by
way of its CO2 and methane by products (Pirog et al 2001, Wackernagel et al 2002).
The food system is currently dependent on fossil fuels for powering irrigation pumps,
petroleum based pesticides and herbicides, mechanization for both crop production and food
processing, fertilizer production, maintenance of animal operations, crop storage and drying and for
the transportation of farm inputs and outputs. Of these fossil fuel dependences, some are more
easily overcome than others (Ruttan 1999). It has been estimated that 95% of all food products
require the use of oil at some point in the production process. For example, just to farm a single cow
and deliver it to market requires the equivalent of 6 barrels of oil (Lucas et al 2006). Due to their
current necessity, dependence on synthetic nitrogen fertilizer and the long distance transport of farm
inputs and outputs are two outlying limiting factors that exemplify the vulnerability of the current
food system and therefore require further analysis (Smil 1991, Pirog et al 2001).
In terms of its necessity for the existence of a large portion of the global population, the
most important invention of the 20th century is the Haber-Bosch process for the synthesis of
nitrogen fertilizer. Nitrogen accounts for 80% of volume of atmospheric gas but it is in a non-
reactive form that is not readily available to plants, making it the main limiting factor for global
crop production and human growth. It is a vital component of chlorophyll, amino acids, nucleic
acids, proteins and enzymes. Synthetic N is responsible for raising crop yields approximately 35 to
50% over the last half century accounting for 80% of the increase in cereal crops, without which
much of the population would not exist (Smil 1991).
For most of human existence N fixation (i.e. the splitting of N2 to form Ammonia) was
limited to bacteria (primarily Rhizobium). With the invention of the Haber-Bosch process in 1913
humans began domination of the N cycle (Smil 1991). This process is extremely energy intensive
requiring the reaction of 1 mole of nitrogen gas with 3 moles of hydrogen gas under temperatures of
approximately 400°C and pressures of approximately 200 atmospheres (Marx 1974). This accounts
for 30% of the energy expenditures in agriculture. The hydrogen gas for this process comes almost
exclusively from natural gas which is considered as a feedstock and not factored in as part of the
energy expenditure (Hendrickson 1996). It is also possible to get the required hydrogen from the
electrolysis of water but this requires more energy, making it an unfavorable alternative at this time
(Gilland 1983). Natural gas currently accounts for 90% of the monetary cost of N fertilizer (Wenzel
2004).
Other obstacles associated with N fertilizer are production capacity, transport, storage,
application and N saturation. Crops only absorb about half of the nitrogen they are exposed to,
much of the rest runs off the fields with water flow, saturating the environment and polluting
aquatic ecosystems (Matthews and Hammond 1999, Smil 1991). Between 1950 and 1989 fertilizer
use increased by a factor of 10 and it has since had continued growth. In developed nations much of
that use produces animal feed which is converted into more animal product consumption. However,
in lesser developed parts of the world such as Asia which currently accounts for 50% of fertilizer
use, crop yield for direct human consumption has been increased (Matthews and Hammond 1999).
In many developing countries access to fertilizer and proper application are still often a limit to crop
production (Hardy and Havelka 1975).
Although synthetic nitrogen fertilizer and its dependence on natural gas is a major limiting
factor of the industrialized food system, perhaps the greatest vulnerability is the dependence on the
transportation system for farm inputs and outputs; for example fertilizer is of little value if it can not
be effectively delivered to where it is needed (Hardy and Havelka 1975, Heller and Keoleian 2000,
Pirog et al 2001). In the U.S. long distance food transportation is often a luxury, providing us with
“fresh” produce and seafood from exotic places at any time of year (Gever et al 1991). The mean
distance U.S. food travels is now estimated at 1,546 miles but this distance varies greatly depending
on the food item (Pirog et al 2001). One of the primary reasons for this, is that 90% of the fresh
vegetables consumed in the U.S. are grown in the San Juaquin Valley, California (Heller and
Keoleian 2000).
Although the transport of food uses a relatively small amount of the U.S. energy budget, it is
important to realize that it is a vulnerability for food security (i.e. many communities do not have
the infrastructure to produce even non-luxury food items). Currently 6 to 12% of the food dollar is
spent to account for transportation costs, however U.S. tax dollars heavily subsidize highway
maintenance and the oil industry so the true cost is much greater (Hendrickson 1996). Considering
the importance of long distance transportation to our food supply, the cost of food and the security
of our food supply is very dependent on the cost and availability of oil (Gever et al 1991, Lucas et
al 2006).
Fossil Fuel Depletion. The fossil fuels which are most important to the food system are oil
and natural gas. Both of these are finite resources and therefore began being depleted the moment
humans started using them. When graphed over time, production (synonymous with extraction) of
these resources follows a bell shaped curve. The high quality easily produced (cheap) resource is
produced first (on the up slope), followed by a peak or plateau in production, then the progressively
harder to extract lower quality (expensive) resource is produced on the down slope of the curve
(Bently 2002, Campbell 2004, Gever et al 1991). When peak production occurs we know that
roughly half of the resource remains, however much of it will never be produced because it
becomes to energy intensive (expensive) to do so (i.e. it takes increasingly more energy to produce
increasingly less energy and when that ratio (energy profit ratio) reaches 1, it is no longer an energy
source, it is an energy sink). This model for resource depletion is what is known as Hubberts peak
(Gever et al 1991). The production of all conventional hydrocarbons will soon begin to decline and
supply shortages will be inevitable (Bentley 2002, Campbell 2004).
Global natural gas reserves are difficult to assess relative to that of oil due to lack of reliable
data, however we do know that the majority of gas left to extract is in the middle east and Russia
(Bentley 2002). Global gas reserves are also somewhat less of a viable supply than regional reserves
because of the cost and limited capacity to transport gas by ship. To transport gas over the ocean it
must first be liquefied and shipped in tankers designed especially for this purpose, and then brought
to regasification facilities of which there is limited capacity. All of these steps lower the energy
profit ratio. All of the worlds 156 gas tankers are currently under long term contract. World ship
building capacity is 20 ships/year and the U.S. has ordered 18 ships for delivery by 2008 (Duffin
2004).
Understanding the regional gas supply is important because gas is most easily transported by
pipeline. U.S. gas production peaked in 1973 and production has remained relatively constant for
the last two decades (Paris 2004). More recently new wells have been progressively smaller and
now average 56% depletion in the first year. Over the last few years drilling has increased while
production has declined. The demand for gas is projected to increase 50% by 2020 and the U.S.
known reserves are expected to last less than 8 years (Duffin 2004). Global natural gas production is
expected to peak within the next 20 years and with a 2% decline in North American gas production,
supply is expected to fall short of projected demand by around 2008 (Bentley 2002, Duffin 2004).
U.S. oil production peaked in 1971, however unlike natural gas, oil is more easily
transported, which makes understanding global production important (Bentley 2002). The peak of
onventional global oil production is expected to occur sometime this decade and many experts
believe we may have already reached a production plateau (Bentley 2002, Gever et al 1991, Pirog et
al 2001). Part of how peak oil production is estimated is by knowing the peak of oil discovery, since
more oil can not be produced than is discovered (Ivanhoe 1997).
Global oil discoveries peaked back in 1962 and have declined steadily ever since (Bentley
2002). We now consume approximately 5 barrels of oil for every new barrel discovered each year,
using increasingly more of our reserves from past discoveries (Ivanhoe 1997). The trend that is
perhaps most discouraging is the dramatic drop and progressive decline in the energy profit ratio
since the 1970's (Gever et al 1991). Demand for oil is growing at 2-3% per year, while production is
declining at an average of 4-6% per year (Lucas et al 2006). These trends indicate that if we
continue on our current consumption path we will soon experience fossil fuel supply shortages.
It is time that we leave behind the saturation period of agriculture and develop a new more
efficient and ecologically sustainable food system. Permaculture provides a potential framework for
developing this food system.
This publication has been organized and prepared with the intent of providing a valuable
resource for the continued development and implementation of the SOF EFG as well as for future
farmers and urban gardeners seeking to apply the concepts of temperate edible forest garden
permaculture. There is still so much to learn, but following is a short summary of several years
effort. Please refer to the Table of Contents for a summary of the topics and organization.
I want to thank my parents and all those wonderful souls that helped guide me during those
pivotal junctions of this path.
namaste
Jay Tomczak
July, 2007

Introduction Literature Cited
Allen, P. 1999. Reweaving the food security safety net: mediating entitlement and entrepreneurship.
Agriculture and Human Values. 16:117-129.
Bender, M. 2001. Energy in agriculture and society: insights from sunshine farm. The Land
Institute. http://www.landinstitute.org/vnews/display.v/ART/2001/03/28/3accb0712
Bentley, R.W. 2002. Global oil and gas depletion: an overview. Energy Policy. 30:189-205.
Campbell, C.J. 2004. Oil and gas production profiles. Association for the Study of Peak Oil and
Gas. http://www.aspo-global.org
Caraher, M. et al. 1998. Access to healthy foods: part I. Barriors to accessing healthy foods:
differentials by gender, social class, income and mode of transport. Health Education
Journal. 57:191-201.
Chancellor, W.J. and J.R. Gross. 1976. Balancing energy and food production, 1975- 2000. Science,
New Series. 192:213-218.
Delind, L.B. 1994. Celebrating hunger in Michigan: a critique of an emergency food program and
an alternative for the future. Agriculture and Human Values. 11:58-68.
Duffin, M. 2004. The energy challenge 2004: natural gas. Energy Pulse.
http://www.energypulse.net/centers/article/article_display.cfm?a_id=828
Genauer, E. 2006. Peak oil and community food security. Communities: Journal of Cooperative
Living. Issue 130.
Gever, J., et al. 1991. Beyond oil: the threat to food and fuel in the coming decades, third edition.
University Press Colorado. Denver. p.351
Gilland, B. 1983. Considerations on world population and food supply. Population and
Development Review. 9:203-211.
Hardy, R.W.F. and U.D. Havelka.1975. Nitrogen fixation research: a key to world food?
Science. 188:633-643.
Heller, M.C. and G. A. Keoleian. 2000. Life cycle-based sustainability indicators for assessment of
the U.S. food system. Center for Sustainable Systems: University of Michigan. Report No.
CSS00-04.
Hendrickson, J. 1996. Energy use in the U.S. food system: a summary of existing research and
analysis. Center for Integrated Agricultural Systems, UW-Madison.
http://www.cias.wisc.edu/pdf/energyuse2.pdf

Holmgren, D. 2002. Permaculture: principles and pathways beyond sustainability. Holmgren
Design Services. Victoria. p.286.
Ivanhoe, L.F. 1997. Get ready for another oil shock. The Futurist.
http://www.allbusiness.com/professional-scientific/scientific-research/601959-1.html
Lucas, C., A, Jones and C. Hines. 2006. Fueling a food crisis: the impact of peak oil on food
security. The Greens, European Free Alliance in the European Parliament.
http://www.carolinelucasmep.org.uk/news/PeakOilFood_191206.htm
Marx, J.L. 1974. Nitrogen fixation: research efforts intensify. Science. 185:132-136.
Matthews, E. and A. Hammond. 1999. Critical consumption trends and implications degrading
earths ecosystems. World Resources Institute.
http://business.wri.org/pubs_description.cfm?PubID=2997
Paris, J. 2005. Natural gas depletion and what it will mean this winter. Daily Kos.
http://www.dailykos.com/
Pimentel, D. and M. Giampletro. 1994. Food, land, population and the U.S. economy. Carrying
Capacity Network. http://dieoff.org/page55.htm
Pirog, R., et al. 2001. Food, fuel, and freeways: an Iowa perspective on how far food travels, fuel
usage, and greenhouse gas emissions. Leopold Center.
http://www.leopold.iastate.edu/pubs/staff/ppp/index.htm
Pollen, M. 2006. The Omnivores dilemma: a natural history of four meals. The Penguin Press. New
York. p. 464.
Poppendieck, J. 1994. Dilemmas of emergency food: a guide for the perplexed. Agriculture and
Human Values. 11:69-76.
Ruttan, V.W. 1999. The transition to agricultural sustainability. Proceedings from the National
Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. 96:5960-5967.
Smil, V. 1991. Population growth and nitrogen: an exploration of a critical existential link.
Population and Development Review. 17:569-601.
Wackernagel, M., et al. 2002. Tracking the ecological overshoot of the human economy.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. 99:9266-9271.
Wekerle, G.R. 2004. Food justice movements: policy, planning, and networks. Journal of Planning
Education and Research. 23:378-386.
Wenzel, W. 2004. U.S. farm bureau sounds alarm on natural gas. Farm Industry News.
http://farmindustrynews.com/news/Farm-Bureau-natural-gas-092204/

Section 1
Background Information and Literature Review
Introduction
The Michigan State University Student Organic Farm Edible Forest Garden (MSU EFG)
project is based on the literature and practices of agroforestry and permaculture. The garden is an
integrated perennial polyculture system that incorporates perennial and annual plants for
agricultural production. The term polyculture refers to the practice of growing a number of crop
species on the same land at the same time. The term perennial refers to a plant species which lives
for more than two years (Whitefield 2004). The term integrated refers to the varied combination of
factors and relationships that make up such systems. The objective of this literature review is to
provide background information on the disciplines of agroforestry and permaculture and detail
about the horticultural principles of these disciplines applied to the MSU EFG.
Agroforestry
Agroforestry is a multiple land use strategy, which as a system attempts to overcome social
and environmental problems (Budd et al 1990). It requires two or more crops (at least one being a
tree), has two or more outputs and has a production cycle of more than one year (Elevitch and
Wilkinson 2001). Besides providing useful products for people, many of the practices restore
degraded lands, make more efficient use of natural resources, are culturally compatible, more
economically profitable and enhance long term ecological sustainability, when compared with
conventional monoculture systems (Elevitch and Wilkinson 2001, Sanchez et al 1997, Singh et al
1995). Some agroforestry systems focus on producing outputs (e.g. food), while others focus more
on reducing inputs (e.g. fertilizer) (Elevitch and Wilkinson 2001). They tend to follow a continuum
of low intensity management (often larger scale) with fewer outputs such as forest farming and
buffer strips, to mid-scale management intensity (often mechanized) such as alley cropping and
silvopasture, to higher intensity management systems such as homegardens (often smaller scale)
which have high diversity and outputs. These are generalizations and it is common for multiple
methods to be integrated on the same parcel of land (Elevitch and Wilkinson 2001, Nautiyal et al
1998, Sharashkin et al 2005). Tree based agriculture has been practiced for hundreds and in some
places thousands of years (Alavalpati and Mercer 2004, Elevitch and Wilkinson 2001). Indigenous
peoples have traditionally practiced agroforestry techniques in almost any region on earth where
trees can grow, from India to Russia to the Amazon (Miller and Nair 2006, Nautiyal et al 1998,
Sharashkin et al 2005). The current modern understanding of agroforestry practices and the state of
agroforesty today are a culmination, continuation and modification of past indigenous knowledge.
Tropical Agroforestry. Tropical agroforestry is diverse and can be extremely complex
(Thevadthasan and Gordon 2004). It is a holistic approach to tropical land management that has had
great contributions to food production and is making strides to help save the rainforests. In tropical
systems agroforestry is as important to forest preservation as it is to agriculture and it is no longer
appropriate to think of the two as separate (Combe 1982, Von Maydell 1991). Sustainable
agroforestry practices are the best protection against deforestation in tropical systems because they
provide for the economic needs of the people while maintaining much of the integrity of the
indigenous forests (Combe 1982).
Anthropological studies in South America indicate that Amazonian cultures practiced pre-
colonial agroforestry techniques such as the deliberate cultivation and domestication of fruit trees
and the management of wild species to provide fruits, oils, resins, essences and many other useful
products (Miller and Nair 2006). Because of the tremendous biodiversity of the Amazon,
researchers are currently working with these indigenous farmers to develop and understand these
complex systems. So far work has been focused on species in homegardens and swidden-fallow
systems (Miller and Nair 2006).
In tropical regions integrated multistory fruit trees are planted in plantation-crop
combinations to grow crops such as coffee, cacao and rubber (Alavalapati and Mercer 2004). Alley
cropping is often done with woody leguminous species used for crop manures and animal fodder
(Alavalapati and Mercer 2004). Multistory homegardens are typically intensively planted
combinations of mixed trees and other crops. These homestead gardens are among the oldest and
most diversified form of agroforestry (Elevitch and Wilkinson 2001, Miller and Nair 2006).
Alavalapati and Nair (2001) classify Tropical Agroforestry Systems as follows:

z Taungya – Agricultural crops grown during the early stages of forest plantation
establishment.
z Homegardens – Intimate, multistory combinations of a variety of trees and crops in
homestead gardens; livestock may be present.
z Improved fallow – Fast-growing, preferably leguminous woody species planted during the
fallow phase of shifting cultivation; the woody species improve soil fertility and may yield
economic products.
z Multipurpose trees – Fruit and other trees randomly or systematically planted in cropland or
pasture for the purpose of providing fruit, fuel wood, fodder, and timber, among other
services, on farms and rangelands.
z Plantation-crop combinations – Integrated multistory mixtures of tree crops (e.g. coffee,
cacao, coconut, and rubber), shade trees, and/or herbaceous crops.
z Silvopasture – Combining trees with forage and livestock production, such as grazing in
existing forests; using trees to create live fences around pasture; or to provide shade and
erosion control.
z Shelterbelts and windbreaks – Rows of trees around farms and fields planted and managed
as part of crop or livestock operations to protect crops, animals, and soil from natural
hazards including wind, excessive rain, seawater or floods.
z Alley cropping – Fast-growing, preferably leguminous woody species in single or grouped
rows in agricultural fields. Prunings from the woody species are applied as mulch into the
agricultural production alleys to increase organic matter and nutrients and/or are removed
from the field for animal fodder.
Temperate Agroforestry. Temperate agroforestry systems are generally less diversified than
agroforestry of tropical climates. Its modern form started to gain significant interest in the early
seventies due to concerns of fossil fuel shortages (Gold and Hanover 1987, Thevathasan and
Gordon 2004, Williams and Gordon 1992). Agroforestry is being practiced in temperate climates
across the earth. In the temperate climate of Garhwal Himalaya in India, indigenous peoples
traditionally maintained agroforestry systems by selective protection and natural regeneration
(Nautiyal et al 1998). The traditional peasant agricultural system of Russia has shaped the more
modern agroforestry movements such as the Ringing Cedars movement which focuses on the
economic, environmental and spiritual role of trees (Sharashkin et al 2005). In North America the
traditional forest management practices of indigenous peoples have largely disappeared but are
influencing a resurgence of modern agroforestry practices (Lassoie and Buck 1999).
Alley cropping is a more modern adaptation of agroforestry principles in temperate climates
commonly done on larger scales, often with the use of mechanization. Alley cropping is the planting
of useful tree species in single or grouped rows with another crop planted between the rows
(Alavalapati and Mercer 2004). In Ontario, Canada intercropping in row fruit and nut orchards is
done to increase profitability in non-bearing orchard years. These orchards are planted like
conventional orchard systems with row spacing appropriate for tractors. Once the orchard begins
bearing at a profitable level (6-10 years) the intercropping ceases and conventional orchard
management begins. The crops planted in these non-bearing years are diverse and include,
strawberries, pumpkins, potatoes, cut flowers, landscape plants and many more (Leuty 2001).
Another example of temperate agroforestry can be seen at New Forest Farm in Wisconsin
(USA) where alley cropping and plantation-crop combinations are used to create a system that
mimics the successional brushland native to that region (Figure 1.1). This system has a diverse
planting of fruits and nuts of both trees and shrubs with annual crops planted within alleys during
some years for increased profitability (Shepard 2005). This system can be used on a large scale to
produce commodity crops conducive to mechanization while mitigating the effects of deforestation
and soil erosion (Shepard 2003). There is currently research being done to evaluate these types of
multilayered polyculture systems at Ohio State University. These trials are being used to evaluate
the efficiency, economics and pest density in such systems for peri-urban polyculture gardens in
temperate regions (Kovach 2005).
Figure 1.1 Early successional chestnut/hazelnut polyculture at New Forest Farm in Wisconsin with
monoculture corn in the background (summer 2005).

The Association for Temperate Agroforestry (1997) classifies Temperate Agroforestry Systems as
follows:
z Alley cropping – Trees planted in single or grouped rows within agricultural or horticultural
fields with crops grown in the wide alleys between the tree rows.
z Forest farming- Forested areas used for the production or harvest of natural standing
specialty crops for medicinal, ornamental, or culinary uses (e.g. ginseng, ferns, shiitake
mushrooms).
z Shelterbelts and windbreaks – Rows of trees around farms and fields planted and managed
as part of crop or livestock operations to protect crops, animals, and soil from natural
hazards including wind, excessive rain, seawater or floods.
z Riparian buffer strips – Strips of perennial vegetation (trees/shrubs/grass) planted between
cropland/pastures and water sources such as streams, lakes, wetlands, and ponds to protect
water quality.
z Silvopasture – Combining trees with forage and livestock production, such as growing trees
on ranchlands; grazing in existing forests; providing shade and erosion control or
environmental services.
Permaculture
The term permaculture is less well known than the term agroforestry and is often used
synonymously with the term agroforestry. The two terms are not mutually exclusive and can
sometimes be used to describe the same system. The main difference is that permaculture is a
philosophy that acts within a specific set of ethics incorporating all aspects of the human
experience, going well beyond just agricultural production (Holmgren 2002). Permaculture was
developed in the early 1970's by Australian ecologists Bill Mollison and David Holmgren as a
positive response to the energy crisis of the time and to ensuing environmental degradation and
resource depletion. Permaculture was founded on the following assumptions: 1) the environmental
crisis is real and of a magnitude that will transform industrial society and threaten its existence, 2)
humans are subject to the same natural laws that govern the rest of the universe, 3) the industrial era
and corresponding population explosion were made possible by exploiting cheap abundant fossil
fuel energy, 4) this energy is a finite resource which will eventually become depleted returning
human society to patterns found in nature and pre-industrial societies (Holmgren 2002). The term
itself, is derived from the words permanent, agriculture and culture. It comes from the principle
that a stable, sustainable culture cannot exist without an integrated relationship with a system of
sustainable agriculture (Holmgren 2002, Whitefield 2004). From its conception, permaculture has
had a strong emphasis on developing relationships between communities and agriculture for the
purpose of creating a stable, secure, localized food system. Permaculture systems seek to amend the
vulnerability and destructiveness of the modern industrial food system which is heavily dependent
on massive amounts of fossil fuel inputs (e.g. petroleum based pesticides and herbicides, fertilizer
production and transportation) (Gever et al 1991, Holmgren 2002). Permaculture food systems
make efficient use of energy, labor and material resources and maximize synergistic relationships
and yield. Along with this food system focus and partly because of it, the other principles of
permaculture developed to facilitate the creation of sustainable communities.
Part of the success of the permaculture movement has been its ability to evolve and adapt to
various locations over time without the support of large institutions (Holmgren 2002). The
permaculture movement began spreading out globally from the Australian roots with the
development of the standard permaculture designers training course, first taught in 1981 and the
subsequent publications of permaculture texts. Since this time thousands of people globally have
taken the course and millions of people have been affected by the influence of permaculture
(Holmgren 2002, Mollison 1988). The movement started out primarily in warmer climates similar
to that of Australia where polyculture garden practices were already established and where
developing nations needed such practices the most. The practices and knowledge then began to
spread in cooler climates, such as Northern Europe (mainly Britain) and North America. Temperate
climate permaculture texts have since had increased publication (Genauer 2006, Hemenway 2000,
Whitefield 2004). More recently in the United States, a growing network of people with knowledge
of permaculture has elevated the exposure of the concept to a larger audience. Permaculture
organizations (often called guilds) in the U.S. are growing in number (mainly near urban centers)
and disseminating knowledge and information (Genauer 2006). Spurred on by a critical mass of
permaculture educated individuals and the publication of David Holmgren's work, “Permaculture:
principles and pathways beyond sustainability,” (2002) the stage is now set for a resurgence of the
permaculture concept to a new audience of activists and sustainable development advocates. It is the
maturation of the permaculture movement and new wave of environmentalism that is enabling this
current resurgence in permaculture (Genauer 2006, Holmgren 2002).
Permaculture Ethics and Design Principles. Permaculture is a philosophy, a practice and a
social movement, based on the ethics of a) care for the earth, b) care for people and c) setting limits
to consumption. Care for the earth implies that all of the life systems on the planet are respected and
provision is made for them to thrive. Central to this is proper stewardship and care for the soil. Care
for people implies that all people are treated with respect and provision is made for them to have the
resources needed to exist with integrity. This starts with accepting personal responsibility for
ourselves in our situation and expands outward to our family, friends, community and future
generations. Setting limits to consumption is about governing our own needs so that a surplus can
be shared and distributed in order to care for the earth as well as people. In permaculture there is no
separation between humans and nature, therefore caring for the earth also fulfills the objective of
caring for people (Holmgren 2002, Mollison 1988). These ethics have been adopted from
cooperative indigenous cultures in recognition that many of these cultures were able to survive for
centuries in relative balance with their environment (Holmgren 2002). These ethics serve as the
foundation for all the permaculture design principles (Shepard and Weiseman 2006).
David Holmgren (2002) captures the essence of permaculture as a practical and applicable
philosophy with his descriptions of what he considers the 12 major permaculture design principles.
Each of the principles has a corresponding phrase which is found in traditional popular culture,
indicating that this wisdom is nothing new.
Permaculture design principles described by Holmgren (2002).

z Observe and interact: Beauty is in the eye of the beholder (i.e. systems thinking).
z Catch and store energy: Make hay while the sun shines.
z Obtain a yield: You can't work on an empty stomach.
z Apply self-regulation and accept feedback: The sins of the fathers are visited on the
children unto the seventh generation.
z Use and value renewable resources and services: Let nature take its course.
z Produce no waste: Waste not, want not.
z Design from patterns to details: Can't see the wood for the trees.
z Integrate rather than segregate: Many hands make light work.
z Use small and slow solutions: The bigger they are, the harder they fall. Slow and steady
wins the race.
z Use and value diversity: Don't put all your eggs in one basket.

z Use edges and value the marginal: Don't think you are on the right path just because it is
well traveled.
z Creatively use and respond to change: Vision is not seeing things as they are but as they
will be.
To apply these principles in the real world requires understanding them in the context of all the
elements in the system that is being manipulated. These elements fall into the categories of, site
components (e.g. water, earth, landscape, climate, organisms), energy components (e.g.
technologies, structures, sources, connections), social components (e.g. legal aids, people, culture,
trade and finance), and abstract components (e.g. timing, data, ethics) (Mollison 1988).
Perhaps the most commonly understood and applied design tools in permaculture are those
of zone and sector analysis (i.e. Design from patterns to details) (Hemenway 2000, Holmgren 2002,
Mollison 1988, Whitefield 2004). There are 6 zones in permaculture and the components of each
can be applied at different scales, both physically and conceptually. For example, on a homestead
scale, zone 0 would be the inside of the home, zone 1 intensively managed gardens and landscapes
immediately surrounding the home, zone 2 less intensively managed orchards and ranging domestic
livestock, zone 3 field crops, zone 4 very low management grazing and woodland, and zone 5
would be considered wilderness (Whitefield 2004). When applying this at a larger more conceptual
scale, zone 0 is the permaculture design principles, zone 1 is personal and household, zone 2 is
business and community, zone 3 is bioregional, zone 4 is national/continental and zone 5 is global .
All of these elements are arranged for maximum energy efficiency. At least conceptually, these
zones form concentric rings from 0 to 5, with increasing scale and distance and decreasing power of
influence. Sectors are made up of external, ecological, cultural and economic forces and flows
acting upon the zones. These forces and flows can be either beneficial or destructive (Holmgren
2002).
Permaculturalist Bart Anderson (2006) has redefined zone and sector analysis so that it can
be more readily applied to urban communities. His system is based on zones of fossil fuel usage and
transportation, zone 0 is the home, zone 1 is anything within walking distance (pedosphere), zone 2
is within cycling distance (cyclosphere), zone 3 reachable by public transit, zone 4 driving distance,
zone 5 long distance, plane travel. Anderson's methods are perhaps the best way to apply a zone and
sector analysis to a low income urban community for the purpose of defining the elements acting on
the food system. Once the sector energies (e.g. influence of mega-corporations) acting upon the
different zones are understood, it is necessary to define whether they are positive or negative. These
energies must then be encouraged or discouraged, using shields, deflectors and collectors (Anderson
2006). For example, collecting positive energy might mean encouraging the development of a
community garden and deflecting negative energy might mean having a zoning policy that prevents
the invasion of a corporate chain store that uses unsustainable practices. A framework for an urban
zone and sector analysis can be seen in Figure 1.2 (Anderson 2006).

Figure 1.2 Getting ideas from zones and sectors (Anderson 2006).
Permaculture systems are the result of using design methods to determine how to manipulate
or influence the elements in the system based on the permaculture ethics and design principles. This
is a constantly evolving process that can be applied to a myriad of circumstances and scales as
depicted in the permaculture flower (Figure 1.3). The permaculture flower depicts how the ethics
and principles can be used to weave beneficial relationships among the various domains of
sustainable human culture. Around the outside of the flower are various systems associated with and
consistent with the permaculture philosophy. In permaculture design, all things are connected and
energy wasted in one area is a missed opportunity to use it in another area (e.g. fuel used
inefficiently in transportation, is fuel that could have been used in agriculture). Permaculture design
emphasizes a bottom-up approach to change (i.e. grassroots), it focuses on pre-industrial sustainable
societies and natural systems as models and prioritizes existing pools of wealth as sources for
restoring natural capitol (Holmgren 2002).

Figure 1.3 The permaculture flower (Holmgren 2002).
Although permaculture is more than a horticultural practice, the remaining focus is on the
principles of permaculture that are most relevant to horticulture. The land and nature stewardship
petal of the permaculture flower (Figure 1.3).
Edible Forest Gardens and Multistrata Homegardens
The MSU EFG is based on the framework of edible forest gardens and multistrata
homegardens. Both of these systems are very similar, even though the terms come from different
disciplines; permaculture and agroforestry respectively. These systems take ecosystem mimicry to
the highest level and are some of the oldest forms of integrated perennial polyculture. To the
untrained eye it can be difficult to distinguish these gardens from the surrounding native forest. Nair
(2001) said that understanding the complexity of these systems currently eludes conventional
ecologists and economists. As a result, scientific studies of these systems are disproportionately
lower than other agricultural systems when considering their social, ecological and economic
benefits (Nair 2001).
The modern forms of agroforestry and permaculture were developed in the 1970's as a
response to energy supply scares and environmental degradation, and both of these disciplines claim
indigenous multistrata homegardens as a primary source of their inspiration (Holmgren 2002, Jacke
and Toensmeier 2005, Shepard and Weiseman 2006, Wiersum 2004, Williams and Gordon 1992).
Due to this common origin of thought the conceptual characteristics of multistrata homegardens and
edible forest gardens are essentially the same. Multistrata home gardens are almost always
associated with a home or group of homes. Edible forest gardens are often, but not always
associated with a home. The terms mainly diverge due to the general geographic location of the
systems being described. The term multistrata homegarden or homegarden is generally associated
with tropical climates and the term edible forest garden or forest garden is generally associated with
temperate climates. This can be viewed as somewhat of a convergent evolution of the concepts to
adapt to both tropical and temperate climates. Although it is useful to try and describe multistrata
homegardens and edible forest gardens for the purpose of providing background for this paper, it is
important to recognize that there are many terms used across the globe to describe agricultural
systems that mimic the structure and function of natural forest ecosystems and therefore we should
not be inhibited by trying to categorize each term (DeClerck and Negreros-Castillo 2000, Nair
2001, Soemarwoto et al 1985).
Multistrata Homegardens. Multistrata homegardens (MH) are generally in moist tropical
climates and have existed for centuries. These systems are usually found in developing countries
where there is a shortage of land (Mergen 1987). These systems have been used in countries such as
Java, Tanzania, West Africa, Thailand, Brazil, Papua New Guinea, Nepal, Chile, Mexico, India and
Indonesia (DeClerck and Negreros-Castillo 2000, Kehlenbeck and Maass 2004, Mergen 1987, Nair
and Sreedharan 1986).
MH are systems that incorporate many multipurpose trees, shrubs, food crops and often
livestock on the same parcel of land at the same time. These MH often have an intimate association
with a home (Mergen 1987, Nair and Sreedharan 1986). These systems mimic local ecosystems
indigenous to the region and function to provide for human needs and protect native forests, reduce
erosion and conserve biodiversity (DeClerck and Negreros-Castillo 2000, Kehlenbeck and Maass
2004, Mergen 1987). Because MH mimic natural systems, the structural integrity and ecosystem
functions of a natural forest are preserved (Wiersum 2004). There is a large diversity of useful
species grown in tropical MH such as; banana, cassava, coconut, citrus, pineapple, coffee, pepper,
clove, cacao, plantains, yams, groundnuts, maize, pumpkins, sesame, rubber, eucalyptus, ginger,
bamboo and taro (Mergen 1987). These plant species provide fruit, herbs, vegetables, medicines,
mulch, animal fodder, fiber, ornamentals, fuel, building materials, and other food plants (Mergen
1987, Nair and Sreedharan 1986). MH are considered an ecologically sustainable production system
(Kehlenbeck and Maass 2004).
Edible Forest Gardens. The edible forest garden (EFG) is essentially the temperate analog
of the tropical MH. The EFG is a perennial polyculture of multipurpose species that mimic the
structure and function of a natural forest ecosystem (Jacke and Toensmeier 2005). Unlike in tropical
climates, these systems were not traditionally practiced on this scale of intensity and therefore
intensive EFGs in temperate climates are a relatively new concept. In the past, traditional temperate
homegardens were diverse but did not mimic natural ecosystems in the same way as was common
in tropical regions (Williams and Gordon 1992). This is likely because many indigenous temperate
cultures were more nomadic with seasonal village sites and less likely to have permanent home sites
which require more intensive management.
The temperate EFG is a multistrata system that incorporates species that attempt to fill all
ecosystem niches and have mutually beneficial relationships that form an ecologically sustainable
community of organisms. Some of the species that are found in EFG of the Great Lakes bioregion
are; Chinese chestnut, Carpathian walnut, northern pecan, pawpaw, Amercian persimmon, apple,
European pear, Asian pear, plum, peach, apricot, Korean stone pine, mulberry, amelancher,
Siberian pea shrub, nanking cherry, beach plum, hazelnut, blueberry, currents, gooseberry,
raspberry spp, strawberries, grapes, hardy kiwi, hops, sunchokes, asparagus, rhubarb, sage, mint,
white clover, multiplier onion, ramps, sorrel, skirret, comfrey, giant solomon's seal, groundnut,
Chinese artichoke, good king henry, wild ginger, corn, beans, squash, shiitake and oyster
mushrooms (Jacke and Toensmeier 2005). It is common for livestock such as chickens, hogs and
cattle to be incorporated into such systems to efficiently trap and cycle nutrients and solar energy
(Mollison 1988).
Edible Landscaping. Edible landscaping is the practice of planting food producing plant
species in place of ornamental species in the landscape, typically in residential areas. Edible
landscaping around residential areas provides an ascetically pleasing landscape while producing
food. This is far more than just a way to garden. In low-income communities edible landscapes
provide food security by insuring access to healthy food in times of scarcity. Edible landscaping is
not the same as gardening. In edible landscapes plants are placed amidst living spaces in a similar
manner as conventional ornamental landscapes (Creasy 1982, Kourik 1986, Salcone 2005).
Companion Planting. Companion plants are plants that benefit from being planted near each
other. Indigenous people have practiced companion planting in their gardens for thousands of years
(e.g. three sisters gardens of North America) to create multifunctional relationships among crops
(Kuepper and Dodson 2001). In addition to producing food, many of these plants fix nitrogen,
aggregate nutrients, suppress undesired species, facilitate trap cropping, facilitate nurse cropping,
provide security through biodiversity, have physical interactions (partition resources), attract
beneficial insects and wildlife, mitigate pest pressure, enhance soil structure and enhance the health
of the soil food web (Jacke and Toensmeier 2005, Kuepper and Dodson 2001).
Common Design Principles for Temperate Climates

The forest ecosystem is the model for the edible forest garden because of its stability and
resilience and mimicking this ecosystem is the primary design principle for creating these systems
(Hart 1980, Jacke and Toensmeier 2005). Only by understanding the structure and function of forest
ecosystems through time and space is it possible to design and manage an edible forest garden.
Therefore two vital concepts to apply are those of forest succession and ecosystem disturbance.
Succession. Typically in a bioregion where forests are indigenous, when an agricultural field
is abandoned it will follow a successional trajectory back toward a forest. Often, but certainly not
always these systems will be initially dominated by shade intolerant pioneering annuals, followed
by the increased presence of herbaceous perennials, small and large shrubs, small and large trees
and finally shade tolerant understory species of both woody and herbaceous varieties. The
development of these different layers over time is what creates the architecture of these systems
(DeClerck and Negreros-Castillo 2000, Hart 1980, Jacke and Toensmeier 2005).
Ecosystem succession is the natural flow and going against this flow is like swimming up
stream. Working with rather than against natural forest succession is very energy and resource
efficient (Shepard 2003). Fighting against natural forest succession, as is common practice in
traditional annual agriculture with cultivating machinery and often herbicides, requires massive
amounts of energy in the form of labor and fossil fuels. Creating appropriate polycultures for EFG
requires plant species that fit together through time and space, form symbiotic, reinforcing
relationships and produce high, diverse yields (Jacke and Toensmeier 2005).
In an EFG the plant species are planted spatially and sequentially to fulfill their respective
successional roles. The goal is to direct and constructively manipulate succession to create the
desired design and subsequent yields. This requires a detailed understanding of the life histories and
niches of the species being utilized in the EFG. Mimicking a mid-successional woodland ecosystem
(i.e. not a mature forest) in temperate climates is desired to produce maximum yields (Jacke and
Toensmeier 2005). These mid-successional forest systems have the highest net primary production
and potential for high yield. They also provide space for high species niche diversity.
Spacing. Achieving maximum yield requires appropriate plant spacing during EFG
establishment. To accurately predict the future succession of the system, mature plant size (e.g.
canopy width) and plant dispersal strategies (e.g. vegetative reproduction) must be understood
(Jacke and Toensmeier 2005). This also allows for the creation of a multistrata architecture that
does not produce stress on plant species from over-competition for resources. Plant species with
aggressive dispersal strategies can smother out (i.e. become invasive) less aggressive species if they
are not spaced appropriately in the garden. Plants spaced too close together create high competition
for sunlight, water and soil nutrients (Jacke and Toensmeier 2005).
Strata. The architecture of a temperate EFG typically has between 3 and 7 layers including a
combination of a tall tree (e.g. walnut) and short tree (e.g. pear) layer, a tall shrub (e.g. hazelnut)
and short shrub or cane (e.g. raspberry) layer, a herbaceous perennial layer (e.g. comfrey), a
groundcover (e.g. strawberry) and a vine layer (e.g. hardy kiwi). Consideration of the below ground
layer, the rhizosphere is also extremely important. Whenever possible, plants with complimentary
root morphology should be spaced so that they partition water and nutrients. Planting patterns are
generally arranged from tallest plants to shortest to partition sunlight (Mollison 1988, Jacke and
Toensmeier 2005).
Species Selection. Planting according to morphology is only the first step in creating truly
dynamic, productive plant communities in EFG. The first step is to determine species that are
appropriate for the climate and bioregion. To advance further, it is useful to perform a detailed
niche analysis of all plant species being considered for the system. Functional attributes derived
from a species niche analysis that need to be considered are:
ability to produce mulch and organic matter
aggregate and partition nutrients
attraction of beneficial insects (i.e. insectary) and wildlife
nitrogen fixation
suppression of undesired species
ability to build soil structure
enhancement of the soil food web
produce useful products, such as food, medicine, fiber, fuel and livestock fodder.
Other important attributes are shade tolerance, drought tolerance, flood tolerance, soil and
nutrient requirements, pest and disease resistance, timing and requirements for pollination, plant
growth and crop yield regime (Mollison 1988, Jacke and Toensmeier 2005, Shepard 2005,
Toensmeier 2007).
Integrating Succession, Spacing, Strata, Species and Services. The next step in creating EFG
is to assemble diverse species from a variety of ecosystem niches that perform multiple functions
(e.g. edible, medicinal, mulch producing, insectary, shade tolerant, tap rooted, herbaceous
perennial). It is also necessary to consider these attributes over time; for example spring ephemerals
are only above the ground for a short part of the growing season and insectary species that provide
bloom throughout the growing season are needed to allow for a healthy beneficial insect population
(Jacke and Toensmeier 2005). By choosing useful plant species from a variety of ecosystem niches,
the potential for invasion and subsequent competition from undesired species (i.e. weeds) is reduced
significantly, reducing the time and energy required to remove them. An assemblage of these
multifunctional plants spaced to form dynamic beneficial relationships is called a guild (Hemenway
2000, Whitefield 2004).
Guilds. The best way to select appropriate species for a guild is to observe indigenous
species growing together in an unmanaged system and use them if possible (Shepard 2003, Shepard
2005). If the indigenous species are not appropriate, useful species that are closely related or an
improved variety of a species (e.g. a hybrid variety of hazelnut to replace the native variety) should
be used. The most important consideration is that the plant chosen has the same ecosystem niche as
the native analog (Hart 1980, Shepard 2003, Shepard 2005).
An example of the type of guild found in the MSU EFG, centers on a fruit or nut tree (e.g.
apple) with a nutrient aggregating, mulch producing herbaceous perennial (e.g. comfrey) planted
under the canopy to build soil and suppress weeds. Surrounding the outside of the mature canopy
width of the fruit tree could be found a nut bearing shrub (e.g. hazelnut) a fruit bearing shrub (e.g.
beach plum) and a nitrogen fixing shrub (e.g. siberian pea shrub). On the shadier north side of the
guild could be found a shade tolerant fruit bearing shrub (e.g. ribes or amelancher). Beyond and
between the growing space of the shrubs could be found a variety of herbaceous perennials that
produce food, medicine and attract beneficial insects (e.g. rhubarb, sage, daylily, cow parsnip).
These plants should be spaced to partition sunlight, water and soil nutrients. In the shady spaces
between these plants could be a shade tolerant, culinary ground cover (e.g. wild ginger). Any space
left is filled with a nitrogen fixing, insectary groundcover (e.g. white clover).
Planned Patterned Guilds. These guilds should then be connected to each other to create a
structurally, compositionally and functionally diverse landscape. Guilds are arranged according to
the needs of future management practices and needs of the dominant species in the guild so they are
in the best location for pollination (i.e. typically within 50ft of another of the same species), pest
mitigation (i.e. typically not directly adjacent to another of the same family), resource partitioning
and management. The use of natural patterns should also be emphasized when arranging these
guilds. The planting patterns should flow and contour over the landscape and should maximize the
use of edges. Useful natural patterns to imitate are those of fractal forms, spirals, funnels, dendritic
branching and flow forms (Mollison 1988, Shepard and Weiseman 2006).
Hart (1980) prescribes the use of 3 main classes of information for designing these types of
cropping systems; species to be used, arrangement of the components through time and space and
the quantity and nature of inputs and outputs. The main components of the system have been
divided further by Jacke and Toensmeier (2006), using design elements to create ecosystem
dynamics that yield the desired conditions of maximum diverse yields, maximum self maintenance
and maximum ecological health (Figure 1.4). Creating these overyielding polycultures requires
maximizing the synergistic relationships of the components in the ecosystem (Jacke and
Toensmeier 2006).
One method used to create guilds that is less systematic and more intuitive, is called
“freestyle permaculture.” This involves empathizing with the life requirements of an individual
plant in light of its life history and ecosystem niche and placing it the in the garden accordingly.
This does not mean personifying the plant but rather envisioning yourself as the plant (i.e.
empathizing) and considering where you would want to live and what you would want in a neighbor
if you were that plant. This method is only effective with an understanding of the life requirments of
the plant.
Certainly, meticulous attention to detail and careful planning is the preferred method of
creating guilds, however an alternative method sometimes prescribed by permaculturalist Mark
Shepard is the 'get it in the ground' method. This is a viable method when there are time constraints,
plant material is readily available and space is readily available. The concept is that if you
haphazardly arrange a group of perennials together they will compete with each other for growing
space and thin themselves out (i.e. let nature design the guild). There are costs and benefits to this
method. Some of the costs are a possible waste of plant material and possible stressful growing
conditions for the surviving plants. Some of the benefits are that the strongest and best suited plants
will survive and this can provide valuable information for designing future plantings. Since many
perennials do not start producing high yields until after a few years, this method also allows you to
get plants in the ground sooner so that they yield sooner (Shepard 2005). Shepard says, “the best
time to plant a tree is 10 years ago.”
Ecosystem Benefits
Edible Forest Gardens provide many ecosystem services that benefit the surrounding biotic
and abiotic environment. They create sanctuary for threatened and endangered species of both rare
domesticated cultivars and native species, and are repositories for biodiversity and species richness.
They enhance soil structure and the health of the soil food web. They help mitigate the negative
effects of erosion, pest pressure, drought, deforestation and sequester carbon dioxide (a greenhouse
gas) (Elevitch and Wilkinson 2001).
Soil Health. Healthy soil is the essence of a productive ecosystem. Much of the world's
formerly forested lands have been cleared for annual agricultural crops, exposing them to erosion of
the sensitive biological soil food web which provides fertility. Following deforestation, many of
these lands follow a pattern of annual agriculture, livestock grazing and eventually desertification as
the soil loses its ability to support life (if degradation continues). Adopting tree-based agriculture
has been hailed as a way to mitigate annual agriculture's devastating impacts on soil degradation
(Smith 1929).

Figure 1.4 Framework for overyielding polycultures. Adapted with permission from Jacke and
Toensmeier (2005, vol.2 p.6)

Nutrient Cycling. Trees benefit the soil by decreasing nutrient losses, enhancing internal
nutrient cycling and increasing nutrient inputs (Sanchez 1997). Trees have the ability to recover
nutrients that are leached into the subsoil and cycle them back to the topsoil. Nutrients that exist at
rooting depths not accessible to most herbaceous plants can be taken up by trees and deposited on
the soil surface in the form of leaf litter where it is then available to other more shallowly rooted
species (Sanchez 1997).
Soil Biota. Trees have many positive impacts on benificial soil biota. Trees foster a fungal
based soil, creating a network of synergistic relationships with mycorrhizal fungi. Mycorrhizae are
known to facilitate nutrient uptake (e.g. phosphorous) and mitigate the negative effects of many soil
pathogens (Borowicz 2001, Newton and Pigott 1991). Large networks of mycelial hyphae in the
soil allow forested systems to maintain their integrity following a disturbance (Perry et al 1990).
Nitrogen Fixation. Planting leguminous trees and shrubs in an EFG facilitates biological
nitrogen fixation, creating available nitrogen for other non-nitrogen fixing species in the system, via
leaky root exudates, root decay and leaf litter deposition. These organic forms of nitrogen are less
susceptible to leaching than inorganic forms and coincide with carbon sources used by soil
microbes. Diverse and healthy soil biota creates stability and resilience (Sanchez 1997).
Erosion Prevention and Moisture Conservation. Tree based agriculture protects the soil and
improves soil structure. Tree canopies and leaf litter deposition protect the soil from erosion caused
by wind and water. These protective layers also reduce moisture fluctuations in the soil and the
increased soil organic matter holds moisture in the soil. Tree roots hold soil within the rhizosphere,
loosen soil and improve porosity via root decay (Sanchez 1997).
Carbon Sequestration. EFG sequester carbon from the atmosphere and can help reduce the
negative impacts of greenhouse gas emissions. Adopting tree based agricultural systems in former
annual monocultures reduces the need for deforestation, further reducing the release of carbon into
the atmosphere ( DeClerck and Negreros-Castillo 2000, Sanchez 1997). EFG have the potential to
improve the structure and function of agricultural systems and remediate degraded lands (Singh et
al 1995).
Biodiversity. Edible forest gardens promote and preserve biodiversity above as well as
within the soil. Biodiversity creates stability and resilience, improves nutrient cycling, enhances
pollination, reduces the impact of invasive species and mitigates pest and disease pressures, all of
which has a positive impact on ecosystem function, maintenance strategy and economic return
(Elevitch and Wilkinson 2001). These biologically diverse systems create refuge for threatened and
endangered species and are repositories for genetic diversity. A diverse flora facilitates a balanced
insect population, providing niches for insect pest predators and pollinating insects. Genetic
diversity provides opportunity for disease resistance and adaptability (Jacke and Toensmeier 2005,
Whitefield 2004). These ecosystem benefits contribute to the ecological health of the MSU EFG.

Section 1 Literature Cited
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Budd, W.W. et al. 1990. Planning for agroforestry. Elsevier Science Publishers.
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temperate climates. Permanent Publications.

Section 2
Development of the MSU Edible Forest Garden
Project Description
The Michigan State University Student Organic Farm Edible Forest Garden (MSU EFG) is
a place for students, urban gardeners, farmers and landscape designers to investigate and
demonstrate the food system and horticultural components of temperate permaculture. It provides
an example of applied permaculture design for the Great Lakes bioregion and other similar
temperate climates. The produce harvested from the MSU EFG is direct-marketed via the CSA
program and on campus farm-stand.
Support for the development of the project from 2005 to 2007 came from the MSU SOF
CSA, CSA member cash donations, Pear Tree Farm, The Taylor Farm, RISE (Residential Initiative
for the Study of the Environment), volunteer work from students, CSA members and local
community members, SOF student labor and the USDA Risk Management Agency (RMA). The
2006 to 2007 RMA project funding provided graduate student support, labeling, signage, irrigation,
additional plant material and educational workshops for farmers and urban gardeners with emphasis
on mitigating risk of food scarcity and promoting community food security. To accomplish this, the
MSU SOF partnered with the Greening of Detroit and Earth Works Urban Garden to organize
workshops and extension services to urban gardeners in Detroit. Additional tours and one-day
workshops were also organized and provided at the SOF. The MSU EFG was established as an
addition to the existing SOF projects and developed as time and labor allowed.
Plot Description and Development

The MSU EFG is in the climate zone 5b located at 42.6732 N latitude, 84.4881 W longitude
at an elevation of 880 feet above sea level on the MSU Student Organic Farm (SOF). The
rectangular 190ft (north, south) by 130ft (east, west) garden plot is in the southeast corner of the
SOF, bordered by a gravel farm road to the north, conventionally grown tart cherries to the east,
conventionally grown apples to the south and organic annual row crop production to the west. The
SOF is located on the northwestern corner of the Horticulture Teaching and Research Center
(HTRC) (3291 College Road, Holt, MI 48842) on the campus of Michigan State University.
The indigenous ecosystems characteristic of this region consisted of uplands of mixed
hardwoods dominated by beech/sugar maple with other common species such as red oak, basswood,
white ash and black maple. Lowland (i.e. wetter) areas included species such as silver maple,
American elm, swamp white oak and red ash. Windthrow was likely the most common form of
disturbance (USGS 2006). The region surrounding the SOF began being settled in 1837 and from
there forth increasingly more forests were cleared and wetlands drained for agriculture. The land
where the SOF is located was purchased by Michigan State University in 1964 and was known to be
farmed before that.
The plots now in use for the SOF and EFG were planted into orchard trees from about 1965
to 1995. In 1998 to 2001 the orchard trees were removed. The transition period during which no
materials except those approved for organic certification began in 2001 and the 10 acre SOF was
first certified organic in 2004 by Organic Growers of Michigan.
The soil is a Marlette Fine Sandy Loam with 2-6% slopes (USDA NRCS soil survey) over a
heavy, compacted clay soil. Decades of spraying the fruit trees with tractor-drawn spray equipment
resulted in compacted soil in the alley ways. In 2003 organic matter was added consisting primarily
of piles of wood shaving and or straw bedding (originally used for 2-3 day livestock judging or
demonstration shows) from the university Agriculture Pavilion. The bedding therefore contained
limited amounts of either cow or horse manure. The organic matter was deep enough to kill existing
ground cover. The original intent was to use a self-propelled compost turner owned by MSU but the
piles were initially too large. When the piles reduced in size due to decomposition, the compost
turner was no longer available for use. The end result was static pile composting turned or rolled
twice a year using a front end loader.
In June 2005 the decayed organic matter was spread out evenly with a front end loader and
then power spaded into the soil. During the remaining part of the summer a drag was run over the
plot approximately every three weeks to remove perennial weeds and reduce annual weed seed
(Figure 2.1). In October 2005 a sub-soiler was run across the plot at a depth of 13 inches to break up
the hard pan and in November winter rye cover crop was seeded using a grain drill. At this time the
soil was tested for pH and nutrient availability.
Figure 2.1 MSU Edible Forest Garden during soil preparation prior to planting with the SOF in the
background to the north (summer 2005)
The purpose of the following tables and figures is to provide a concise and easy-to-reference
representation of the process and results of the MSU EFG.
Design Process
The design process began in summer of 2005 with informal conversations about desirable
features in a permaculture garden and a visit to permaculture consultant and instructor Mark
Shepard's farm in western Wisconsin (New Forest Farm). In November the SOF engaged Mark as a
consultant on the project and to provide a site evaluation, and run a permaculture workshop at the
SOF. From that workshop came a written site evaluation (see Appendix) and a list of design goals
and objectives (Table 2.1).
Table 2.1 Design goals, objectives and considerations for the 130 by 190ft garden: balancing
aesthetics and functionality. Jay Tomczak and John Biernbaum (12/26/05)
flowing tractor/annual row beds

traditional' style trellised grapes (zone 100x18ft)
Arbor with trellised vines (human space)
no or minimal strait paths
key hole beds/harvesting and maintenance access points
perennial root crop area (sunchokes, groundnuts, etc.)
asparagus area
biodiversity
appropriate spacing (succession)
ecosystem mimicry
home for 3 sisters annual guild
symmetry and asymmetry
minimize soil compaction
area for culinary herbs
minimize labor (over time)
many connected permaculture style guilds
guild 'replicates' for demonstration/research
budget?
native fruits
high yielding fruit and nut varieties
insectary plants
mulching plants (e.g. comfrey)
nutrient aggregating plants (dynamic accumulators)
N fixing plants
fill all ecosystem niches including trees, primary/secondary shrubs, vines,
herbaceous perennials, ground covers, annuals, shade&sun spp
weed' suppressing/excluding plants
good tasting plant varieties
pathogen resistance
landscape connectivity
no or minimal bare soil (ground covers, mulching)
maximize plants for human use w/o compromising ecosystem function
irrigation? drainage?
Sun direction? (seasonal aspect)
wind direction?
invasive/illegal spp?
beneficial/detrimental wildlife?
healthy soil biota
It was also in November 2005 that Permaculturalist Dave Jacke with co-author Eric
Toensmeier's two volume text 'Edible Forest Gardens' became available. The books proved to be a
valuable resource. Dave Jacke was then contacted and became another consultant for the project,
while also giving several presentations in Michigan. As certified permaculture instructors and
practitioners both Mark and Dave are considered two of the highest authorities on temperate climate
permaculture in the United States.
In December 2005 rough sketches were drawn which incorporated all of the major elements
of the garden. Major structural components (e.g. grape trellis and tractor beds) were the first to be
considered, followed by foot paths, woody perennials and major groupings of herbaceous
perennials. The design evolved from elements of greatest to least permanence. After thorough
consideration had gone into the rough sketches the design was drawn to scale on a piece of graphing
paper at a scale of 1mm equaling 2ft (Figure 2.1).
The two 100ft grape trellises were placed running north/south along the east side with the
strawberry/bramble berry beds bordering to the west. One tractor bed was placed running from the
NW corner to the SE corner in a gently curving 'S' shape. The other 2 tractor beds arc across the
NW and SW corners of the garden. Trees were drawn according to their mature canopy width and
shrubs were placed along the drip line of the canopies. Tree and shrub species were spaced
according to pollination and pest management considerations. Foot paths were placed to create
flow, connectivity and access for management. The pergola (aka arbor) and mandala shaped annual
garden are near the center of the plot. Designated areas were also created for culinary, medicinal
and starchy root herbaceous perennials. Each element in the garden was assigned a number or an
abbreviated code for shorthand labeling (Table 2.2).

Figure 2.2 MSU Edible Forest Garden design plan (January 2006).

Table 2.2 Abbreviated plant labeling codes.
Species Code
Pawpaw Pp
Chestnut Ch
Apple Ap
Pear Pr
Asian pear Apr
Plum Pm
Peach/Nectarine Pch
Persimmon Per
Honey Locust HL
Redbud Rb
Dwarf Spruce Sp
Beach plumb 1
Hazels 2
Siberian pea 3
Currents 4
Gooseberry 5
Raspberry/Blackberry Rb/Bb
Bush Cherry 7
Serviceberry 8
Blueberry 9
Cranberry 10
Strawberries Sb
The resulting design was a balance of aesthetics and functionality that incorporated all of our
desired elements and was easy to decipher. The main criticism of this method is that it is difficult to
manipulate and add/subtract the elements of the drawing without spending a lot of time re-working
it. For this reason I would recommend considering various types of landscape design software for
early stages of design which allow for easy design manipulation.
Amended Garden Design July 2007

Although the garden maintained the structural integrity of the original design in Figure 2.2,
substitutions, additions and alterations required a detailed inventory in July 2007. Figures 2.4 and
2.5 depict the state of the garden after final plantings in summer of 2007.

Implementation and Cultural Practices
This section includes the steps followed to establish the garden and any cultural details that
might be unique or presented challenges. Common or traditional horticultural practices (e.g. pruning
raspberries) are not covered in detail.
The major implementation of the design began in mid-March 2006. Because of careful
planning and a well constructed design, the elements of the drawing translated onto the reality of the
field very smoothly with no major surprises. In Tables 2.2 and 2.3, the major steps taken to
implement and establish the garden and the time of year that it occurred are summarized. In 2006
the garden required approximately 335 hours of physical labor averaging about 13 hours per week
(March to October) during the growing season and in 2007 it required approximately 203 hours of
physical labor averaging about 29 hours per week (April to July) during the first half of the growing
season. Labor data is not available for the second half of the growing season for 2007. As with
many horticultural jobs a disproportional amount of labor is needed during the spring and early
summer months. These estimates only include physical labor in the field and do not include design
work, ordering plant material or other time spent researching etc. The estimate is meant to be a
guideline for managing labor hours in the garden and it would vary considerably based on the skill
levels and efficiency of people working in the garden. Post garden establishment (2008 and onward)
labor requirements are expected to decrease.
Notes, Discussion and Critique of Implementation Steps

Measuring and Staking out Garden Elements. Staking was done by taking a measurement on
the scale drawing and translating that onto the actual garden. To accurately stake out a garden with
lots of curves requires making transects, so a few measurements sometimes have to be made to
locate one point. A surveyors measuring wheel worked much faster than measuring tape and
colored flagging helped identify what stakes were for certain elements (e.g. tractor paths with
orange flagging and foot paths with pink).
Establishing Living Mulch. A mix of 80% Dutch white clover (perennial) and 20% medium
red clover (short lived perennial) were frost seeded at a rate of 12lbs/acre (higher than necessary to
insure good cover) evenly across the entire garden using a broadcast seeder. A winter rye had been
seeded the fall before. The objective was to use the rye and the red clover as nurse plants because
white clover is not as competitive with weeds and can be slow to establish. The long term goal is to
have a primary ground cover of white clover. The white clover was able to establish slowly in the
understory of the rye. The rye was allowed to grow until it produced seed and killed (using a gas
powered weed trimmer with a plastic blade) just before the seed became viable. The clover was then
fully exposed to the sun, allowing it to grow rapidly. The cuttings from the rye were partially raked
off the clover into the tractor beds to help this process. A problem with the thick stand of rye was
that it provided good habitat for rabbits which resulted in feeding damage to some of the shrubs.
Once the rye was cut the rabbit problem subsided.
In some areas of the garden either the rye did not completely die or annual weeds (e.g. lambs
quarters) dominated. The ground cover was managed with a gas powered mulching push mower set
at a height of 5in. The weeds were mowed before viable seeds were produced. The garden was not
mowed all at once to allow refuge for beneficial insects. The process of tall mowing the garden
allowed the clover to out-compete most weeds and establish thickly.

Figure 2.2 MSU Edible forest Garden during staking process just after frost seeding with clover
(March 2006)

Table 2.3 Major steps in MSU EFG implementation 2006.
Activities Month
Ordering plant material late winter
Measuring and staking out garden elements March
Frost seeding clover March
Initial mulching of paths April/May
Initial trellis and pergola construction April/May
Planting strawberries and bramble berries April
Planting and temporary labeling of woody perennials April-June
Tilling of tractor beds May
First major weeding May
Initial mulching around woody perennials May
Tilled a sod barrier around garden border May
Added straw mulch to strawberries and bramble berries May
Tilled up mandala annual bed May
Pinched flowers off all fruit producing plants May
Prepped soil for medicinal herbs May
Chicken wire wrapped around vulnerable woody perennials May
Cut rye and raked off cuttings May
Initial planting of sunchokes May
Planted three sisters garden June
First mowing of clover June
Second tilling of border strip June
Initial tree pruning and training June
Second major path and tree mulching June
Planted cut flowers and grains in tractor beds June
Planted medicinal herbs June
Second major weeding June
Installed irrigation June
Put side walls on pergola and planted hops July
Mowing alternate patches of clover July-October
Last major weeding of season August
Added plastic tree guards around all trees September
Last mowing of clover and tilling of border strip October

Table 2.4 Major steps in MSU EFG implementation 2007.
Activities Month
Inventory winter damage March
Order plant material March/April
Propagate seeds in greenhouse April
Gather plant material from sources April
Put landscape fabric skirts around trees and mulch April
Prepare soil in tilled border strip April
Plant comfrey and rhubarb in tilled border strip April
Prune bramble berries April
Planting/replacing a few woody perennials April
Tilled tractor beds and mandala annual garden April
Tilled and prepped soil for asparagus and sunchokes April
Pruned and trained grapes April
Major weeding of perennial weeds April
First major plantings of herbaceous perennials April/May
Planted asparagus and sunchokes May
Mowed alternate patches of clover May-October
Weeded strawberry and bramble berry beds May
Weeded medicinal herbs May
Added landscape plastic and mulch on foot paths May/June
Heavy mulching around all plants May/June
Prune and train trees June
Plant three sisters in mandala annual garden June
Second major planting of herbaceous perennials June
Till tractor beds and plant cut flowers June
Install remaining irrigation components June
Finish building pergola June
Second major weeding July
Add plant labeling and signage July
Additional mulch added where necessary July
Tree guards and deer repellents installed September
Planting Trees. Trees were planted with a square edged spade and the graft union was
slightly higher (a few inches) than the surrounding ground with the soil surface. The hole depth
allowed the roots to sit firmly on the sub-soil (i.e not loosened below the deepest roots). The
diameter of the hole was large enough to for all existing roots on the tree to lie in their natural
position (i.e. not bent awkwardly) contouring to the root architecture. The edges of the hole were
perpendicular to the ground (i.e. not bowl shaped) and roughed with the spade to facilitate root
penetration. The filled hole was firmed down but not overly compacted and then irrigated. A 3ft
square of landscape fabric was skirted around each tree and mulched on top with wood chips to
suppress weeds. Some trees were staked until establishment of a strong root system to prevent
tilting in the wind.
Chipped or Shredded Wood Mulch. The fall prior to beginning planting a large supply of
wood chips were attained from a local tree trimming service. Often local tree service businesses
consider chipped wood to be a disposal problem and will donate it for free. Piling the chips in
advance allowed time for some composting and stabilization.
If mulch is not used thick enough, it will not be effective and will have to be constantly
reapplied. It might be necessary to use 6 to 8 inches. In the second year of the project we laid 3ft
wide landscape plastic down on the paths to support the mulch and to reduce the rate of decay. A 3ft
diameter permeable landscape plastic was used around each tree with mulch. Mulching is an annual
process in this type of edible forest garden and typically when you think you have enough, you
should double it.
Three Sisters Garden. The “three sisters garden” is an annual companion planting of corn,
beans and squash commonly used by indigenous people in North America prior to the European
invasion. The corn (usually flint corn) was planted near the center of 18in diameter, 1ft tall mounds
about 3ft apart. The pole beans were grown near the edge of the mounds. Squash (usually winter
squash) was planted on alternate mounds. It is helpful to plant the corn first and allow it to sprout
before planting the beans and squash so the beans do not overtake the corn. The corn provides a
trellis for the pole bean and the squash covers the ground suppressing weeds. All three plants are
good at partitioning space and resources.
Planting Sunchokes. Sunchokes can be very aggressive and one way to help mitigate this is
by planting in mounds similar to the three sisters garden. Groundnuts were planted around the edges
of the mounds in the NW part of the sunchokes with Chinese artichoke planted in the spaces
between to create a perennial three sisters garden of perennial root crops (Jacke 2006). The
groundnuts and Chinese artichoke will need to be divided and established near the other sunchoke
mounds as they begin to spread. It is important to plant sunchokes in a space were their growth can
be controlled and they will not out-compete other crops.
Comfrey and Rhubarb Border Strip. A walk behind rototiller was used to cultivate a strip
along the border of the garden to prevent the surrounding grass sod from moving in during the first
year. During the second year comfrey was planted at 2ft centers in the tilled strip to create a
permanent comfrey border. Comfrey also produces organic matter for mulching and composting.
On the south side of the garden rhubarb was planted at 3ft centers in an attempt to achieve the same
effect while producing an edible crop.
Pruning and Training Fruit Trees. Proper pruning and training has a major impact on fruit
quality, especially in the early years. An effective method of pruning fruit trees to hasten fruiting
which is not yet well known is to prune the dwarf tree into a pyramidal shape with horizontal
branches. Shelves of branches parallel to the ground are established around a central leader. The
first shelf should be about 3ft above the ground with three evenly spaced branches that grow just
below 90 degrees. Horizontal branches flower and fruit earlier and more prolifically. The next
should be a couple of feet higher with the three branches extending out above the gaps in the shelf
below (i.e. the branches should not shade out the branch directly below). The upper shelves should
be cycled out and replaced with the lower shelves becoming permanently established. The central
leader should be pruned back to a weaker leader. All branches should be trained below 90 degrees
to promote fruiting and vertical branches pruned off. Branches can be trained using rubber bands or
weights (Michigan State University 2005).

Establishing Chestnuts. Chinese chestnut varieties were selected for the garden rather than
the European crosses because of the smaller growth form which casts less shade (Fulbright 2005).
Chestnuts are wind pollinated and yield best when planted in groups near each other, so we decided
to plant them in three groups of two at a spacing of 15ft between the two. Some growers plant
chestnuts at mature canopy width and some plant higher density orchards at closer to 10ft centers.
We chose the middle ground between the two methods with the understanding that the trees would
begin yielding long before reaching mature canopy width and some of the trees may not survive to
maturity (Shepard 2006).
Irrigation. Managing soil moisture during establishment increases plant survival especially
for the more delicate herbaceous species and high value crops. We installed an irrigation system in
the garden using 300ft of 1in polypiping curving through the garden on the soil surface with 5, 50’
long hose attachments spaced to reach the entire growing area of the garden. Drip tape was attached
to the polypipe to irrigate the annual tractor beds, grape trellis and strawberry/bramble berry beds.
The water supply allowed for plants to be watered-in during planting and extended periods of
drought. Regular rainfall during the 2006 growing season resulted in a limited need for irrigation.
Establishing Herbaceous Perennials. The ground cover of clover that was established in the
garden to suppress the invasion of undesirable and aggressive species can itself become aggressive
if not managed properly. Three methods were used to establish herbaceous perennials in the clover.
Method 1. The method used to establish the medicinal herb area, perennial root crop area
and asparagus was to break up and till the clover sod across the entire section designated for
planting. The herbs were planted into bare soil and weeds managed as in a traditional garden by
hoeing and hand weeding to allow the herbs to spread and fill the space.
Method 2. The method used to establish the culinary herb area was to lay black plastic over
the designated area the season before to kill the clover sod. The following season the herbs were
planted and managed in the same way as the method above. During bright sun conditions, clear or
black plastic cover can kill the ground cover in a matter of days or weeks.
Method 3. The method used to establish most of the rest of the herbaceous perennials in the
garden was to identify an appropriate location for a plant (given its life history and niche), turn over
the sod with a spade, plant into the resulting bare soil and mulch thickly around the circumference.
The inverted sod provided nutrients and together with wood chip mulch allowed the plant to get
established and compete with the clover. This method can be difficult to implement properly when
there is a large amount of plant material that needs to go into the ground in a short period of time
with minimal labor. Be sure there is ample buffer space between the plant being planted and the
clover.
Spring ephemerals and shade tolerant species can present some establishment challenges
when planting into an early successional ecosystem after they are allowed to produce shade adapted
leaves. Most of the spring ephemerals that were allowed to leaf out in the shade and were
transplanted into sunny areas of the garden lost their leaves. The same plants transplanted to a
shaded area of a different garden maintained most leaves. The ostrich fern (not a spring ephemeral)
senescenced but new growth adapted to the sunny conditions. The spring ephemerals when dug up
and inspected still had living tissue and may produce new growth next growing season. Die back
could have been avoided if the plants were planted during dormancy and allowed to produce sun
adapted leaves. However, when transplanting herbaceous perennials it can be very difficult to find
them while dormant. Potting them and growing them in the shade (i.e. in a nursery) the first season
and then planting them while dormant the second season is an option. Perhaps the most desirable
thing to do would be to just plant them in the shade of a late successional system.
Tilled Annual Tractor Beds. A tractor was used to till 4ft wide annual beds into designated
parts of the garden to grow annual crops such as cutflowers, beans, small grains, edible soy beans
and tomatoes to demonstrate how space can more efficiently be used during early succession
(Figure 2.3). Annual beds allow for crop production in early years before perennials develop an
economically viable crop. Space was available for additional annual production but was not fully
used due to resource and labor restrictions at the SOF.
Figure 2.3 Early successional MSU Edible Forest Garden with fresh tilled annual tractor bed in
foreground ready for planting (June 2007)
Establishing Paths. Paths are established to facilitate management and create aesthetic
appeal. In 2006 paths were mulched with wood chips but this was ineffective at suppressing the
clover and they were soon over grown. In 2007 landscape plastic was laid down on the paths and
wood chip mulch laid on top to suppress the clover. The paths are about 2.5ft wide which is wide
enough to walk down with a wheel barrel but not a garden cart. The edges of the tilled annual
tractor beds are also designated as walking paths and are managed by mowing at a height of 3in.
Nutrient Management. Whenever possible, organic matter from the garden is composted
and cycled back into the garden (with the primary exception being harvested materials). Most weeds
and plant material are placed on the ground near their location after they are killed. Large amounts
of plant material are composted in a designated pile in the SE part of the garden and turned with a
pitchfork periodically. Diseased foliage is always removed from the site and composted in the SOF
compost piles. If perennials appear nutrient stressed they are top dressed with compost from the
SOF or in rare circumstances a solution of Bradfields alfalfa based fertilizer is used.
Planting Blueberries. Blueberries were planted by excavating a hole large enough for 1
cubic foot of peat moss mixed with the excavated soil and 0.275lbs of elemental Sulfur. This is a
rate of 1500lbs/acre to drop the pH one unit in the top 6 inches of soil.

Plant Material Sources and Costs
We first attempted to acquire plant material via divisions from existing, non-pesticide treated
plants and donations. Many species spread vegetatively and can be easily divided and propagated
from the mother plants of other neighborly gardeners. We then attempted to source plants from
local nurseries and remaining plants that could not be found locally were ordered from traditional
tree and berry fruit nurseries, native plant nurseries and conventional landscape suppliers. Some of
the uncommon species could only be found at one source and in some cases they could not be found
at all or were out of stock. Limited availability of certain crops recommended for temperate
permaculture will likely continue to be an issue for several years.
Table 2.5 is a comprehensive listing of all the plant species purposely planted in the MSU
EFG. It also includes a few species that are recommended for future planting in the garden. Table
2.5 includes the common name, botanical name, a brief description of some of the main functions
and uses, plant material supplier, estimated quantity and estimated cost. Undoubtedly the
composition of species in the garden will change over time as some species fail to become
permanently established and others are added to the garden. Table 2.5 does not include the annual
crops, tender perennials or the myriad of weed species (e.g. wild buckwheat, yellow dock,
dandelion, queen ann's lace, pigweed, lambsquarters, plantain, quack grass, purslane, chicory,
smartweed, velvetleaf, nutsedge, Canada thistle, ragweed) interacting in the garden.
In Table 2.5 species that were donated, taken from mother plant divisions, or from existing
seed at the SOF have NA (information not available) in their row/column because that information
is either not available or not relevant. Professors of horticulture Eric Hanson and Jim Flore helped
us to acquire traditional fruit trees and small fruits. The variety names and root stocks are in the
description column of the traditional fruit trees.
Abbreviations for Table 2.5:

z PTF (Pear Tree Farm)
z WT (Wildtype)
z NA (not available)
z B.I. (beneficial insect attracting)
z N Fixing (nitrogen fixing)
z SOF (Student Organic Farm)
z IPC (Indiana Plant Company)
z MBC (Michigan Brewing Company)
Non-plant Materials and Resources. Most of the non-plant materials and resources were
provided by the SOF and the HTRC. Hand tools (e.g. spades, hoes, watering wands), a tractor, a
Troy-Built walk behind rototiller, gas powered weed whip, temporary plant labeling material and
straw mulch were provided by the SOF. The HTRC provided larger tractors, a front-end loader, a
flat bed wagon, tractor implements (e.g. power spader, grain drill, sub-soiler, drag, Land Pride 4’
wide PTO rototiller), trellis wire and hardware, bamboo stakes, surveyors measuring wheel and
wood chipped mulch.
The wood chipped mulch is one of the major inputs of the MSU SOF EFG and was donated
to the HTRC by local tree service businesses. The mulch was moved to the MSU SOF EFG via a
front-end loader and a flat bed wagon pulled behind a tractor. From March 2006 to July 2007 an
estimated 2,940 cubic feet (100+ cubic yards) of wood chipped mulch was applied to the garden.
The amount of mulch used could have been reduced significantly if landscape fabric and landscape
plastic had been utilized in 2006. An additional 840 cubic feet of wood chipped mulch is estimated
to be used during the second part of the 2007 growing season. If the estimated 3780 cubic feet of
wood chips were spread uniformly over the 24,700 sq ft plot the layer would have been 1.8” thick.
Lumber for the pergola, landscape farbric, irrigation hardware (e.g. poly-piping, drip tape,
hose, connectors) and permanent plant labeling materials and signage were purchased with funding
from the USDA Risk Management Agency grant.
Conclusion
The preceding outline of the methods used for development is presented not as a
recommendation for how to develop an EFG plot. It is presented as a summary of the methods used
based on the observation of and recommendations from practitioners and published resources.
Continued observation and experience will be the best indicator of what recommendations to make
to others.
The final plant list and maps follow. The numbers on the maps correspond to the number on
the plant list. This is the amended design that accounts for changes in plant species and cultivars.
An additional plant list and map that shows the cultivar names and locations is provided in the
appendix.

Table 2.5 Plant List for the MSU EFG
No. Common Name Botanical Name Description Plant Source Quantity Cost ($)
1 american hazel Corylus americana nut crop New Forest Farm 21 63
american
2 persimmon
Diospyros virginiana fruit crop Oikos 4 30
3 angelica Angelica astropurpurea B.I. WT 10 12.5
4 anise hyssop Agastache foeniculum culinary herb SOF NA NA
5 apple Malus pumila Liberty, Enterprise, Goldrush, M26 Willow Dri, Boyer 12 85.2
6 asian pear Pyrus bretschneideris var. Korean Giant, Olympus Boyer 6 42.6
7 asparagus Asparagus officinalis perennial vegetable IPC 25 20
8 beach plum Prunus maritima fruit crop Oikos 10 55
9 beebalm Monarda didyma tea plant and B.I. WT 10 10
10 black current Ribes nigrum fruit crop Hartmanns, Hanson, PTF NA NA
11 blackberry Rubus fruiticosus fruit crop Hanson NA NA
12 blackeyed susan Rudbeckia hirta L. B.I. PTF NA NA
13 blue lobelia Lobelia siphilitica B.I. WT 10 10
14 bonset Eupatorium perfoliatum B.I. WT 10 10
15 canada anemone Anemone canadensis B.I. WT 10 12.5
16 chamomile chamaemelum nobile tea plant, B.I. SOF NA NA
17 chicago hardy fig Ficus carica fruit crop Hartmanns 3 NA
18 chinese artichoke Stachys affinis root crop Companion Plants 3 13.5
19 chinese chestnut Castanea mollissima nut crop Nash Nursery 6 150
20 chives Allium schoenoprasmum culinary herb SOF, PTF NA NA
21 columbine Aquilegia canadensis B.I. Tomczak Farm 4 NA
22 comfrey Symphytum spp medicinal, mulch, compost, B.I. SOF NA NA
23 coneflower Ratibida spp Aug 02 WT 10 10
24 cow parsnip Heracleum maximum Jun 21 WT 10 12.5
25 cup plant Silphium perfoliatum Aug 23 WT 10 10
26 daffodils Narcissus jonquil weed suppression, cut flower Van Atta's NA NA
27 day lily Hemerocallis spp perennial vegetable PTF, Tomczak Farm NA NA

Table 2.5 Plant List for the MSU EFG (continued)
28 dunbars plum Prunus x dunbari fruit crop Oikos 5 17.5
29 dwarf spruce Picea glauca 'Conica' tea plant Van Atta's 2 95.38
30 echinacea Echinacea angustifolia medicinal herb SOF NA NA
31 epazote Chenopodium ambrosioides culinary herb SOF NA NA
32 european pear Pyrus communis var. Moonglow, Potomac, BA29C Boyer 6 42.6
33 feverfew Chrysanthemum parthenium medicinal herb SOF NA NA
Companion Plants, Taylor
34 french sorrel Rumex acetosa perennial vegetable Farm
NA 4.25
35 giant solomons seal Polygonatum biflorum perennial vegetable Perennial Pleasures 4 30
36 golden alexanders Zizia aurea Jun 06 WT 10 10
37 good king henry Chenopodium bonus-henricus perennial vegetable Sand Mountain Herbs NA NA
38 gooseberry Ribes hirtellum fruit crop Hanson, IPC, PTF NA 7.25
39 grape Vitis vinifera fruit crop SOF NA
40 groundnut Apios americana root vegetable, N fixing Oikos 4 46
41 hardy kiwi Actinidia aguta fruit crop IPC 6 NA
42 highbush blueberry Vaccinium corymbosum fruit crop Hanson 11 NA
43 hoary vervain Verbena stricta Aug 02 WT 10 10
44 hop Humulus lupulus culinary herb, var. Cascade MBC 5 25
45 horsemint Monarda punctata Aug 16 WT 10 10
46 horseradish Armoracia rusticana culinary herb Taylor Farm NA NA
47 indian potato Heliianthus giganteus subtuberosum root crop WT 10 10
48 ironweed Vernonia missurica Aug 23 WT 10 10
49 japanese burdock Arctium lappa medicinal herb Richters NA NA
50 jinenjo yam Dioscorea japonica root vegetable Oikos 2 8
51 lavender Lavandula angustifolia medicinal herb SOF NA NA
52 lemon balm Melissa officnalis culinary herb SOF NA NA
53 lovage Levisticum officinale perennial vegetable Taylor Farm NA NA
54 marshmallow Althaea officinalis medicinal herb SOF NA NA

55 meadowsweet Spiraea alba Aug 09 WT 10 16
56 mint Mentha spp culinary herb PTF, SOF NA NA
57 motherwort Leonurus cardiaca medicinal herb PTF NA NA
58 multiplier onion Allium cepa aggreatum root vegetable PTF NA NA
59 nanking cherry Prunus tomentosa fruit crop New Forest Farm 16 40
60 new england aster Aster novae-angliae Sep 20 WT 10 10
61 oregano Origanum spp culinary herb Taylor Farm NA NA
62 ostrich fern Matteuccia struthiopteris perennial vegetable Bordine Nursery 4 42
63 pale-leaved sunflower Helianthus strumosus Aug 30 WT 10 10
64 pawpaw Asimina triloba fruit crop Tollgate Gardens 7 164.5
65 peach Prunus var. Allstar Boyer 2 21.5
66 penstemon Penstemon hirtus Jun 14 WT 10 10
67 pilgrim cranberry Vaccinium macrocarpon fruit crop Hartmanns 2 9.5
68 plum Prunus domestica var. Stanley Boyer 1 10.75
69 prairie turnip Psoralea esculenta root crop Morning Sky Greenery 3 23.85
70 ramps Allium tricoccum root crop PTF NA NA
71 raspberry Rubus idaeus fruit crop Hanson NA NA
72 red clover Trifolium pratense ground cover, N fixing, B.I. SOF NA NA
73 red current Ribes silvestre fruit crop Hanson, Hartmann's, PTF NA NA
74 rhubarb Rheum spp perennial vegetable PTF, SOF NA NA
74 sage Salvia officinalis culinary herb SOF NA NA
76 sand coreopsis Coreopsis lanceolata Jun 21 WT 10 10
77 saskatoon Amelanchier alnifolia fruit crop Oikos 7 17.5
78 serviceberry Amelanchier lamarkii fruit crop Oikos 5 15
79 siberian pea shrub Caragana arborescens perennial vegetable, N fixing New Forest Farm 25 62.5
80 silver buffaloberry Shepherdia argentea fruit crop, N fixing Oikos 3 12
81 skirret Sium sisarum root crop, B.I. Perennial Pleasures NA NA

82 smooth aster Aster laevis Sep 27 WT 10 10
83 soapwort Saponaria officinalis medicinal herb Richters NA NA
84 st. johnswort Hypericum perforatum medicinal herb Richters NA NA
85 stinging nettle Urtica dioica perennial vegetable SOF NA NA
86 strawberry Fragaria x ananassa fruit crop Hanson NA NA
87 sunchokes Helianthus tuberosus root vegetable PTF NA NA
88 swamp milkweed Asclepias incarnate Aug 02 WT 10 10
89 sweet cicely Myrrhis odorata culinary herb, B.I. Taylor Farm NA NA
90 sweet goldenrod Solidago odora Tea, B.I. Companion Plants 2 12
91 tansy Tanacetum vulgare fragrance herb Taylor Farm, PTF NA NA
92 taragon Artemisia dracunculus culinary herb PTF NA NA
93 thyme Thymus vulgaris culinary herb PTF NA NA
94 trout lily Erythronium ameranum perennial vegetable PTF NA NA
95 twisted stalk Streptopus rosea shady fruit Sunfarm.com NA NA
96 valerian Valeriana officinalis medicinal herb Richters NA NA
97 violet Viola odorata edible greens SOF NA NA
98 white clover Trilium repens ground cover, N fixing, B.I. SOF NA NA
99 wild ginger Asarum canadense culinary herb Taylor Farm NA NA
100 wild strawberry Fragaria virginiana May 24 SOF NA NA
101 willow Salix spp B.I., basket making Taylor Farm NA NA
102 winter savory Satureja montana culinary herb SOF NA NA
103 wormwood Artemisia absinthium fragrance herb Sand Mountain Herbs NA 1.95
104 yarrow Achllea millfolium medicinal herb, B.I. SOF NA NA
105 yellow giant hyssop Agastache nepetoides Aug 16 WT 10 10

Figure 2.4 Final woody perennials (trees and shrubs) plant map.
Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden , July 2007, pg 50

Figure 2.5 Final herbaceous perennial plant map.

Section 3
Management and Maintenance Plan for the MSU Edible Forest Garden
General Seasonal MSU EFG Management and Maintenance

An edible forest garden is a constantly changing and evolving agroecosystem. Management
is considered over several years in contrast to the somewhat repetitive process of managing the
seasonal cycle of annual cropping systems. Cultural practices are adapted to efficiently manipulate
ecosystem succession through time and space. With this long term vision in mind, there are also
many routine annual management considerations such as pruning, planting, weeding, mulching and
harvesting. Table 3.1 is a summary of a typical seasonal timeline for major management practices
and considerations in the garden. Practices such as weeding, mowing, mulching, irrigating and
harvesting are ongoing throughout the growing season and their needs are monitored and timed
appropriately. Management of this garden requires careful observation and consistent monitoring at
least on a weekly or bi-weekly basis by a skilled horticulturist to assess labor and management
needs. The major establishment phase of the garden has been completed, however proper
establishment of perennials is an ongoing process and can take years. To properly maintain desired
yields of crop plants and aesthetic appeal for this garden it should require at least if not slightly
more labor hours as an annual organic crop field of comparable size.
Table 3.1. Typical seasonal timeline for major MSU EFG management practices and
considerations.
Activity Month
Inventory winter damage March
Prune and train trees March
Order any needed plant material March/April
Prune bramble berries April
Propagate seeds in greenhouse if necessary April
Replace any damaged or dead woody perennials April
Till tractor beds and mandala annual garden April
Prune and train grapes and kiwi April
Major weeding of perennial weeds April
Mow alternate patches of clover (as needed) May-October
Heavy mulching around all plants May/June
Plant three sisters in mandala annual garden June
Vegetative propagation and expansion of perennials June
Till and plant tractor beds June
Mow over strawberry beds July
Major weeding July
Additional mulch added where necessary July
Tree guards and deer repellents installed September
Winterize irrigation and tender perennials October

Long Term Management of MSU EFG
Since very few edible forest gardens have been planted in temperate climates and those that
have, have not existed for long, it is hard to know exactly how the interaction of management
practices and plant species will develop in the long term. Certainly, whatever happens could be
considered a success because as nature teaches us we will gain valuable knowledge of how to
improve such cropping systems in the future. Working with ecosystem succession is not a passive
process but a deliberate manipulation of design elements to create the ecosystem dynamics that
yield the desired outputs of high, diverse yields, maximum self-maintenance, minimum cost and
maximum ecological health (Jacke and Toensmeier 2005). This type of manipulation would mimic
a shifting mosaic model of forest disturbance, with patches in the landscape at various successional
stages.
Currently (2007) the garden is in early succession. The trees are short and cast almost no
shade, the shrubs are small with minimal foliage and everything gives the illusion of being spaced
too far apart. The grape vines and the hops are just beginning to form a canopy. The bramble berries
and strawberries are thick and lush. The annual beds and medicinal herb area are thick and lush.
Most of the newly planted shade intolerant herbaceous perennials are just beginning to establish
themselves amongst the dominate clover and medley of volunteer (weed) species. Species diversity
and richness is very high. Manipulating competition by weeding, mowing and mulching are primary
management considerations. The garden is full of light and space and the primary yields come from
herbs, cut flowers, annual vegetables, strawberries, raspberries, hops and sunchokes.
In the next few years everything will continue to grow rapidly as tree canopies begin to fill
with foliage, trunk diameters thicken, shrubs expand vegetatively and put out suckers, many
herbaceous perennials will spread and thrive as others fail and disappear. Perennial weeds may also
become more prevalent. Manipulating competition will still be very important with an emphasis on
pruning and manipulating the growth of crop species. Shade tolerant herbaceous perennials and
spring emphemerals will be introduced to the garden in greater abundance and begin establishment.
Clover will become a less dominant member of the plant community. The garden will still produce
all the same yields as before but now with a dramatic increase of berry fruit and the beginnings of
some tree fruit and nut production.
Five to ten years into the future the tree canopies of most of the trees will be at mature
canopy size with the paw paws, chestnuts and persimmons still with potential for more. The shrub
species will be at expected mature size. Most herbaceous perennials will be at mature expanse with
others disappearing completely, unable to compete. The garden will have an increase of
microclimates with a diverse landscape texture and balance of sun and shade. Shade tolerant species
and spring ephemerals will become more competitive as the shade allows them to better exploit
their niche space. The hops will grow thickly over the pergola and the perennial three sisters will
produce a thick herbaceous mass. Plants will be beginning to encroach more on the paths and
pruning and manipulation of growth will be a dominant management consideration. The garden will
now be a truly over-yielding polyculture, with fruits and nuts from the trees and shrubs, fruit from
the vines, medicinal and culinary herbs, perennial and annual vegetables, mushrooms and cut
flowers, as well as a host of other species providing various ecosystem services. Some of the crops
will be eaten fresh by CSA members, SOF farmers or sold at farm stand. Some of it will be canned,
dried or preserved. Some of it will be damaged by pests and disease and will be composted or fed to
livestock. The garden will produce an abundance of plant material as species expand vegetatively.
This plant material should be removed and divisions potted and used in other gardens or sold by
direct market. A small nursery area should be created at the SOF for this purpose and to allow
students to learn about various forms of propagating perennial species.
The garden will never become static. As individual plants or species prove or disprove their
value in the garden, they will be removed, replaced or selected out naturally. Succession can be set
back or manipulated at any time or location to best suit the overall goals of the garden and CSA
using permaculture principles as the guidelines. It is hoped that this garden will provide a space for
future students to practice permaculture principles and experiment creatively with manipulating
succession and polyculture combinations in a systematic as well as an organic way. The garden is a
nucleus of intensive perennial polyculture and it is hoped that the long term values of perennial
polyculture systems be expanded and connected to other areas of the MSU Student Organic Farm.
Guilds (i.e. companion plantings) that seem to provide the most successful combinations should be
encouraged, documented and replicated if possible. Even in the absence of management the garden
will still produce relatively high yields of useful crops, although it might not be as aesthetically
pleasing in a conventional sense. Individuals accustomed to tilled soil and straight rows may not be
comfortable at first in the EFG.
This section is meant to focus on some aspects of managing the various plant niche types
over time without going into detail about the specifics of common or traditional organic
horticultural practices.
Trees. As trees mature they will need to be pruned and trained to maximize yields. All of the
trees with the exception of the three American persimmons are grafted varieties and if damaged
need to be replaced or pruned back to viable growth above the graft union to be retrained. In some
circumstances it may be desirable to remove a tree completely due to disease or space
considerations. The rooting area of trees should be kept free of weeds via mulching, weeding or
exclusion by more desirable species (e.g. spring ephemerals or shade tolerant herbs). It is ideal for
trees to be kept watered during fruit development and soil compaction above the rooting area
(roughly 1.5 times the canopy width) should always be avoided.
Vines. The grape and hardy kiwi vines on the trellis will require training and pruning.
Eventually some of the kiwis will need to be removed because only one viable male plant is
required to pollinate (i.e. remove all males except one as they reveal their sex). The hops should be
allowed to inundate the pergola to provide a shady space for visitors and growth expanding away
from the pergola should be mowed, pruned or removed.
Shrubs. All of the shrubs (i.e. berry and nut bushes) will spread themselves vegetatively and
once they reach their desired expanse will require aggressive pruning (e.g. Ribes species) to
maintain fruit quality and aesthetic appeal. The figs will need to be mulched with straw in the fall to
protect them from winter temperature fluctuations. A chicken wire cage around the plants helps to
keep the mulch in place.
Cane fruit. The brambles (e.g. summer and fall bearing raspberries and blackberries) can
become very aggressive if not pruned. Canes that grow outside of their beds should be removed as
with any other weed. If disease becomes an issue it might be necessary to remove them completely
and fallow the beds and start over. Blackberries may need to be trellised with a simple trellis of T-
posts and galvanized wire.
Herbaceous Perennials. Some of the more delicate herbaceous perennials will need
encouragement to expand. In some cases this may mean maintaining a mulched and/or bare soil
buffer area between them and their desired expanse. It may even be necessary to reintroduce some
of the more desirable species as they lose ground or transplant them to other areas of the garden
where they are better able to exploit their niche. Growth from aggressive species may need to be
removed or mowed down as part of the mowing regime. Additions of shade tolerant (e.g. some
spring ephemerals) species should be incorporated into the understory of trees as shade increases
with time. As desired herbaceous perennials establish in new areas of the garden they should be
marked with a stake or label so they can be differentiated from undesirable species. Valuable
species that were not planted during 2007 because of limited availability that should be planted
during the 2008 season are twisted stalk (Streptopus rosea), good king henry (Chenopodium bonus-
henricus), skirret (Sium sisarum), and daffodils (Narcissus jonquil ). Twisted stalk is a shade
tolerant herbaceous perennial that produces watermelon flavored berries in full shade. Skirret is a
perennial root crop and good king henry is a perennial vegetable which can be planted in any sunny
location. The daffodils should be planted in tight spacing around the border of some plants sensitive
to competition to create a barrier against other encroaching species. Plant material sources for these
species are found in Table 2.5.
Ground covers. It is important to provide good air flow within the foliage of strawberries to
reduce pathogens. A gas powered weed whip can be used to create a strip in the center of the bed to
increase air flow. At the end of the fruiting season the foliage should be mowed over with a gas
powered mulching push mower with a mulch collecting basket attachment (to collect any diseased
foliage) to mitigate disease and encourage new growth. If disease becomes prevalent they should be
removed from the beds in the same way as the brambles. The primary ground cover of the garden is
the clover which fixes nitrogen, attracts beneficial insects and suppresses undesirable species. It
should be maintained by mowing and in cases where it is encroaching on more desirable herbaceous
perennials it should be removed to create a buffer space.
Annuals. Annual vegetable, herbs and cut flowers will be maintained in designated beds and
managed the same as annuals in other areas of the farm but with more of an emphasis on companion
planting and mulching.
Summary
Maintaining plant productivity in high density plantings requires routine management and
what to the untrained eye might be considered a “heavy hand”. Pruning, training, deadheading,
restricting vegetative spreading and other horticultural methods to improve flowering and fruiting
while maintaining plant diversity need to be done in a timely and aggressive manner. The ground
cover must also be managed to support pest management, moisture retention and nutrient
availability. The challenges and teaching opportunities for the MSU EFG are many and over time a
more detailed management plan and schedule will need to evolve.

Section 4
MSU Edible Forest Garden Pest Management
Organic and IPM Principles

Organic pest management requires an integrated and holistic strategy. With comparatively
little pest management research specific to organic systems, it is necessary to draw on literature
from fields such as landscape and applied ecology, and more conventional agriculture sciences.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) research has provided a framework for pest management in
organic systems. IPM is a holistic system of pest management that emphasizes enhancement of
natural enemies, plant resistance, cultural methods and minimal pesticide use and can be described
as a four phase strategy for mitigating pest pressure (Batra 1982, Zehnder et al 2007). This four
phase pest management strategy is hierarchal, with the early phases being focused on prevention
and later phases using more reaction type methods (Zehnder et al 2007). Phase one uses cultural
practices compatible with natural processes to make crops unavailable to pests through time and
space. Some examples of cultural practices used in phase one are proper farm and field location,
crop rotations, soil management and non-transgenic host plant resistance. Phase two focuses on
vegetation management to enhance natural enemies such as conservation biological control,
intercropping and trap cropping. Phase three focuses on augmentative and inoculative biological
control and phase four focuses on organically approved biological and mineral pesticides and the
use of pest mating disruption. Organic farmers will often accept lower levels of success from
individual biological control attempts because they are not heavily dependent on them, but rather
dependent on a more holistic approach (Zehnder et al 2007).
Various types of biocontrol (i.e. introduction, augmentation and conservation) are important
in every phase of this IPM strategy. Although introduction and augmentation are both important
tools for organic pest management, conservation biocontrol to enhance local natural enemies is the
foundation. The key to conservation biocontrol is biodiversity and managing for the attributes of
diversity that enhance the efficacy of natural enemies (Landis et al 2000). Organic systems have
been shown to increase biodiversity, species richness and the abundance of natural enemies, making
them ideal for the application of conservation biocontrol. Soil fertility management is an important
component of pest management in organic systems because crop resistance to arthropod pests and
pathogens is optimized with proper physical, chemical and biological soil properties. Greater pest
resistance for plants grown with organic fertilizers compared with those grown with synthetic have
been reported (Zehnder et al 2007).
Conservation biocontrol deserves special consideration in terms of its role in organic pest
management because it seems to be inherent in the cultural practices of organics. There is also a
significant amount of room for improving conservation biocontrol in organic systems by way of
improved vegetation management (Landis et al 2000). Cultural practices such as crop rotations,
cover cropping and conservation tillage, optimize ecosystem health by proper management of both
above-ground and below-ground ecology (Batra 1982, Zehnder et al 2007). The primary objective
of conservation biocontrol is to maximize the efficacy of local natural enemies, which is well suited
for organic systems where all pesticides are discouraged and synthetic pesticides are prohibited
(Altieri 1999, Zehnder et al 2007). Vegetation management in organic pest management can
involve both top-down and bottom-up approaches. A top-down approach is what we typically
intend when enhancing a system for natural enemies. However, a good IPM system should also
include bottom-up approaches such as intercropping and trap cropping which make host plants more
difficult for pests to exploit. The two approaches are compatible in that plants used in intercropping
can provide benefits to natural enemies and increase the search time of pests for host plants making
them more susceptible to attack by natural enemies (Zehnder et al 2007). An example of a top-down
conservation biocontrol practice that has gained popularity in Europe and is starting to be
recognized more in the U.S. is the creation of 'beetle banks'. These are simple beneficial strips of
perennial vegetation in agroecosystems that create refuge for natural enemies such as carabid
beetles (Zehnder et al 2007, Landis et al 2000). These beetle banks can provide over-wintering sites
for more than 1000 predatory arthropods per square meter (Zehnder et al 2007). Another similar
strategy that benefits parasitoids and other predatory natural enemies is the creation of flowering
insectary strips, which provide nectar and pollen (Zehnder et al 2007, Landis et al 2000).
Biodiversity plays a major role in the success of conservation biocontrol strategies and
provides many ecosystem services beyond crop production that enhance the level of internal
regulation in agroecosystems. The ever increasing impacts of agricultural pest populations has been
linked to the expansion of monocultures and consequent destruction of local habitat diversity
(Altieri 1999). Although biodiversity in general mitigates pest pressure in agroecosystems, there are
certain attributes of diversity that have the most significant impact. These selective attributes are
what should be managed to enhance the efficacy of natural enemies. This may mean incorporating
plant species into the landscape that enhance availability of food sources (e.g nectar), alternative
prey or hosts and refuge for natural enemies (Batra 1982, Landis et al 2000). It is important to
consider these elements through time and space in order to maximize their effectiveness (Landis et
al 2000).
Organic systems generally have positive impacts on biodiversity and species richness
(Bengtsson et al 2005, Hole et al 2005). In a series of studies surveyed on the diversity of biota in
organic verses conventional agricultural systems, higher levels of species diversity and/or
abundance were found under the categories of flora, earthworms, butterflies, spiders, beetles, other
arthropods, small mammals and birds (Hole et al 2005). The studies that showed the most striking
comparisons between conventional and organic were those conducted on the plot scale and on
average non-crop organisms were 50% more abundant in organic systems. The results of these
species richness and abundance studies indicate that local densities of soil fauna and natural
enemies is higher in organic systems but there is little evidence that shows higher densities of pest
insects (Bengtsson et al 2005). It has been suggested that most of the differences in diversity
between conventional and organic agriculture are due to management practices used on organic
farms in order to compensate for conventional pest suppression. Polyculture is a beneficial
management practice used on many organic farms which can enhance habitat diversity for natural
enemies. This can be done in the form of strip cropping of annual crops or with the integration of
perennials (Batra 1982). When comparing the success of classical biocontrol in unstable (annual),
intermediate (orchard/perennial) and stable (forest or rangeland) systems, the systems of
intermediate disturbance had significantly more successes (Hall et al 1980). Several studies have
indicated that perennial systems provide better habitat for natural enemies because they have lower
levels of disturbance (Batra 1982, Landis et al 2000). This evidence suggests that an organic
perennial polyculture system of intermediate disturbance such as edible forest garden permaculture
has the best chance of successfully using biocontrol to regulate pests and diseases.
Practices
Pest management for this project started with preparing the soil. Healthy soil yields healthy
plants (better able to repel attack) and minimal weeds in the soil reduces competition. To help
control arthropod pests both a top down and a bottom up strategy were used. The bottom up strategy
is the basis of using polyculture to mitigate pest pressure. Placing crop plants in a polyculture makes
it more difficult for pests to locate them through space and time. The top down strategy involves
planting native herbaceous perennial species to attract natural enemies, such as predatory and
parasitoid insects. The plant species chosen for the MSU EFG have the highest ratings for
attracting natural pest enemies and pollinating species with peak bloom dates that spanned the entire
growing season based on a collaborative study done by Doug Landis and Rufus Isaacs et al of the
MSU Department of Entomology using plants available at Wildtype native plant nursery. Table 4.1
shows a list of the species used in the garden and their peak bloom dates. The plants were dispersed
in the garden in diverse aggregates of species to provide nectary resources in all parts of the garden
through time and space. The plants in Table 4.1 provide the basis of the conservation biocontrol
strategy but many other plant species in the garden including crops species (e.g. cut flowers) also
have perceived benefits for beneficial insects and provide additional nectary resources and habitat
and will hopefully fill in any of the gaps in resource availability.
Table 4.1. Native perennial beneficial insect attracting species from Wildtype Plant Nursery in
order of peak bloom date.
Common Name Latin Name Bloom Date

wild strawberry Fragaria virginiana 24-May
golden alexanders Zizia aurea 6-Jun
penstemon Penstemon hirtus 14-Jun
angelica Angelica Astropurpurea 14-Jun
Canada anemome Anemone canadensis 14-Jun
cow parsnip Heracleum maximum 21-Jun
sand coreopsis Coreopsis lanceolata 21-Jun
swamp milkweed Asclepias incarnata 2-Aug
coneflower Ratibida pinnata 2-Aug
hoary vervain Verbena stricta 2-Aug
meadow sweet Spiraea alba 9-Aug
horseming Monarda punctata 16-Aug
beebalm Monarda didyma 16-Aug
yellow gian hyssop Agastache nepetoides 16-Aug
blue lobelia Lobelia siphilittica 23-Aug
boneset Eupatorium perfoliatum 23-Aug
ironweed Vernonia missurica 23-Aug
pale-leave sunflower Helianthus strumosus 30-Aug
New England aster Aster novae-angliae 30-Sep
smooth aster Aster laevis 27-Sep
Since this garden is in early succession (2007) we have not yet encountered most of the pests
that could potentially affect an organic perennial polyculture and cannot claim expertise in this area
because we are still learning. This section provides some of the common pest management
strategies that we have used or perceive will be needed. One pest management concern pertaining to
the location of this garden is that it is bordered to the east by conventional (i.e. systems that use
synthetic pesticides) cherry and apple production and to the south by conventional apple production,
with other conventional perennial production systems in the surrounding area. This is a concern
because our organic perennials could become an unintended “trap crop” for the pests in the

conventional systems providing them with hosts. However, there are plenty of reasons for hope.
Unmanaged fruit trees and berry bushes planted in polyculture on the Student Organic Farm in 2002
have produced quality fruit with marginal damage, with the exception of tart cherries. Many useful
Integrated Pest Management resources can be found at http://www.ipm.msu.edu/ .
Current SOF Pest Management Strategies. The SOF currently uses a holistic pest
management strategy common on many organic farms for controlling pests on annual crops,
implementing phase 1 and phase 2 preventative measures (e.g. row covers, polyculture, trap
cropping, crop rotations, maintaining soil health). When a damaging pest outbreak does occur phase
4 strategies are used. For example Colorado potato beetle is managed by periodically walking down
the rows of infested nightshades with a bucket of water and knocking the adult beetles and larva in
to drown. Flea beetles are physically sucked off the plants with a vacuum. Striped cucumber beetles
are usually managed with row covers and trap crops. Cabbage loopers and other lepidoptera are
sometimes dusted with diatomaceous earth and in rare cases sprayed with Bt (Bacillus
thuringiensis). To control powdery mildew on cucurbits kaolin clay or baking soda are sometimes
sprayed.
Future Educational Opportunities. Since the SOF is an educational farm the fruit trees in the
MSU EFG will provide opportunities for learning about various organic pesticides. Students will be
able to learn pest identification and see the results of spraying verses not spraying on crop yield and
quality. The garden will also provide a space to compare arthropod diversity and community
structure, pest density, pollinator efficacy and natural enemy efficacy in a perennial polyculture
with that of a more traditionally managed system.
Considerations for Some Common Pests

Four Legged Herbivores. The best way to prevent mammalian herbivores from damaging
woody perennials is by excluding them. Most shrubs can handle some damage because they usually
sprout back from the roots but if a grafted tree is damaged it often needs to be replaced. Young
shrubs and trees can be protected from rabbits by using small chicken wire cages or tree guards.
Rodents will often girdle trees during the winter months and this can be prevented by making sure
that mulch is not piled up on the base of the tree and plastic tree guards extend all the way to the
ground. Deer are more difficult to control and typically bucks will girdle trees by rubbing on them
during the rut. This can be discouraged by making sure tree guards are placed on trees before the
fall rut. Browse damage from deer is more difficult to prevent because it can occur during any time
of year. Tree guards are still the first line of defense to prevent complete destruction of the tree but
other measures can be used such hanging soap or human hair around the tree. Commercial deer
repellents are also available, but be sure to check with your organic certifier if this is a concern. The
only sure way to exclude deer is with fencing.
Quack Grass and Other Undesirable Perennials. Quack grass is one of the most difficult
weeds to manage organically in a perennial garden and requires special consideration. For this it is
best to have a strategy of exclusion, removal and tolerance (which could be applied to any weed
pest). If at all possible it should be removed prior to planting during the sight preparation phase. In
this garden we removed as much as possible by running a drag across the soil pulled by a tractor.
Once the garden is planted it can be excluded from smaller garden spaces by using rhizome barriers.
In larger areas its progress can be impeded by using plants such as comfrey, rhubarb or daffodils but
in most cases it is not likely to ever be completely eliminated. Quack grass is one of the first plants
to leaf out in early spring making it very visible and this is the best time physically remove it using
a digging fork. It is worth the effort to remove as much as possible during this early period,
focusing on patches of highest concentration. The best time to do this is right after a spring rain
when the ground is soft. In the end some level of tolerance will likely be necessary.
Plastic films, either clear or black, can also be used for short periods of time to kill quack
grass or other vegetation by heat or “solarization”. This method can be demonstrated during the
highest light periods of the summer by covering the ground cover with a piece of clear plastic film.
Plant foliar damage is evident within hours. We do not have experience with the killing time for
rhizomes. It likely would take days or weeks.
Pathogens and Arthropods. When preventative measures fail and tolerance thresholds are
reached, reactionary methods of pest control may be necessary. In organic systems this usually
means the use of pest mating disruptrs, sticky traps and mineral or plant based pesticides approved
for organic certification. The details of this are beyond the scope of this paper but it is important to
attempt a diversity of methods and to do your best to knock down an entire generation of a pest to
prevent the reproduction of the next generation (Phillips 2005). Here are a few examples of sprays
used in organic systems. Many lepidopteran pests can be controlled using Bt, surround, entrust and
neem oil. Sulfur and copper sprays can work for many fungal and bacterial diseases and a spray of
baking soda can help control powdery mildew. Many arthropod pests can be controlled with
botanical sprays such as rotenone, pyrethrum, ryania and nicotine. Garlic can be used as a repellent.
Japanese beetles (a particularly damaging pest to grapes) should be sprayed with pyrethrum upon
arrival before they are able to deposit large amounts of a hormone they use to signal their location
to other members of the species. However, these materials are non-selective and can be damaging to
beneficial predators and in some cases humans. Use of “restricted” materials must be justified. All
of these sprays should be used with caution and with proper instruction (Phillips 2005).
Section 4 Literature Cited

Altieri, M.A. 1999. The ecological role of biodiversity in agroecosystems. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ.
74:19-31.
Batra, S.W.T. 1982. Biological control in agroecosystems. Science. 215:134-139.
Bengtsson, J., J. Ahnstrom and A. Weibull. 2005. The effects of organic agriculture on biodiversity
and abundance: a meta-analysis. J. Appl. Ecol. 42:261-269.
Fulbright, D. 2005. Personal communication.
Hall, R.W., I.E. Ehler and B. Bisabri-Ershadi. 1980. Rates of success in classical biocontrol of
arthropods. Bulletin of the Entomological Society of America. 26:111-114.
Hole, D.G., A.J. Perkins, J.D. Wilson, I.H. Alexander, P.V. Grice and A.D. Evans. 2005. Does
organic farming benefit biodiversity? Biol. Control. 122:113-130.
Landis, D.A., S. D. Wratten and G.M. Gurr. 2000. Habitat management to conserve natural enemies
of arthropod pests in agriculture. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 45:175-201.
Michigan State University. 2005. HRT 491 Fruit tree production and management. Department of
Horticulture.
Phillips, M. 2005. The apple grower. Chelsea Green Publishing. p.343.

USDA. Natural Resource Conservation Service web soil survey.
http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/
USGS. 2006. Regional ecosystems of Michigan, Minnesota and Wisconsin. Northern Prairie
Wildlife Research Center. Sub-section VI.4.1.Lansing.
http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/habitat/rlandscp/s6-4-1.htm
Zehnder, G., G.M. Gurr, S. Kuhne, M.R. Wade, S.D. Wratten and E. Wyss. 2007. Arthropod pest
management in organic crops. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 52:57-80.

Edible Forest Garden Summary
The MSU EFG was conceived from a diverse body of literature pertaining to Integrated
Perennial Polyculture that includes the interrelated disciplines of agroforestry and permaculture.
The design of the system follows a systematic approach to creating over-yielding polycultures that
can be replicated and applied to any scale of land use in any bioregion. These tree based polyculture
systems provide many ecosystem benefits, perform many ecosystem functions and provide useful
services and products. This has many applications to year-round diversified farming systems,
including urban agriculture and home landscaping. Less common species can be integrated with
conventional perennial fruit and vegetables crops as well as annuals, cutflowers and herbs to yield a
productive, ecologically sustainable landscape. Figure 4.1 shows the garden after final plantings
with the author out standing in his field.
Figure 4.1 MSU Edible Forest Garden with the apple orchard in the background to the south (June
2007).

Appendices

Frequently Asked Questions about the MSU Edible Forest Garden
What is Edible Forest Gardening? (EFG)
Edible forest gardening is an emerging method of landscape design and maintenance which
incorporates principles of horticulture, ecology, permaculture, agroforestry, and indigenous
agriculture methods. Plant species are mixed to capitalize on beneficial associations and to create
an efficient three dimensional structure for collecting light energy above ground and water and
nutrients below ground. Management strategies are implemented to conserve water, build soil
fertility and organic matter, reduce the competition from “weed” or ground cover crops, and
minimize yield reducing occurrences of plant damaging insects and fungi.
What is Permaculture?
Permaculture is a more extensive and integrated philosophy and method of landscape, homestead
and community design and maintenance that includes the principles and practices of edible forest
gardening. Permaculture planning includes ethical principles for community interactions and
human interaction with the natural landscape as well as efficiency considerations used to
incorporate areas such as energy, water conservation and use, animal agriculture, housing, etc.
Permaculture seeks to honor and incorporate long standing successful traditions of indigenous
peoples for living in harmony with the landscape. Permaculture as a named and formalized system
emerged in the 1970’s in tropical and subtropical climates/geographic regions and continue to
evolve and be applied to temperate and cold climates/geographic regions.
What is Ecology and Ecological Design?
Ecology is a branch of scientific investigation and education focused on understanding the

interactions of organisms and their environment. The prefix “eco” comes from the Greek word
“oikos” which means home. One definition describes ecology as “the study of home”.
Subcategories might include “forest ecology”, “soil ecology”, “marsh ecology” based on
understanding ecosystems consisting of plant, animal and microorganism communities. We can be
hopeful that the human species is growing and evolving from a vision or paradigm rooted in the
industrial/scientific revolution to one rooted in ecological evolution. Proposed components of an
ecological agriculture are 1) crop diversity, 2) self sustaining fertility, 3) ground cover management
to conserve soil and organic matter, 4) three dimensional plant canopy and root systems, and 5)
consideration of the natural changes over time (temporal shifts) that occur both seasonally and as an
ecosystem matures.
What is Polyculture? (Integrated Annual Perennial Polyculture)
With the application of the principles of the industrial revolution to agriculture, output per unit time
of human labor was increased by use of extensive “monocultures” of individual plant species. Such
monocultures result in the loss of plant, soil and animal health that arises from ecological
interactions and diversity. One aspect of polyculture is capitalizing on the health benefits of a
diverse cropping system. A second aspect of polyculture is capitalizing on the advantages of both
perennial and annual crop species. Perennial crops such as tree fruit (apples), brambles
(raspberries), shrubs (blueberries) and vines (grapes) require pruning and training methods and
ground cover management systems with limited or no annual plowing. Often farmers or gardeners
have kept perennials and annuals separate as opposed to interplanted.
Is edible forest gardening “gardening in a forest” or “making a garden like a forest”?
Making a garden like a forest is the better method to describe the EFG. By observing natural
ecosystems, we can see that often the zone between an open field and a closed canopy forest can be
a very productive “margin” or “fringe” area or ecosystem with unique properties. With some trees
and some open areas, plant growth and productivity of a wide diversity of plants can occur. This
zone is also characterized or explained by understanding the “succession” of plant species that
occurs when an open field area gradually converts to shrub growth and eventually trees and finally a
closed canopy forest.
How is the tree canopy managed to let enough light for shrub and ground cover species?
Light penetration is managed by planting of tree species taking into account their ultimate size and
by continuous pruning or removing of trees as the canopy matures. Vining crops like grapes are
also allowed to either trellis on trees or are provided trellises to allow greater light efficiency.
How are plants grouped to more efficiently mine water and nutrients from the soil?
Plant root systems are often described as either fibrous, shallow and spreading or as “tap” or deep
rooted. By mixing plants with deep and shallow root systems, more of the soil profile can be used
by roots to collect water and nutrients.
How are “weeds” or over-aggressive vegetation managed?
In any ecosystem there are plants that will establish to fill the space available. If the species is
overly competitive, of limited human value for harvesting, or restricts the growth of the desired
agricultural species, the plant growth can be restricted by mulching with either more competitive
plants (comfrey, for example) or with layers of natural (bark, straw, cut plants, etc) or synthetic
(plastic, landscape fabric) materials that limit the availability of water, nutrients or light. Other
physical methods include pruning or mowing.
How is soil fertility managed?
Plant nutrients in soil minerals gradually become available by weathering and biological absorption
by microorganisms and nutrient efficient plant species. The cycling of the nutrients depends on
maintaining the organic matter that develops from the microorganisms and decaying plants and
carefully managing the rate of decay. Vegetation that is pruned is recycled by either leaving on the
soil surface for slow composting or by managed composting in piles.
What are some examples of who would use an Edible Forest Garden?
z Schools and educational programs seeking to demonstrate gardening and farming methods,
principles of ecology, ecological agriculture, food system management, and disciplines such
as design, soil fertility management, ground cover management, and plant maintenance.
z Families and small communities seeking to develop personal food security, increase dietary
diversity, provide supplemental income from sale of fresh vegetables, fruits, herbs and
flowers, and outdoor, physically active recreational activity with multiple health benefits
without car travel necessary. Could be implemented with personal landholdings as small as
100 square feet or in community allotments or communal plots for urban agriculture.
z Market gardeners and farmers seeking to develop low input, alternative production systems
using a mix of perennial and annual crops for year round production and harvesting.
z Large plot land owners seeking a method of generating income from the sale of agricultural
products that does not require annual large scale cultivation of the land.
Is the MSU EFG modeled after some place or an example we see in nature?
When cultivation is stopped a field will gradually revert back to forest through a process called
“ecological succession”. The intermediate step or field in mid succession typically has both more
species and diversity and is potentially more productive. Trees are developing, but the canopy is
still open so there is adequate light for understory plants, vines and ground covers. This
intermediate and constantly changing stage is one possible natural example of the EFG.
When did planning for the MSU EFG begin and what was the process?
Soil improvement for the EFG plot started in 2003 and continued through the summer of 2005 when
regular cultivation began to incorporate the sheet composted organic matter and to reduce weed
seed populations. A rye cover crop was planted in the fall of 2005 and a mixture of white and red
clover where frost seeded during the spring of 2006. The design process started late in 2005 and
continued through winter 2006. Planting started in spring 2006 while the rye cover crop was just
emerging and developing and continued through the summer and into July of 2007.
What is a three sisters garden?
The three sisters garden used by Native Americans across north and south America is an example of
an efficient polyculture and is one of the inspirations of the MSU EFG. Corn seeds were planted in
mounds of soil at a spacing that allowed growth of bean and squash crops planted later. After the
corn became established, trailing beans were planted adjacent to the corn so that the beans grew up
the corn stalk and fruit was well above the ground, reducing the access of predators. Squash seeds
were planted so that the vines covered the ground between the mounds of corn which both reduced
the growth of other competing species and helped to conserve water. The prickly, scratchy nature
of the squash vines also helped to reduce the access of predators to the corn and beans. The dried
corn and beans together with the hard rind squash provided food through the winter months.

Edible Forest Garden Permaculture Resources
Temperate Permaculture Reading List
Edible Forest Gardens (vol 1&2) by Dave Jacke and Eric Toensmeier (2005)
Gaia's Garden by Toby Hemenway (2000)
Permaculture: a designers manual by Bill Mollison (1988)
Permaculture: Principles and Pathways Beyond Sustainability by David Holmgren (2002)
The Earth Care Manual by Patrick Whitefield (2005)
Food Not Lawns by Heather Flores (2006)
Introduction to Permaculture by Bill Molison (1991)
The Apple Grower by Michael Phillips (2005)
Perennial Vegetables by Eric Toensmeier (2007)
The Complete Book of Edible Landscaping by Rosalind Creasy (1982)
Plants for a Future by Ken Fern (2000)
Plant Propagation (Royal Horticulture Society, UK) by Phillip McMillan Browse (2004)
Growing Fruit (Royal Horticulture Society, UK) by Harry Baker (2004)
Many books such as these can be found at Chelsea Green Publishing. http://www.chelseagreen.com/
Permaculture Material Sources

Hartmann's Plant Company (small Fruit)
http://www.hartmannsplantcompany.com/index.html, 269-253-4281
Indiana Berry and Plant Company (small fruit)
http://www.inberry.com/index2.html, 1-800-295-2226
Southmeadow Fruit Gardens (fruit trees)
http://www.southmeadowfruitgardens.com/, 269-422-2411
Gurny's Seed and Nursery (almost everything)
http://gurneys.com/, 503-266-9814
Oikos Tree Crops (native fruits)
http://oikostreecrops.com/, 269-624-6233
Wildtype (native plants)
http://www.wildtypeplants.com/ , 517-244-1140
Richters (herbs)
http://www.richters.com/ , 905-640-6677
Bailey Nurseries (fruit trees)
http://www.baileynurseries.com/ , 800-829-8898
Nash Nurseries (chestnut trees)
4975 W Grand River Rd, Owosso, MI 48867, 517-651-5278
Tollgate Gardens & Nursery (pawpaws)
http://www.tollgategardens.com/index.html, 269-781-5887
Johnny's Selected Seeds (vegetable seeds)
http://www.johnnyseeds.com/ , 877-564-6697
Fedco Co-op Garden Supplies (vegetable seeds)
http://www.fedcoseeds.com/, 207-873-7333
Trickl-eez (irrigation)
http://www.trickl-eez.com/, 800.874.2553
Farmtek (greenhouses, hardware and tools)
http://www.farmtek.com/farm/supplies/home, 800-457-8887
Rare herbaceous perennials for permaculture:

Perennial Pleasures http://www.perennialpleasures.net/
Morning Sky Greenery http://www.morningskygreenery.com/
Bordine Nursery http://www.bordine.com/
Companion Plants http://www.companionplants.com/
Sand Mountain Herbs http://www.sandmountainherbs.com/
Sunshine Farm & Gardens http://www.sunfarm.com/
Other informational resources (in order of recommended use):
Permaculture Activist (large U.S. permaculture network)

http://www.permacultureactivist.net/
Midwest Permaculture (certification and other resources)
http://www.midwestpermaculture.com/
Edible Forest Gardens (permaculture/agroforestry consulting and services)
http://www.edibleforestgardens.com/
Michigan State University Student Organic Farm
http://msuorganicfarm.com/home.htm
Michigan State University Integrated Pest Management
http://www.ipm.msu.edu/about.htm
Association for Temperate Agroforestry
http://www.aftaweb.org/
National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service (ATTRA)
http://www.attra.org/
New Forest Farms, LLC (permaculture/agroforestry consulting and services)
(608)6270-TREE, forestag@mwt.net
For more information contact:
Jay Tomczak
Earthtrust Services, LLC
jay@earthtrustservices.org
http://earthtrustservices.org/
phone (616)293-7208

Examples of Permaculture Principles Being Implemented in Communities
Holmgren (2002) believes that it is inevitable that the permaculture ethics and design
principles will be used as a framework for developing a sustainable global society, regardless of
whether or not they progress under the banner of permaculture or diffuse obscurely into the broader
culture. Very few permaculture influenced projects and organizations are explicitly labeled as such.
Therefore when researching examples of permaculture influenced projects, I focused on projects
that either had a known connection to permaculture (e.g. The project was influenced by a known
permaculture practitioner), the organization or movement facilitating the project has a known
relationship with permaculture (e.g. the relocalization movement) or the project blatantly uses
known permaculture practices (e.g. edible landscaping). I chose examples of projects which had
community food security as one of the primary objectives and contained lessons that could be
applied to low-income urban communities.
There have been several organizations from the permaculture movement that have facilitated
community action at various scales. The relocalization movement initiated by the Post Carbon
Institute is a movement with close interactions with the permaculture movement. Relocalization is
about making efficient use of local energy and resources to provide for local needs. Central to this is
a focus on community food security (Genauer 2006). Across the northern hemisphere regional
relocalization organizations are developing and implementing a framework for their communities to
procure all their needs sustainably. Some of these groups are, the Willets Economic Localization
plan in California, the Tompkins County Relocalization project in New York, Capital District
Relocalization Plan in New York, Bay Localize in California and Kinsale Energy Decent Plan in
Ireland (also very influential in the U.S). All of these projects implement permaculture principles
and employ the energy of permaculture educated individuals. These groups have created inventories
of community resources and networks to provide policy makers and community members with the
information they need to make effective decisions (Genauer 2006).
Two prototype permaculture neighborhood projects found in the U.S. are the Prescott
Ecohood and Kennedy Estates Edible Landscaping Project. The development of an 'ecohood' in
Prescott, Arizona is a permaculture project in the mid to low-income neighborhood of Lincoln-
Dameron. This neighborhood is about half Latino/Native American, with the rest being college
students and retirees. The community members are developing rainwater collection systems, gray
water systems, organic gardens with fruit trees and animals, and they have created a network of
individuals that share information, tools, skills and resources (Defreitas 2006). In California, the
Sacramento Hunger Commission developed the Kennedy Estates Edible Landscaping Project as a
community food security program. Their mission is to make access to affordable, nutritious and
culturally appropriate food a basic human right. The edible landscape created by the project
includes a diversity of perennial fruit bearing trees, shrubs, annual vegetables and herbs. An
assessment was made of available space, water, information, financial resources, material resources
and human resources, focusing on health, community empowerment, the environment and social
cohesion for the low-income community of Kennedy Estates (Salcone 2005). The project includes
working with city clerks and county extension to understand zoning codes, a comprehensive
landscape design and a timeline for long term maintenance and care. An important component of
the project is the facilitation of community ownership through nutritional and horticultural
education, and community events. Guidelines were established for harvest, distribution and
maintenance of food crops. Projects such as these must be specifically adapted to a community's
climate, space and resources (Salcone 2005).

In Russia, agriculture was nationalized during the Bolshevik revolution and peasant farmers
were moved off the land. But with pending food shortages in WWII, the people were authorized to
reclaim the land and their agrarian traditions. Currently, permaculture techniques are used on a large
scale in the traditional dacha gardens, the Russia-wide Ringing Cedars movement, dacha
cooperatives and ecovillages. These practices produce 40% of Russia's agricultural output, which
includes 92% of the potatoes, 77% of the vegetables, 87% of fruits and berries, 59.4% of meat and
49.2% of milk. This does not include the important contributions of fishing, hunting and gathering
of wild plants (Sharashkin et al 2005). More than 50% of urban dwellers have access to dacha
gardens and it is considered a sustainable, productive and socially important practice. In a survey
conducted by Artemov (2002) it was reported that 86% of gardeners thought that their garden plots
were essential and important to their survival. People often share their surplus or turn it into
economic opportunity in the market. Besides contributions to social, economic and environmental
stability, advocates of this new garden movement claim an enhanced spiritual connection with the
natural world (Sharashkin et al 2005).
The most commonly cited example of successfully applied permaculture is the post Soviet
collapse story of Cuba. Permaculture was only one of many contributions to the agrarian revolution
occurring during this Cuban transition period. Prior to the collapse of the Soviet Union, Cuba had
one of the most industrialized food systems anywhere in the world and was heavily dependent on
pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers and mechanization (i.e. fossil fuels). They exported citrus,
sugarcane and tobacco, and imported basic food staples. With unrelenting U.S. trade embargoes and
the collapse of the Soviet Union, Cuba lost its support system and went into almost instantaneous
economic collapse. It lost 50% of its oil imports and 85% of its trade economy. During this time the
average Cuban lost 30 pounds (Quinn 2006). Starving communities instantly mobilized to plant
vegetables wherever they could and obtaining enough food for the day became the primary activity
of most Cubans. In 1993 a group of Australians came to teach permaculture. With a modest grant
from the government, the Foundation for Nature and Humanity's urban permaculture demonstration
project center began in Havana. The permaculture principles then spread rapidly across the country.
People began growing food organically, in raised beds in parking lots, on roof tops and patios.
Urban gardens replaced the need for long distance transport of food, compost replaced fertilizer,
polyculture replaced monoculture, people ate less meat and in rural areas oxen replaced tractors.
Today 50% of Havana's vegetables are grown within the city and in other towns 80-100%. Farmers
formed cooperatives and neighbors worked together to build a strong local economy. Cuban
institutions have begun large scale production of bio-pesticides and bio-fertilizers and have
exported them to other Latin American countries. Complementary to this food security centric
revolution was the government facilitated development of mass public transit, ride shares,
thousands of bicycles, renewable energy and energy conservation technologies, a holistic health
care system, more doctors and nurses, more teachers and soccer (Quinn 2006). The government
reorganized provinces for the benefit of agriculture and opened up public land to private growers
and neighborhood gardens. This was a top-down and bottom-up effort in which government policy
and grassroots organization came together for the common good. Cuba changed its 30 year motto of
“Socialism or Death” to “A Better World is Possible” (Quinn 2006).
Establishing increased food security in a community requires a holistic approach. A food
system cannot be sustained in isolation and needs to be integrated with a network of social,
economic and environmentally sustainable practices. Permaculture ethical and design principles
were developed to create a holistic framework for developing community food security and
community sustainability. The maturation of the permaculture movement has created a stable
network of permaculture educated individuals and access to the permaculture principles, setting the
stage for the widespread adoption of these principles in communities in need. The permaculture
philosophy can be used as a framework to connect people physically, mentally and politically to
their food system. Permaculture has been used successfully across the globe to create positive
synergistic relationships in homes, neighborhoods and nations, for the purpose of creating stable,
diverse, resource independent communities.
Literature Cited
Defreitas, S. 2006. Prescott's sustainable ecohood. Communities. Social Science Module 131.
Living. Issue 130.

Design Services. p.286.
Mollison, B. 1988. Permaculture: a designer’s manual. Tagari Publications.
Quinn, M. 2006. The power of community: how Cuba survived peak oil. The Permaculture Activist.
Salcone, J. 2005. The edible landscaping tool kit: an informational guide for low-income housing
settings to develop a healthy and productive landscape. Sacramento Hunger Commission.
Sharashkin, L. et al. 2005. Ecofarming and agroforestry for self-reliance: small-scale, sustainable
growing practices in Russia. Association for Temperate Agroforestry Conference
Proceedings.

Plant list for identification of MSU EFG woody species cultivars.
1 American Persimmon Diospyros virginiana

2 Ecos
3 Pipher
4 Apple Malus pumila
5 Enterprise
6 Golden Gala
7 Goldrush
8 Lliberty
9 Smoothie
10 Asian pear Pyrus bretschneideris
11 Korean Giant
12 Olympus
13 Blackberry Rubus fruiticosus
14 Chester (thornless)
15 Illini
16 Blueberry Vaccinium spp
17 Blue crop Vaccinium corymbosum
18 Jersey Vaccinium corymbosum
19 Lowbush blueberry Vaccinium angustifolium
20 Bush plum Prunus spp
21 Beach plum Prunus maritime
22 Dunbars plum Prunus x dunbari
23 Nana plum Prunus maritima 'nana'
24 Chinese Chestnut Castanea mollissima
25 Benton Harbor
26 Eaton
27 Norm Higgins
28 Williamette
29 Current Ribes spp
30 Black current Ribes nigrum
31 Jonkeer Vantets
32 Josta
33 Red current Ribes Silvestre
34 Rovada
35 White Imperial
36 European pear Pyrus communis
37 Clapps Favorite
38 Kieffer

39 Moonglow
40 Potomac
41 Sweet Harrow
42 Fig Ficus carica
43 Chicago Hardy
44 Gooseberry Ribes hirtellum
45 Consort
46 Hinnomaki
47 Invicta
48 Johns Prairie
49 Grapes Vitis vinifera
50 Elmer Swenson
51 Himrod
52 Mars
53 Marquis
54 Vanessa
55 Hardy kiwi Actinidia aguta
56 Ananasnaya (Anna)
57 Hop Humulus lupulus
58 Cascade
59 Pawpaw Asimina triloba
60 Lynns Favorite
61 Taylor
62 Peach Prunus persica
63 Allstar
64 Plum Prunus domestica
65 Stanley
66 Raspberry Rubus idaeus
67 Heritage (fall)
68 Prelude (summer)
69 Saskatoon Amelanchier alnifolia
70 Regent
71 Strawberry Fragaria x ananassa
72 Honeoye
73 Jewel

Plot Map with Wooody Speicies by Cultivar


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What is the purpose of the edible forest garden?

What is the purpose of the edible forest garden?

What are some of the design principles discussed for temperate climate edible forest gardens?

What are some of the design principles discussed for temperate climate edible forest gardens?

Edible Forest Garden

Background, Development and Future Plans for

As part of the requirements for the

Copyright Protected – Not to be reproduced without the permission of the Author

“We are not working with nature, we are nature working.”

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 1

Topic Page No.

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 2

John Biernbaum, Professor of Horticulture and SOF Co-Advisor July 2007

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 3

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 9

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 10

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 11

Alavalapati and Nair (2001) classify Tropical Agroforestry Systems as follows:

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 14

Permaculture design principles described by Holmgren (2002).

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 16

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 17

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 18

Edible Forest Gardens and Multistrata Homegardens

Common Design Principles for Temperate Climates

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 24

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 25

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 26

Combe, J. 1982. Agroforestry techniques in tropical countries: potential and limitations.

Holmgren, D. 2002. Permaculture: principles and pathways beyond sustainability. Holmgren

International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF). 1997. Redefining agroforestry-and

Kovach, J. 2005. Ohio State University polyculture trials (IPM). Extension.

Leuty, T. 2001. Intensive intercropping in orchard agriculture an extension report. Proceedings

Mergen, F. 1987. Research opportunities to improve the production of homegardens. Agroforestry

Mollison, B. 1988. Permaculture: a designers manual. Tagari Publications. p.575.

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 28

Shepard, M. and Weiseman, W. 2006. Permaculture: exceptional certification training course.

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 29

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 30

Plot Description and Development

flowing tractor/annual row beds

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 34

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 35

Amended Garden Design July 2007

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 36

Notes, Discussion and Critique of Implementation Steps

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 37

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 38

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 39

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 41

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 43

Abbreviations for Table 2.5:

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 45

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 46

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 47

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 48

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden, July 2007, pg 49

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden , July 2007, pg 50

Tomczak, MSU SOF Edible Forest Garden , July 2007, pg 51