GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC

BARGARH
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SEMINAR TOPIC – RAIN GAUGE

SUBMITTED BY:-

SARBESWAR SIKA

REGD NO – F19122001052

SEMESTER – 4TH

SIGNATURE OF H.O.D. SIGNATURE OF GUIDER

 RAIN GAUGE
INTRODUCTION
A rain gauge (also known as an udometer, pluviometer, ombrometer,
and hyetometer) is an instrument used
by meteorologists and hydrologists to gather and measure the amount
of liquid precipitation over an area in a predefined period of time. It is
used for determining the depth of precipitation (usually in mm) that
occurs over a unit area and thus measuring rainfall amount.

A rain gauge is a simple instrument anyone can install and use. Basically
it looks like a transparent cylinder with markings. You can read the
amount of rainfall in inches or millimeters. Yes, it’s only a simple
instrument but it gives powerful information that you can use to make
better decisions.

With exact data and useful knowledge, you become better equipped to
make intelligent decisions about your land and crops. You’ll know when
to plant. You can also project the yield and harvest time. You can also
evaluate if a particular area is ideal for planting a certain type of plant.

HISTORY OF RAIN GAUGE

The first known rainfall records were kept by the Ancient Greeks, at
around 500 BCE.

People living in India began to record rainfall in 400 BCE.The readings

were correlated against expected growth. In the Arthashastra, used for
example in Magadha, precise standards were set as to grain
production. Each of the state storehouses was equipped with a rain
gauge to classify land for taxation purposes. In 1247, the Song Chinese
mathematician and inventor Qin Jiushao invented Tianchi basin rain
and snow gauges to reference rain, snowfall measurements, as well as
other forms of meteorological data.
In 1441, the Cheugugi was invented during the reign of Sejong the
Great of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea as the first standardized rain
gauge.In 1662, Christopher Wren created the first tipping-bucket rain
gauge in Britain in collaboration with Robert Hooke.Hooke also
designed a manual gauge with a funnel that made measurements
throughout 1695.
It was Richard Towneley who was the first to make systematic rainfall
measurements over a period of 15 years from 1677 to 1694, publishing
his records in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.
Towneley called for more measurements elsewhere in the country to
compare the rainfall in different regions, although only William
Derham appears to have taken up Towneley's challenge. They jointly
published the rainfall measurements for Towneley
Park and Upminster in Essex for the years 1697 to 1704.
The naturalist Gilbert White took measurements to determine the
mean rainfall from 1779 to 1786, although it was his brother-in-
law, Thomas Barker, who made regular and meticulous measurements
for 59 years, recording temperature, wind, barometric pressure, rainfall
and clouds. His meteorological records are a valuable resource for
knowledge of the 18th century British climate. He was able to
demonstrate that the average rainfall varied greatly from year to year
with little discernible pattern.
National coverage and modern gauges.
Symons in 1900
The meteorologist George James Symons published the first annual
volume of British Rainfall in 1860. This pioneering work contained
rainfall records from 168 land stations in England and Wales. He was
elected to the council of the British meteorological society in 1863 and
made it his life's work to investigate rainfall within the British Isles. He
set up a voluntary network of observers, who collected data which
were returned to him for analysis. So successful was he in this
Endeavour that by 1866 he was able to show results that gave a fair
representation of the distribution of rainfall, and the number of
recorders gradually increased until the last volume of British Rainfall
which he lived to edit, for 1899, contained figures from 3,528
stations — 2,894 in England and Wales, 446 in Scotland, and 188
in Ireland. He also collected old rainfall records going back over a
hundred years. In 1870 he produced an account of rainfall in the British
Isles starting in 1725.
Due to the ever-increasing numbers of observers, standardization of
the gauges became necessary. Symons began experimenting on new
gauges in his own garden. He tried different models with variations in
size, shape, and height. In 1863 he began collaboration with Colonel
Michael Foster Ward from Calne, Wiltshire, who undertook more
extensive investigations. By including Ward and various others around
Britain, the investigations continued until 1890. The experiments were
remarkable for their planning, execution, and drawing of conclusions.
The results of these experiments led to the progressive adoption of the
well-known standard gauge, still used by the UK Meteorological
Office today, namely, one made of "... copper, with a five-inch funnel
having its brass rim one foot above the ground ...
Most modern rain gauges generally measure the precipitation
in millimeters in height collected on each square meter during a certain
period, equivalent to liters per square meter. Previously rain was
recorded as inches or points, where one point is equal to 0.254 mm or
0.01 of an inch.
Rain gauge amounts are read either manually or by automatic weather
station (AWS). The frequency of readings will depend on the
requirements of the collection agency. Some countries will supplement
the paid weather observer with a network of volunteers to obtain
precipitation data (and other types of weather) for sparsely populated
areas.
In most cases the precipitation is not retained, but some stations do
submit rainfall and snowfall for testing, which is done to obtain levels of
pollutants.
Rain gauges have their limitations. Attempting to collect rain data in
a tropical cyclone can be nearly impossible and unreliable (even if the
equipment survives) due to wind extremes. Also, rain gauges only
indicate rainfall in a localized area. For virtually any gauge, drops will
stick to the sides or funnel of the collecting device, such that amounts
are very slightly underestimated, and those of .01 inches or .25 mm
may be recorded as trace”.
Another problem encountered is when the temperature is close to or
below freezing. Rain may fall on the funnel and ice or snow may collect
in the gauge, blocking subsequent rain. To alleviate this, a gauge may
be equipped with an automatic electric heater to keep its moisture-
collecting surfaces and sensor slightly above freezing.
Rain gauges should be placed in an open area where there are no
buildings, trees, or other obstacles to block the rain. This is also to
prevent the water collected on the roofs of buildings or the leaves of
trees from dripping into the rain gauge after a rain, resulting in
inaccurate readings.

TYPES OF RAIN GAUGE

1) Non-Recoding Type Raingauge:
Simon’s rain gauge is a non-recording type rain gauge which is most
commonly used. It consists of metal casing of diameter 127mm which is
set on concrete foundation a glass bottle of capacity about 100 mm of
rain fall is placed within the casing. A funnel with brass rim is placed on
the top of the bottle. The arrangement is shown:-

The rainfall is recorded at every 24 hours. Generally, the measurement

is taken at 8.30am every day. In case of heavy rainfall the measurement
should be taken 2 to 3 times daily so that the bottle does not overflow.
To measure the amount of rainfall the glass bottle is taken off and the
collected water is measured in a measuring glass, and recorded in the
area in gauge record book. When the glass bottle is taken off and it is
immediately replaced with new bottle of same capacity.

2) Recoding Type Raingauge:

In this type of raingauge, the amount of rainfall is automatically
recorded on a graph proper by some mechanical device (see figure).
Here, no person is required for measuring the amount of rainfall from
the container in which the rain water is collected. The recording type
Raingauge may be 5 types.

Types of Recoding Type Raingauges

(I) Weighing bucket raingauge:-This type of raingauge consists of a

recording bucket which is placed on pen. The pan is again fitted with
some weighing mechanism. A pencil arm is pivoted with the weighing
mechanism in such a way that the movement of the bucket can be
traced by a pencil on the moving recording drum. So, when the water
collected in the bucket the increasing weight of water is transmitted
through the pencil which traces a curve on the recording drum. The rain
gauge produces a graph of cumulative rain versus time and hence it is
some time called Integrating raingauge.The graph is known as the mass
curve of rain fall. The advantages of this type of gauge over tipping
buckets are that it does not underestimate intense rain, and it can
measure other forms of precipitation, including rain, hail and snow.
These gauges are, however, more expensive and require more
maintenance than tipping bucket gauges.
The weighing-type recording gauge may also contain a device to
measure the number of chemicals contained in the location's
atmosphere. This is extremely helpful for scientists studying the effects
of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere and their effects on
the levels of the acid rain. Some Automated Surface Observing
System (ASOS) units use an automated weighing gauge called the
AWPAG (All Weather Precipitation Accumulation Gauge).
(ii) Tipping Bucket Raingauge:-
The tipping bucket rain gauge consists of a funnel that collects and
channels the precipitation into a small seesaw-like container. After a
pre-set amount of precipitation falls, the lever tips, dumping the
collected water and sending an electrical signal. An old-style recording
device may consist of a pen mounted on an arm attached to a geared
wheel that moves once with each signal sent from the collector. In this
design, as the wheel turns the pen arm moves either up or down
leaving a trace on the graph and at the same time making a loud "click".

The tipping bucket rain gauge is not as accurate as the standard rain
gauge, because the rainfall may stop before the lever has tipped. When
the next period of rain begins it may take no more than one or two
drops to tip the lever. This would then indicate that pre-set amount has
fallen when only a fraction of that amount has actually fallen. Tipping
buckets also tend to underestimate the amount of rainfall, particularly
in snowfall and heavy rainfall events. The advantage of the tipping
bucket rain gauge is that the character of the rain (light, medium, or
heavy) may be easily obtained. Rainfall character is decided by the total
amount of rain that has fallen in a set period (usually 1 hour) and by
counting the number of pulses clicks in a 10-minute period the observer
can decide the character of the rain. Algorithms may be applied to the
data as a method of correcting the data for high-intensity rainfall.
Modern tipping rain gauges consist of a plastic collector balanced over
a pivot. When it tips, it actuates a switch (such as a reed switch) which
is then electronically recorded or transmitted to a remote collection
station. Tipping gauges can also incorporate elements of weighing
gauges whereby a strain gauge is fixed to the collection bucket so that
the exact rainfall can be read at any moment. Each time the collector
tips, the strain gauge (weight sensor) is re-zeroed to null out any drift.

To measure the water equivalent of frozen precipitation, a tipping

bucket may be heated to melt any ice and snow that is caught in its
funnel. Without a heating mechanism, the funnel often becomes
clogged during a frozen precipitation event, and thus no precipitation
can be measured. Many Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS)
units use heated tipping buckets to measure precipitation.

(Figure: Tipping bucket Rain Gauge)

(ii) Float Type Raingauge:-
The working principle of float type rain gauge is similar to the waiting
bucket-type rain gauge. The reason water enters into the container of
the gauge through the funnel. A float is provided at the bottom of the
container as shown in the figure below. This float is lifted off by the
Rainwater which is collected in the container.

(Figure. Float type Rain gauge)

(iv)Optical Type Raingauge:-

An optical rain gauge consists of a laser/infrared diode and

photosensitive sensor situated in enclosed spaces on opposites sides
and below a row of funnels that receive rainfall.

Each funnel has a small opening at the bottom through which raindrop
forms when enough precipitation accumulates inside the container.
Once the water drop grows large enough, it falls from the funnel and
through the space between the laser diode and photo sensor.
As the drop falls through the beam of light, it scatters it enough for the
photo sensor to detect and measure it. These measurements are
recorded and send through a landline or wireless connection to the
base weather station.

Optical rain sensors have the advantage of not only measuring the
amount of rainfall but also the intensity and frequency of the rain
through precise detection by the photosensitive detector.

(Image of optical rain sensor) (Image of optical type Rain Gauge)

(iv)Acoustic Raingauge:-

Rain is one of the most important components of weather and climate.

Improved understanding of the global pattern of rainfall is needed to
improve weather and climate forecasting. Information on rainfall over
the ocean helps meteorologists, oceanographers, and climatologists.

Rainfall is difficult to measure over the ocean. The rain gauges

commonly used on land collect water in a tube and do not work at sea,
where they have to be mounted on surface buoys or ships
that pitch and heave in response to ocean waves. Specialized rain
gauges have been developed for use at sea, but they are easily
damaged or stolen when mounted on buoys on the ocean surface.
Acoustic Rain Gauges (ARGs) have been developed that can be placed
safely beneath the ocean surface to record the sounds produced by
rain. The unique characteristics of the sounds produced by different
kinds of rainfall allow scientists to use these recordings to identify and
measure raindrop size, rainfall rate, and other features of rainfall over
the ocean. The sound of rain recorded by the acoustic rain gauge comes
from an area of the sea surface above the instrument. This area
increases as the acoustic rain gauge is placed deeper in the ocean. An
average measurement of rain over an area is better than a
measurement at a point because rainfall can vary dramatically over
short distance.

(image: Acoustic Rain Gauge (ARG) attached to a yellow

mooring line)
PLACING OF RAIN GAUGE
Your measurements aren’t going to be worth anything if you don’t
place your rain gauge in the correct location. To put it in the simplest
terms, keep it out in the open and off the ground. However, there are
some more specific considerations to keep in mind:

a) The site should be on level ground and on open space. It should

never be sloping ground.
b) The site should be such that the distance between the gauge station
and the objects (like tree, building etc) should be at least twice the
height of the objects.

c) In hilly area, where absolutely level ground is not available, the site
should be so selected that the station may be well shielded from high
wind

d) The site should be easily accessible to the observer.

e) The site should be well protected from cattles by wire fencing.

CALCULATION OF RAINFALL
The rainfall is recorded at every 24 hours. Generally, the measurement
is taken at8.30am every day. In case of heavy rainfall the measurement
should be taken 2 to 3 times daily so that the bottle does not overflow.

The most common rainfall measurement is the total rainfall depth

during a given period, expressed in millimeters (mm). For instance, we
might want to know how many millimeters of rain fell over the course
of 1 h, 1 day, 1 month, or 1 year.

WE can easily get a rough measurement of rainfall depth. Just follow

these steps:

1. Measure the diameter of the bucket at the level of the rain.

Subtract out twice the thickness of the walls.

2. Measure the diameter of the bucket at the bottom in the same

way.

3. Calculate the average of the two diameters.

 4. Divide by two to find the average radius.

5. Find the average volume of rain = Depth x radius x radius x 3.14.

6. Find the area at the top of the bucket (this is the area over which
the rain is collected).

a. Measure the diameter

b. Divide the diameter by 2 to get the radius

c. Area = radius x radius x 3.14

7. Divide the rainfall volume by this area to get the rainfall

Recording rain gauges give a permanent automatic record of rainfall. It

has a mechanical arrangement by which the total amount of rainfall
since the start of record gets automatically recorded on a graph paper.
It produces a plot of cumulative rainfall vs time (mass curve of rainfall).
These rain gauges are also called integrating rain gauges since they
record cumulative rainfall.

In addition to the total amount of rainfall at a station, it gives the times

of onset and cessation of rains (thereby gives the duration of rainfall
events). The slope of the plot gives the intensity of rainfall for any given
time period.
BENEFITS OF RAIN GAUGE
 Measure intensity of rainfall.

 Rainfall data used to design water harvesting structures on a

particular area.

 It also helps to critically mark drought areas.

 Tipping buckets are that it does not underestimate intense rain,

and it can measure other forms of precipitation, including rain,
hail and snow.

DRAWBACKS OF RAIN GAUGE

 Over 25 knots produce oscillations of the equilibrium creating
errors in the recording.

 Rain gauge does not estimate or designate the intensity of the air
or winds.

 Sometimes (It may internal or external problems) a rain gauge can

make rough calculations which may not be correct.

CONCLUSION
The rain gauge is a simple yet effective way of measuring how
much rain falls in one spot. These results can be graphed and
analyzed to see trends on a week to week, month to month and
year to year basis rainfall.