MODULE-1: 

IMPORTANCE OF FODDERS AND GRASSLANDS IN

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 At the end of this module, the

following details would be known 
o Livestock population, the
demand and supply position of
fodders in the country.
o Grazing resources available.
o Estimates of demand for the next
decade.
o Available sources for livestock
feed.
o Ways and means to increase the
fodder production.

PRESENT SCENARIO OF LIVESTOCK SECTOR IN THE

COUNTRY

 India is basically an agricultural country and about 70% of its people live in villages. Their
livelihood is dependent mainly on agriculture and animal husbandry. India has a
huge livestock population of over 481 millions (besides poultry and piggery). India ranks first
in Buffalo population (54 % of world buffalo population), and also first in Cattle population
(16 % of world). With regard to sheep (58.2 million) and Goat (123.5 million) population
also, India ranks first. Yet, the productivity of livestock products is not comparable with the
developed world.
 Our country achieved a record output of milk production (112 million tones, 2009-10) and
ranks first in the world. (Per capita availability of milk consumption in India is 250 g/day).
In terms of egg production (45 billions, 2006), India ranks third in the world. The total meat
production stands at 4.92 (2006) million tonnes. Inspite of this enormous production, the
productivity of milk, meat and egg happens to be low when compared to some of the
developed nations. Though we have about one fourth of the total livestock population of the
world, one of the reasons for low productivity of our livestock is malnutrition, under -
nutrition or both, besides the low genetic potential of the animals.

REQUIREMENT Vs AVAILABILITY

 It is understood that there is a huge gap between demand and supply of all kinds of feeds and
fodders. If we examine the land resources available in the country for growing fodder and forage
crops, it is estimated that the average cultivated area devoted to fodder production is only 2.5 % of
the total area and the pasture and grazing land comprises only 3.6% of the total area.
 These resources are able to meet partly the forage requirements of the grazing animals only
during the monsoon season. But for the remaining period of the year, the animals have straws of
jowar (sorghum), bajra (cumbu), rice, ragi, wheat, barley etc., either in the form of a whole straw
supplemented with some green fodder or a sole feed.
 Apart from this, the natural grasslands and the cultivable waste and fallow lands provide some
grazing during the favourable growth periods in the monsoon season.
 With regard to the demand and supply of green fodder, dry fodder and concentrates in the
Country, there exist varying reports. This is beacuase of the complex nature of the feed resources
which are mutually interdependent and highly dynamic and unorganized. Also there is no specific
methodology available to predict the demand and supply. National Institute of Animal Nutrition
and Physiology (NIANP), Bangalore reports that the deficit is 38%, 45% and 44 % with regard to
Green fodder, Dry fodder and Concentrates respectively.

BALANCE SHEET OF ANIMAL FEEDS AND FODDERS (IN

MILLION TONNES) IN INDIA

Available Requirement Deficit Deficit (%)
Green Fodder

387.3 1006 618.7 61.5

Dry Fodder

437.9 560 122.1 21.8

Concentrates

42.0 79.4 37.4 47.1

 Source: Hand Book of Agriculture (2006), ICAR, New Delhi

SUPPLY AND DEMAND OF GREEN AND DRY FODDER

(ESTIMATES IN MILLION TONNES)*

Deficit as % of
Supply Demand
Demand
Year Green Dry Green Dry Green Dry
1995 379 421 947 526 60 20
2000 384 429 988 549 61 22
2005 390 444 1025 569 62 22
2010 395 451 1061 590 63 23
2015 401 466 1098 610 64 24
2020 406 474 1134 630 64 25
 2025 411 488 1171 650 65 25

 Source: NIANP Monograph (2007), Bangalore

 The projected balance between demand and supply of fodder presents a challenge in coming
years. While the deficits are anticipated to increase as a proportion of the requirements, the
situation appears all the more grim in case of green fodder. Focused strategies and concerted
efforts are the need of the hour to face up to this challenge.


PRESENT SOURCES OF FEED

Sources of ruminant feed for Indian livestock

Feed resources for cattle

 In the case of crop residues, collection, processing, value addition,  and  storage are necessary
inputs.
 In grazing lands, silvipastoral technology using adapted forages and trees have shown their
potential for productivity enhancement. Newer avenues of varieties and management options will
be required for degraded and polluted habitats.

GRAZING RESOURCES

Grazing resources (in million hectares) available for production of Fodder/pasture in Tamil Nadu and
India (2006)

INDIA TAMILNADU
Total geographical
328.7 13.00
area
Forest 67.4 2.14
Cultivable waste land 16.9 0.34
Pasture and grazing land 12.1 0.12
Fodder crops 8.3 0.17
Tree crops and grooves 3.5 0.23
  From the above table it is evident that only 2.5 % of the country's cropped area is under fodder
crops. The fodder production from the meagre 8.3 m.ha. area apart from 12.1 m.ha of pasture
land do not meet the requirements to feed the Indian livestock population of 482 millions.
 The situation is no different in Tamil Nadu where the number of livestock stands at 25 millions
which depend on fodder from 0.17 m.ha and pasture from 0.12 m.ha.
 Such an inadequate production of fodders lead to the cause of malnutrition of the Indian
livestock. To overcome the constraints, all the possible ways should be exploited to increase
production of nutritive fodders.

CONSTRAINTS AND WAYS AND MEANS TO INCREASE FORAGE

PRODUCTION

Constraints

 Less than 2.5 % of area under fodder production • Small holdings do not allow farmers for
allocating area for fodder production due to preference to food crops
 More dependence on crop residues which are not that much nutritive • More dependence on
grazing (on others / common) resources, which are having unpalatable species
 Less awareness among farmers with regard to the advantages of green fodder.
 Less production of protein rich legume fodders
 Huge livestock population and hence higher Green fodder demand
 Non – availability of feed/fodder data
 Poor feeding practices

Ways and means to increase fodder production

 Maximising forage production in space and time.

 Identifying new forage resources and increasing fodder seed production.
 Increasing the forage production within the existing farming systems.
 Adoption of agroforestry systems to utilise different tree fodders for livestock rearing.
 Utilising marginal, sub-marginal drylands and problem soils for developing feed and fodder
resources.
 Exploiting the feasibilities of growing fodder along with food and cash crops.
 Utilising barren and uncultivated lands.
 Establishment of fodder banks in villages
 Conservation of fodder into feed blocks.
 Enrichment of straw/stover with urea/fortification.
 Use of chaff cutters.
 Comprehensive watershed development programs with inclusion of fodder component.

MODULE-2: FODDER AND ITS CLASSIFICATION

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES 

 One can know the following

on completion of this module,
o What are forages and fodders
and how are they classified?
o What are legumes and non-
leguminous fodders?
o What are the various plant parts
used for livestock feeding?
o What are the ideal
characteristics of a fodder crop?
o What is the growth sequence of a
fodder crop?

DEFINITION OF FODDER AND FORAGE

 Fodder crops - Cultivated species

 Forages - All vegetative parts, fresh or preserved

 Fodders  crops  are  cultivated  plant  species  that  are  utilised  as  livestock  feed. Fodder  refers
mostly  the  crops which  are  harvested  and  used  for stall  feeding. 
 Forage  may be  defined  as  the  vegetative  matter,  fresh  or  preserved,  utilised  as  feed for 
animals. Forage  crops  include  grasses,  legumes,  crucifers  and other  crops  cultivated  and 
used  in the form of  hay,  pasture,  fodder  and  silage. Forages are classified based on various
features.

CLASSIFICATION OF FORAGES
  Forages are classified on different ways. They are
o On the basis of season of cultivation
o On the basis of nutrient density in the dry matter
o On the basis of plant types
o On the basis of crop duration
o On the basis of plant family and duration of the crop

ON THE BASIS OF SEASON OF CULTIVATION


Kharif  Rabi  Summer 
(June - September) (October -Dec/Jan) (April - June)
Eg. Cowpea, Cluster bean, Eg. Berseem, Lucerne, Eg. Cowpea, Cluster bean,
Field bean, Bajra, Sorghum, Oats, Barley Field bean, Bajra, Sorghum,
Maize Maize

ON THE BASIS OF NUTRIENT DENSITY IN

THE DRY MATTER

Non - Maintenanc
Production
maintenance e
Eg. Wheat straw, Eg. Sorghum, Low protein  High protein 
Rice straw, Ragi Maize, Maize, Oats, Barley, Berseem, Lucerne
straw, Maize and Bajra, Hybrid Sorghum Root crops etc. Cowpea, Subabool
Sorghum stover, napier, Para and all Legumes
Jungle hay, cereal grass and all
forages harvested at grasses
advanced maturity
 ON THE BASIS OF PLANT TYPES

Fore
sts Plantati
Cultivated Grasslands/Pasture Aquatic
edibl on
es
Legumes  Managed  Unmanaged  Grass Gra Frui Fres Mari
Lucerne , Berseem, Legume, Grasses, es, ss ts h  ne 
Cowpea Grass, Shrubs, Bushes etc. Shru and and Wate Algae
Cereals  Fodder trees, bs Tre fruit r
Sorghum, Oats, etc., and e tree hyaci
Maize, Bajra tree leav was nth
Root crops  leave es tes lotus
Turnips, s etc. etc
Carrots 

ON THE BASIS OF DURATION OF THE CROP

Cereal - Grass Legume Tree

Annual Annual Perennial Annual Perennial
Maize, Deenanath Hybrid Napier, Guinea Cowpea, Lucerne , Soobabul,
Sorghum grass grass Berseem Stylosanthes Sesbania
ON THE BASIS OF PLANT FAMILY AND DURATION OF
THE CROP

 Generally fodders are grouped as those belong to the plant family Leguminacea and those not. It
is called legume fodders and non-legume fodders. Each category has annuals and perennials.

Legumes Non-legumes
Eg. Berseem, Cowpea, Stylosanthes etc. Eg. Hybrid Napier, Guinea grass, Fodder
sorghum, etc.
Annual : Berseem, Cowpea
Annual : Fodder Maize, Sorghum
Perennial : Stylo, Desmanthes
Perennial : Hybrid Napier grass, Para grass
ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL NON-LEGUMES
 Sl.
Common name Tamil name Scientific name
No.
A. Annual (Summer)
1. Sorghum Cholam Sorghum bicolor
2. Sudan grass Sorghum sundanense
3. Maize Makkacholam Zea mays
Cumbu / Bajra /Pearl
4. Cumbu Pennisetum glacum
millet
5. Teosinte Euchlaena mexicana
6. Finger millet/ Ragi Kelvaragu Eleusine corocana
7. Little millet or samai Samai Panicum miliare
8. Proso millet Panicum miliaceum
B. Annual (winter)
9. Oats Avena sativa
10. Barley Hordeum vulgare
11. Rye Sicale cereale
C. Perennial
Cumbu napier Pennisetum purpureum x
12. Hybrid Napier
ottupull Pennisetum americanum
13. Guinea grass Guineapull Panicum maximum
14. Para grass Neerpull Brachiaria mutica
Doop grass / Bermuda
15. Arugampull Cynodon dactylon
grass
Anjan grass (Buffel
16. Kollukkattai pull Cenchrus ciliaris
grass)
Black anjan / Bird Karuppu
17. Cenchrus setigerus
wood grass Kolukkatti pull
18. Rhodes grass Mayil Kondaipull Chloris gayana
19. Signal grass Brachiaria decumbens
Elephant grass / Napier
20. Yanaipullu Pennisetum purpureum
grass
21. Marvel grass Dichanthium annulataum
22. Canary grass Phalaris tuberosa L
 
23. Blue Panic grass  
Panicum antidotale
24. Molasses grass Melinis minutifolia
25. Kikuyu grass Pennisetum clandestinum
26. Deenanath grass Pennisetum pedicellatum
27. Johnson grass Sorghum halepense
28. Seteria Seteria anceps
Sabi grass / Little para
29. Urochloa mosambicensis
grass
PERENNIAL LEGUMES, TREE FODDERS

S.No Common name Tamil Name Scientific name

A. Annual legumes
30. Cowpea Karamani Vigna unguiculata
31. Rice bean   Vigna umbellata
32. Moth bean Naripayaru Phaseolus aconitifolius
Gaur or cluster
33. bean or french Kothavarai Cyamopsis tetragonaloba
bean
34. Field bean/Lab lab   Lablab purpureus
35. Sunnhemp Sannappai Crotolaria juncea
36. Pillipesara   Dolichos trilobus
Berseem or
37. Egyptian clover   Trifolium alexandrinum
(Winter)
Fenugreek
38. Vendiyam Trigonella foenumgraecum
(Winter)
39. Senji (Winter)   Melilotus parviflora
B. Perennial legumes
40. Lucerne/Alfalfa Kudiraimasal Medicago sativa
41. Hedge lucerne Velimasal Desmanthus virgatus
Stylosanthes hamata
42. Stylosanthes  
Stylosanthes scabra
43. Schofield stylo   Stylosanthes guinensis
44. Siratro   Macroptilium atropurpureum
Clitoria / Butterfly
45. Sangupushpam Clitoria ternatea
pea
46 Perennial ground   Arachis glabrata
 nut
47. Centro   Centrosema sp.
48. Desmodium   Desmodium uncinatum
III. Tree Fodders
49. Soobabul Soundal Leucaena leucocephala
50. Catechu Karungali Acacia catechu
Gum arabic or
51. Karuvelam Acacia nilotica
Babool
52 . Israeli babool   Acacia tortilis
53. Umbrella tree Kudaivel Acacia planifrons
54. Siris Vagai Albizia lebbek
55. Sisoo Yette Dalbergia sissoo
56.   Karun umbi Diospyros melanoxylon
57. Sesbania Agathi Sesbania grandiflora
58. Banyan tree Alamram Ficus bengalensis
59.   Malai icchi Ficus lacor
60. Peepal tree Arasa Ficus religiosa
61. Anjan Achamaram Hardwickia binata
62.   Uthimaram Lannea coromandelica
63. Mohwa Illupai Madhuca longifolia
63. Neem Vembu Azadirachta indica
PLANT SOURCES OF ANIMAL FEED

The  various  categories  of  plant  parts/ residues / by  products  used  for  feeding  animals  are  given 
below:

 Straw:  Means  the  dried  reminant  of  a  crop from  which  the  seed  has  been  threshed.  The 
term  is most  commonly  used  to  wheat, oats,  barely,  rice  etc.
 Leguminous pulse  straws:  Leguminous  crops  having  fibrous residues  are black gram, green
gram, cowpea,  groundnut  etc.  These residues are  composed  of  husk  of  the  pods  with  leaves 
and  tender  stems which  are more nutritious  than  the  cereal  straw  and  stovers.  They  are 
very  good  feed  for  sheep and goats.  Leguminous crop  residues are  highly  nutritious  and 
palatable.
 Husks (Hulls):  Husks are available  in  bulk in  the milling  industry  like  rice  milling, solvent 
extraction  plants  for groundnut oil  and  corn  oil, groundnut husks, maize  husks etc. They are 
of low density  and  are  unpalatable.  Some  times they  create  a  disposal problem because of 
being available  in  large  quantities  at  the milling  site.
 Hay: It  consists  of  the  entire  herbage  of  comparatively  fine  stemmed grasses or  other  forage
plants. Hay is  any  forage  crop  cut  before  it is ripe  and  dried  for  storage.  More  nutritious
and  palatable  than  straw,  because  the  entire crop  is  cut  before maturity  and  dried.
 Silage: It is  the  product  formed  when  any  green  plant  material is  put  where it  can ferment 
in the absence of  air.  In  this  process  of  fermentation the  silage  develops  acids.   These  acids 
preserve  nutrient  substances  in  the  plant  material.
 Stovers: Stovers are  the  byproducts after harvesting the grains (maize, jowar, millets etc). They 
are  given to  the  livestock  with various  supplements.  Stovers  are much  better roughages than 
cereal straws.
 Haulms: Plant  material  above the  ground  level  harvested,  dried  and used  for feeding 
livestock  eg.  Groundnut plants.
 Bhusa: The  refuse  collected  from  threshing  pulse  crop  like  red  gram,  bengal gram etc. is
commonly  known  as  Bhusa.  It  consists of  leaves,  immature  pods  and  seeds  and  other 
empty shells  of  pods  and  is  available  as  an  inexpensive byproduct  which  is  quite  useful for
feeding  cattle.  It  is also  fairly nutritious.
 Grasses: All  grasses  belonging   to  the  family  of  plants,  gramineae  comprising  450 genera 
and  more  than  6000 species distributed throughout  the  world.  Grasses  include  all the 
cultivated  cereal  feed  crops.  Grasses considerably  vary  in  their  habbits, size and habitat.
Some  grasses  are  annuals, while others are  perennials.  When  plants  dries  up after flowering 
and seeding  in  the  course  of  a  single  season,  it is termed  as  annual,  but  when  new  shoots 
and older ones  ending  in  inflorescence  and  found mixed  in  the  same  plant, it is termed 
perennial.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FODDER CROPS

 Quick regrowth and short duration.

  Profuse foliage and heavy yield of fodders.
 Should have high palatability and nutritive value.
 Should be adaptable to various agro-climatic conditions and different soils.
 Capacity to ratoon and give continous supply of green fodder.
 Resistance to diseases and pests and safe to feed at all stages of its growth without any 
deleterious effect on animal health and growth.

MODULE-3: GRASSLANDS, TYPES OF GRASSLANDS AND

MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 The major objectives of this module are to make the user to learn the
following
o Definition of grass land
o Status of grazing resources in India
o Various types of grassland covers identified in the Country
o Overgrazing and its impact on grasslands
o Grassland improvement methods
o Objective of scientific grassland management
o Types of grazing methods
o Temporary and Artificial pasture

RASSLANDS, TYPES OF GRASSLANDS AND MANAGEMENT

TECHNIQUES - INTRODUCTION

 A grassland is defined as a natural land surface which is covered mainly by members of the grass
family of plants and are used for grazing livestock.
 It is estimated that about 90% of the livestock population in India subsists on natural grasses that
are available inside and outside forests. Out of the total area of 328 million hectares of the Indian
union, 12.1 million hectares are classified as grazing lands i.e. as permanent pastures and
meadows.
 In addition to this, 43 million hectares of cultivable and non-cultivable lands also serve as grazing
grounds for Indian Livestock.
 Grasslands are thus very important as feeding grounds for the livestock of the country and
deserve to be developed along proper lines. Improperly managed grasslands not only fail in
primary function of feeding livestock but also aggravate soil erosion and deplete the national soil
wealth.

STATUS OF GRAZING RESOURCES AND WASTE LANDS IN

INDIA

 The extent of waste lands in India is approximately 158 million hectares. The extremes of climate,
soil conditions, biotic factors and inconsistent rain fall are characteristic of these sites.
Overgrazing of such wastelands induces secondary succession and ultimately to desertfication. It
then becomes very expensive to put back the waste lands into pasture lands.
 Categories of land under different types of wastelands in India (1986).
 Category Area in million hectares
Water eroded 73.60
Degraded forest 40.00
Riverine 2.73
Ravines and gullies 3.97
Shifting cultivation 4.36
Sand dunes 7.00
Water logged 6.00
Saline/alkaline waste lands 7.50
Wind eroded 12.90
Total 158.06

Click 

ECOLOGICAL STATUS OF GRASSLANDS

 In  one  end  we  find  climax evergreen  forests and  on  the  other  end deserts.  Green  land
occupies an intermediary position. Scientific  management  of  grasslands  is  based  upon 
ecological  principles.  Ecology  is defined  as the  science  which  deals  with  the inter 
relationship  of plants  with  their  environment. 
 Plant  ecology  seeks  to  find out the  loss governing  the  development  of vegetation  in  different 
habitats  and  environments.  This  knowledge  can  be utilized to  make  natural  resources  serve 
the requirement  of livestock  nutrition  in  an  efficient  way.
 In  the  development  of  the  natural  vegetation,  there  is a  relationship between  the  soil  and 
vegetation  that  grows  upon  it.  Soil  is  the  end  product  of the action  of  both  the  climate 
and  the  vegetation  upon  the  parent  rock  material and  all  soils  develop ultimately  into  a 
climax  soil  type  which is in  equilibrium with the climate  and other  environmental  factors. 
 At  each  stage  of  soil  formation  and  development, there is a corresponding  stage  of 
vegetational  development.  This  development if left  undisturbed, end  in  either  a  forest  climax 
or  grassland climax  depending on  the  climatic  conditions. 
 The final  type  of  vegetation  is  termed  as  a  'climax'  in  ecological  nomenclature.  Grassland 
can  thus be  a climatic  climax  or  sub  climax and  may  also rise  as  a  result  of disturbances  in 
the  forest  climax.

TYPES OF GRASSLAND COVERS

 For  a  proper  management of grasslands  it  is  necessary  to  know  something  about the 
ecology  of  Indian  grasslands, its area of occurrence, production potential and management
methods.  Five  main  types of grassland covers were identified in India.  
o Dicanthium - Cenchrus - Elyonurus type (Area : 434000 sq. km.)
o Sehima-Dicanthium cover (Area: 17,400 sq.km.)
o Phragmites - Saccharum cover (Area : 28,00,000 sq.km.)
o Themada - Arundinella cover (Area : 2,30,400 sq.km.)
o Temperate and Alpine cover
 DICANTHIUM - CENCHRUS - ELYONURUS

 This type is found to occur in the north west arid and semi arid regions between 23 oN and 60-
80oE comprising the plains of Punjab, Rajasthan, U.P. and north Gujarat, on soils that are alluvial
or sandy loam in texture.
 The main species found in this region are perennials like Dicanthium annulatum, Cenchrus
ciliaris, C. setigerus, Cynodon dactylon and Elyonurus hirsutus, all of which are valuable forage
grasses. However, even well developed grass lands deteriorate if grazed for too long and too
heavily.

Management

 In the management of grass land of this type the objective should be to maintain a proper balance
of Dicanthium and Cenchrus sp. in tracts occurring less than 20 inches and more than 10 inches
of rainfall.
 Below 10 inches, the objective should be to have a stand of Elyonurus hirsutus. Cynodon sp.
represents the last stage of resistance of the perennial cover and hence when this stage is reached,
the grazing should be stopped, to enable the grassland to recoup itself.
 At the Aristida - Eragrostis stage, the grassland will be too poor to support any grazing and a
complete closure for four to five years becomes imperative to allow the succession to attain the
fair condition represented by Cynodon dactylon and Eleusine flagellifera. 

SEHIMA - DICANTHIUM

 This cover occurs all over tropical India below the tropic of cancer, comprising the Deccan
plateau and extending from south Rajasthan, south Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh to Bihar
and parts of West Bengal. The traits characterized by undulating hills with valleys
interversing.
 All types of red and black soils are associated in this cover. The species of perennial grasses
that are distinctive to this region are Sehima nervosum Chrysopogon montonus, Themada
trandra, Heteropogon contortus. Annuals are Themanda quadrivalvies, Apluda aristata,
Dicetmis spp. On grasslands that have got badly over grazed and deteriorated, annual species
alone occur such as Aristida spp., Chloris spp., Andropogon spp. and the annual form of
Heteropogan contortus.
  The best among these for forage are Sehima, Dicanthium, Chrysopogon, Iseliema and
Ischaemum. In sandy soils, Sehema usually dominates where as in deep moist soils
Dicanthium dominates.

Management:

 Sehima nervosum and Dicanthium annulatum are the typical species, on gravelly and well
developed soils respectively.
 Since Sehima nervosum occurs in hilly situations, adequate soil conservation measures are
necessary in any plan of management for this grass. Contour furrowing along with adequate
manuring would be necessary.
 Sehima grassland quickly degenerates into inferior Cymbopogon cover as a result of burning
and hence this practice should be discouraged. Post-monsoon period is the safest for
grazing. 

PHRAGMITES - SACCHARUM

 This type of cover occurs on the eastern humid portion of the low land planes of the Ganges and
Brahmaputra river basins (Manipur, Assam, Tripura,West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi
and Punjab), especially on low lying ill drained land or in situations where the water table in high.
 The type is characterized by tall, coarse, species of reedy grasses typified by Phragmites karka,
Saccharum spp. Imperata spp. Desmostachya spp.
  These grasses are useful for thatching purposes and the grass lands are generally subjected to
annual growth of Imperata cylindrica.

Management :

 The management of these grasslands for grazing purpose would require drastic alterations in the
soil conditions to eliminate the coarse, water loving unpalatable grasses.

THEMADA - ARUNDIELLA

 This type of grassland is found in the northern belt from 450 to 2500 meters elevation and
includes species such as Themada anathera, Arundinella spp., Eulaliopsis binata, Chrysopogon
sp., Heteropogon contortus and Pennisetum orientale. Legumes are represented by Desmodium
and Crotalaria ; degraded stages are recognized in the cover by Dimeria, Chrysopogon,
Heteropogon and Eragrostis.

Management :

 Themada anathera is the key species of the cover in this hilly region. Measures designed for soil
conservation are essential for the proper management of this type of cover and the present
practice of mowing the grass for hay appears to be the best practice under their circumstances.
 Light grazing during the monsoon months and moderate grazing later on, followed by cutting the
grass for hay once in 3-4 years would be a good balance between the demands of livestock and the
requirements of the grassland.

TEMPERATE AND ALPINE COVER

 This type of cover is met with mostly on the hills of the Himalayan region in the north and the
Nilgiris in the South of India.
 It is characterized by the presence of species like Agrostis, Calamagrostis, Dactylis, Oryzopis etc.,
together with pasture legumes like white and red clovers, medicks and vetches, all species that are
typical of grass land cover in temperate lands.

PRODUCTION LEVEL OF GRASSLAND COVERS IN INDIA


Grass cover Potential Actual
 (tonnes /
ha)
Dicanthium - Cenchrus – Elyonurus ( Dry/ arid , North 5.0 3.3
Western India)
Sehima- Dicanthium (Semi arid, Central Southern India) 6.0 3.5
Phragmites – Saccharum (Subtropic high humid, Northern India) 5.0 5.0
Themeda – Arundinella (Sub-mountaneous Himalayan) 4.0 2.2
Temperate and Alpine (Himalayas and Nilgiris) 6.0 4.0
OVER GRAZING

 The grazing pressure on grasslands is very high. In semi arid areas, carrying capacity in good
range land is 1 adult cow unit (ACU) /ha but the actual pressure is 3.2 ACU/ha. But in arid areas,
carrying capacity is 1 - 4 ACU / ha as against the actual pressure of 0.2 - 0.5 ACU / ha.
 Due to over grazing run off and soil erosion are high. Results from IGFRI indicated that there was
41% run off from bare soil where as in the improved grass land vegetation, the run off was only
6.5 %. Over grazing also results in a shift in the natural succession (as seen in 3 d). Over grazing
also results in greater run off and soil loss. Eg.

Results from IGFRI, Jhansi (96 -97)

 Total quantum of water received through rainfall - 6035 cum/ha

 Grazing pressure 1.5 ACU/ha. in grazing systems

Grazing system Total run off Soil loss (t/ha) Run off Co eff (%)
(cum/ha)
Rotational grazing 376 0.17 6.2
Differed grazing 423 0.26 7.0
Continuous grazing 457 0.46 7.5
Cut and carry 383 0.13 6.3
system
Bare plots 1173 0.68 19.4
GRASSLAND IMPROVEMENT AND MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

 The main objective in the management of grassland is to secure the maximum production of
livestock without any detrimental effect to the productivity of grass land.
 It is therefore essential to see that the grassland under consideration is kept at its peak level of
productivity as long as possible. Decline of herbage productivity may be due to bad drainage or
lack of sufficient nutrients in the soil or over grazing.
 It is easy enough to recognize defects like bad drainage in soils by the presence of species that are
typical of swampy location such as Cyperus spp. wildrice, Panicum repens. In such case the
productivity grass lands can be improved by adopting follow measures.
 The methods to be adopted for the improvement of such areas will be mainly mechanical,
designed to remove excess water from the soil. Nutrients and physiological defects may be caused
by the lack of any one or more of the essential plant nutrients.
 Continued removal of the grass cover and consequent leaching may deplete the soil of plant
nutrients so much that they become limiting factors in the growth of vegetation. In such cases the
productivity of grassland can be restored only by the use of fertilizers to supply the deficient
elements.
 The majority of grass lands will as a rule beneficial by applications of nitrogenous and phosphatic
fertilizers.
o Weed control (Bush control)
o Burning of grass lands
o Enclosure of grass lands
o Reseeding
o Conservation of soil and moisture
o Grazing management

WEED CONTROL / BUSH CONTROL

 Both herbaceous and shrubby weeds are found to invade deteriorated grasslands. Eradicating
weeds is to be a continous process in deteriorated grasslands. To eradicate the weeds, various
methods are available such as 
o Manual cutting
o Mechanised means by the use of implements
o Digging out
o Burning (in case of heavy infestation)
o Use of weedicides

BURNING OF GRASS LANDS

 Setting fire to dry vegetation in order to encourage new growth after the next monsoon rains, is a
wide spread practice in many parts of India.
 It is a convenient method of removing unutilized herbage residues of the previous year so that, a
new growth of vegetation may develop unhindered and become available to grazing animals.
 It is also helpful in eradicating undesirable weeds and shrubby growths that may compete with
desirable grasses and legumes.
 Burning is also helpful in encouraging an early spring growth of grasses and discouraging
encroachment of jungle growths. In humid high rainfall areas, burning may not be very harmful,
but in semi-arid regions burning is definitely harmful.

ENCLOSURE OF GRASS LANDS

 Elimination of the grazing factor, which is directly responsible for the deterioration of the
grasslands, induces a progressive succession. It can therefore serve as a very effective method
of improving degraded grasslands.
 Closure for a few years will be effective when the reminants of better species are still
scattered in the area, to serve as seed sources. 4 or 5 years of closure may be necessary but if
the deterioration has already proceeded to the 'poor' condition when only annual species of
grasses are left to grow, than the regeneration even under closure may be much slower.

RESEEDING
 On highly degraded grasslands, surest and quickest way of regeneration is re-
seeding, but the topography of the land will be an important consideration in
under taking the re-seeding operation.
 On level grounds, the operation is fairly easy and effective. Sufficient preliminary
information should also be gathered on the choice of species to be sown, the
quality of the seed, preparation of soil, moisture conditions and method of re-
seeding, if the re-seeding programme is to be successfuly. On undulating sites
soil conservation measures are essential before re-seeding.
 Re-seeding can be done on level land in rows 54 cm apart but the spacing can be
increased if necessary, depending upon the quality of seed available, the urgency
of regeneration and other factors.
 Normally, it is easier to secure a good stand, if reseeding is done after the
monsoon sets in, but sometimes the dry sowings before the monsoon can also be
done.
 After sowing the soil is given a light harrowing. The grazing during the first year
of reseeding should be very light and allowed only after the grass has set seed.
From the 2nd year onwards, moderate grazing can be allowed.

CONSERVATION OF SOIL AND MOISTURE

 The proper conservation of both water and soil is an integral part of all good grassland
management systems. When properly grazed, eroding forces are kept in check and the grassland
is in balance with erosive factors and no special conservation measure could be needed, but when
grasslands have been mismanaged by neglect and over grazing for many years, soil and water
conservation measures becomes essential for any improvement plan.
 On degraded grassland especially on sloppy ground, the first measure of improvement could be to
prevent any further erosion of the soil. Where the erosion has already progressed to the stage of
gully formation, dams will have to be put across the gully channels.
 A number of small check dams being more effective than a few large ones. Terraces or surges are
useful in high rainfall regions in directing water from the slopes to the channels with a minimum
of soil loss from the grasslands.
 Erosion can be controlled by avoiding excessive removal of herbage, adopting contour bunding
for soil as well as moisture conservation.

GRAZING MANAGEMENT

 Since a smaller number of well fed animals is always better than a large number of half starved
ones, a strict control of the number of animals let in for grazing is the first principle of all grazing
systems.
 In fixing the number of animals, the carrying capacity of the grassland should be taken into
consideration. This is defined as the number of animals that can graze in a unit area without over
grazing or undergrazing in an average season.
 The greatest single factor which causes determination of grasslands is over-grazing on account of
selective grazing habit of animals, desirable species tend to get depleted much faster than the less
palatable species.
 To avoid this risk, grazing must be stopped at some stage or other i.e., in grassland terminology
the grazing has to be deferred since it will seldom possible to stop grazing over entire area, when
no other alternative areas are available.
 The practical method is to defer grazing in a part of the grassland and to allow grazing in the other
part in a 'rotational' system.
 Over grazing deteriorates the grasslands. Just like human beings, grazing animals, too, have their
likes and dislikes and certain grasses are preferred while certain others are avoided.
 On account of the relative grazing habit, desirable species tend to get depleted in grasslands much
faster than other species that are not so palatable.
 In most perennial grasses, new shoots are produced by utilizing the reserve food material that is
stored in the underground parts. Before the new growths are in a position to build up food
reserves by their own photosynthetic activity, there is a stage in the life history of the perennial
plant when the food reserves are at their minimum.
 When the plant produces food material in excess of its growth requirements, the surplus is
translocated in to storage organs. At the commencement of next growing season this surplus is
utilized for the production of new shoots.
 Under grazing conditions these fresh shoots get removed by the grazing animals and the plant
never get a chance to build up any reserve food material. There is thus a continuous drain on the
food reserves of the plant, so that at the next growing period, the plant has to start with greatly
depleted food reserves. If this over grazing continues, the food reserves get exhausted soon and
the plant becomes weaker and weaker and ultimately dies.
 Hence in grasslands, it is essential to allow the plants to build up their food reserves before the
forage is utilized for grazing purposes.
 In the case of annual plants, which can continue to exist only through seed formation and
germination of that seed each year, the correct management of grasslands dominated by animals
is to cut it for forage only after the seed formation stage.

GRAZING METHODS

 The object of scientific grassland management is therefore

o is to maintain the grassland in the highest state of herbage production and at the same
time
o is to satisfy the forage requirements of the grazing animals
o is to maintain the fertility of the soil unimpaired.
 In any plan of grazing management, therefore the main principles are to utilize the grass at a time
when the growth and reproduction are least un interfered with and to utilize the grass when it is
most palatable and nutritious.
 Grasses in general are most palatable and nutritious at the young stage, but the grazing at this
stage is harmful to the plants. The palatability and nutritive value decreased with the maturity of
the plant and when the grass is consumed only at the late stage, the grazing animal is at a
disadvantage because of lower nutritive value. Thus the requirements of the grassland and those
of the grazing stock are some what antagonistic and good pasture management consists in
effecting a satisfactory compromise between these divergent needs.
o Controlled continuous grazing  
o Deferred grazing  
o Rotational grazing 
o Deferred and rotational grazing

CONTROLLED CONTINUOUS GRAZING

 The present practice of uncontrolled continuous grazing results in depletion of all the desirable
species, leaving only week and stunted growth of undesirable species.
 Controlled grazing even, if it is continuous, can mitigate this effect to a great extent. The grazing is
stopped when a certain minimum number of preferred plants are still left with sufficient seed
stock.
  When managed on these lines, the system would permit a progressive development of grassland
area.

DEFERRED GRAZING

 This system consists in delaying grazing in a part of the grassland area until after seed maturity in
order to give a chance for the herbage to make sufficient growth and to accumulate sufficient
reserved food material to maintain vigour of the plants and produce new shoots next year from
the seeds that are shed. This system is applicable where perennial grasses are predominant.
 In practice the grassland is divided into three compartments. One compartment is completely
closed to grazing during the growing season, while the animals are allowed to graze in other two
compartments alternately.
 Grazing is allowed in the closed "compartment later on, before the herbage becomes too old and
unpalatable. Grazing at this stage help in the disposal of seeds and their placement in the soil,
thus favour good germination.
 Grazing in the other two compartments gives the benefit of early growth, to the grazing animals,
while the alternation of grazing in two plots enables the plants to recoup their vigour after
grazing, the grass in the deferred plot though less nutritious makes up for it by its greater
quantity.
 Each year one compartment is deferred in this manner, so that in three years, each compartment
gets an adequate period of rest, during which the plants would recoup their vigour.
 In deteriorated grass lands, where the perennial grasses are in a badly weak condition, grazing
can be deferred for two years in each compartment or even longer, until the desired improvement
is seen.

ROTATIONAL GRAZING

 In this type of grazing, animals are allowed for grazing into different sub units of the grassland
area in rotation at suitable intervals during the grazing season, so as to bring about uniform
grazing without making it too close.
 The quick change over from one compartment to another provides the advantages of giving the
animals a nutritive, young herbage and at the same time provides a period of rest during the
growth season. The disadvantages in this method is that it gives no chance for seed formation.

Hohenheim System:

 This is an improved system of rotational grazing developed in Germany during the 1 st world war to
produce sufficient milk without any need to feed concentrates to milch cattle.
 It consists of dividing the pasture into several equal sized plots or paddocks and applying large
quantities of nitrogenous fertilizers in these paddocks.
 The dairy cattle are separated into 3 groups high, medium and poor milkers and are let into the
paddocks in rotation, so that the best milkers will get the youngest and most nutritious grazing.
 Assuming a growing period of 3 months from July to September the plan of grazing in this
system, will be

July August September

1st Year I II III
2nd Year II III I
3rd Year III I II
DEFERRED AND ROTATIONAL GRAZING
  This system is useful for grasslands where annual species predominate and where seeding of the
perennial species is desired to maintain the density of the grass cover.
 The grass land is divided into three compartments and grazing is allowed in rotation, so that each
compartment is grazed for the grazing season and protected afterwards, until the seed mature.
 By the time the animals are let into the 3rd compartment, the seeds would have matured and got
shed. In subsequent years, the same order is followed for each compartment in rotation, so that in
3 years the grasses in each compartment would have produced enough seed with the partial
protection afforded to the grasses.
 Eg. In this deferred and rotational type of grazing, the grazing area is divided into four
compartments. The calving interval of grazing animals is reduced to 25 months as against 36-42
months under traditional open grazing.

Year Compartment Months of grazing in different

closed to compartments
grazing July-Oct Aug-Nov Sep-Dec

Jan-Apr Feb-May Mar-Jun

st
1  A B C D
2 nd B C D A
3 rd C D A B
4 th D A B C
PASTURE – PASTURAL FARMING OR RANCHING

 Pastures are grass land where grasses are grown and animals are allowed to graze. In pasturing
the animals, there is no expenditure involved for raising fodder, harvesting and distribution as in
the case of stall feeding there by reducing the cost of production.

Pastural Farming or Ranching:

 It is a type of farming practice in which livestock are reared by pasture.

 It is a common practice in cooler regions like Australia and New Zealand where wool production
is a common feature.
 In Tamil Nadu at Darapuram, Kangeyam breeds are commonly reared for draught purpose.
Usually the common grass Cenchrus ciliaris is cultivated under rainfed conditions. For the first 2
years the animals will not be allowed inside the field because of the initial establishment of the
pasture.
 Pastures are of two types
o Natural Pasture  
o Artificial Pasture

NATURAL PASTURE

 Grasses grown in wasteland offers this facility for natural pasture. In this method, grasses get
established spontaneously (eg.) Hariyali and  Denanath grasses without sowing and provides
excellent grass cover under good management by nature.
 Some of the pastures are allowed for grazing and some are also used for hay making. After
allowing the grasses to grow to the full potential, these pastures are called meadows.
  The grasses that establish after the main harvest is called the aftermath, which in latter stage can
be used for the animals to graze.

ARTIFICIAL PASTURE

 The inclusion of grasses in crop rotation is common feature in foreign countries. Grasses kept in
field for 3 to 10 years, then field is ploughed and brought under other crops. These grasslands are
otherwise called as temporary pasture or ley farming or leys.
 The land is prepared similar to other crops. In this method  seeds of  grasses and legumes are
mixed together and sown as a mixed crop. The inclusion of legumes is advantageous in many
ways.
 They are rich in protein and they raise protein content of the feed. They enrich soil by fixing
atmospheric nitrogen and consequently the grasses that are associated with legumes make a
better growth than the grasses which are grown alone.
 The grasses and legumes selected should be rich in foliage growth which inturn have rich protein
and minerals.

MODULE-4: AGRONOMICAL PRACTICES FOR PRODUCTION OF

CEREAL AND GRASS FODDERS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 

 The major objectives of

this module are to make
the user to learn the
following
o What are cereal
fodders?
o What are the
cereal fodders
specific to
irrigated, rainfed
and hilly regions?
o What are the
agronomical
package of
practices for
cultivation of
these cereal
fodders?
o What are the
cropping systems
to get year around
fodder supply?
o What is the right
time of harvest
for the important
cereal fodders
 and why it is so?
o What are minor
millets and its
fodder yield?
o What are the
annual and
perennial grass
fodders specific to
irrigated, rainfed
and hilly regions?
o  What are the
agronomical
package of
practices for
cultivation of
these grass
fodders?
o What is the
proper time of
harvest for the
important grass
fodders?

CEREAL FODDER

 Cereals, grains or cereal grains, are grasses belonging to the members of the monocot
families Poaceae or Gramineae. These are cultivated for the edible components of their fruit
seeds having the endocarp, germ and bran.
 In their natural form (as in whole grain), they are a rich source of vitamins, minerals,
carbohydrates, fats and oils, and protein. However, when refined by the removal of the bran
and germ, the remaining endocarp is mostly carbohydrate and lacks the majority of the other
nutrients.
 The word cereal derives from Ceres, the name of the Roman goddess of harvest and
agriculture. The word fodder refers to food for animals
 Cereal fodders play an important role in the feeding of dairy animals. Farmers in general are
not growing cereals exclusively for fodder purpose.
 Cereal grains are grown in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than
any other type of crop; they are therefore staple crops.
 Rather they grow them mainly for grain and after the separation of grains through harvest,
the residue (straw /stover) is used as cattle feed. But such straw/stover are very poor in their
nutritive value compared to their value as green fodder. There are varieties developed for
fodder purpose in the Cereal group that are called cereal fodders.
o Cereal fodder crops for irrigated Condition.
o Cereal Fodder for rainfed condition.
o Cereal fodder for hilly/temperate zone.
 o The word Cereal was derived from `Ceres’ meaning roman goddess of agriculture.
Earlier history referred cereal as `grass yielding edible grain’. Fodder refers to `food
for animals’

CEREAL FODDER CROPS FOR IRRIGATED CONDITION


Co-11, Co-27, Co FS. 29 (Multicut)
Fodder sorghum / Jowar (Sorghum PC-6, PC-9, PC-23
bicolor) SSG - 59-3 (Sweet sudan - multicut) 
MP chari -North India - Single cut

African Tall
Fodder maize (Zea mays) Vijay composite, Manjri composite
Moti composite, Ganga 5, Jawahar

Co-8 Entire country

Fodder cumbu / Bajra Giant Bajra (Single cut in Maharastra
(Pennisetum glacum)  and Central India and Multicut in 
syn. P.americanum rest of India)
VUJ-IV-M- entire country

Teosinte  Improved Teosinte (North, North west and

(Zea mexicana) Central India )
( Syn. Euchlaena mexicana) TL-1 (Punjab)

CEREAL FODDER FOR RAINFED CONDITION

June - July : Co-11, Co-27 

Sep.- Oct. : K-7, K-10, Co-27
Fodder Sorghum / Jowar
SSG 59-3, M.P.Chari, MD.2, PC-6, MC-
136

Fodder cumbu / Bajra (Click here for

Co-8, Giant Bajra, Rajko
video...)

Ragi (Eleusine coracana) Co-11; Indaf 8 and PR 202

Tenai (Setaria italica) Co-1

Kudiraivali (Echinochloa colonam) Co-1

Panivaragu (Panicum miliaceum) Co-1

Samai (Panicum. miliare) Co-1

Maize VL 71, Kisan composite , African Tall

Paddy and wheat straw (crop residue)

CEREAL FODDER FOR HILLY /

TEMPERATE ZONE

Oats (Avena sativa) Kent , OS-6, OS-7, OL-9, JHO 99-2 and 125

Rye (Secale cereale) JHO- 822, UPO -94 and 212

Barley (Hordeum vulgare) DL -36, DL-157, DL-417, DL-454 and Azad

CULTIVATION METHODS

 Field preparation  
 Seeds and Sowing  
 Manures and Fertilizers  
 Weeding  
 Irrigation  
 Mixed Cropping  
 Plant protection  
 Harvest  

FIELD PREPARATION

 Two ploughings either with country plough or with tillers (tractor drawn) are needed.
 For irrigated crop either beds and channels or ridges and furrows are formed.
 In rainfed condition, only two ploughing is done and one more shallow ploughing is given after
sowing to cover the seeds.

SEEDS AND SOWING

 In irrigated condition seed rate is generally less because line sowing is done with proper
spacing (30-40 x 10 cm).
 Whereas in rainfed sowing seed rate is generally high because sowing is done by broadcasting
method.

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS

 Farm yard manure at 25 t/ha for irrigated crop and at 12.5 t/ha for rainfed crop is applied. For
irrigated crop both basal (30:40:20 kg NPK /ha) and top dressing (30 kg N /ha) is done. Whereas
for rainfed crop basal dressing only is given. (Depending on the soil type, crop to be grown).
 The dosage of fertilizer will be less in the rainfed conditions when compared to irrigated
conditions. If the rainfall is favourable, top dressing is resorted to @ 10-20 kg N/ha.
  Application of fertilizers, especially N, was found to increase the green fodder yield in cereals by
2-3 times. Experiments conducted in North Indian conditions revealed that green fodder(GF), dry
matter (DM) and crude protein (CP) yield were increased considerably by N application on fodder
sorghum.
 Biofertilizers viz., Azospirillum + Phosphobacterium mixture both as seed treatment and soil
application is recommended @ 3 packets (600 g) for seed treatment and 10 packets (2000 g) for
soil application per hectare.

Effect of Nitrogen on the yield of green fodder, DM and CP of sorghum:

Nitrogen applied Green fodder yield Dry matter Crude protein

(kg/ha) (t/ha) (t/ha) (kg/ha)

0 22.5 5.1 122.6

30 35.3 7.4 424.0

60 43.1 9.3 632.5

90 49.5 10.9 817.5

120 58.4 11.7 958.0

WEEDING

 One or two weedings before 40th day is required to have a good stand of cereal fodder.
 If weeding is not done, the crop will be suppressed by weeds and ultimately the green fodder yield
gets reduced.
 Weed control using herbicide is not done usually because of the likely chance of residual toxicity
to the animals through the green fodder.

IRRIGATION

 Life irrigation is given on 3rd day of sowing for irrigated crop. Subsequent irrigation is given once
in 7-10 days depending on the soil and climatic conditions.
 Totally about 6-7 irrigations are needed.

MIXED CROPPING

 For improving the quality of fodder, legumes are generally mixed with cereals both under
irrigated and rainfed conditions.
 Trials conducted at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, revealed that legume as
intercrop with cereal fodder increased the crude protein content.
 Crude protein content of fodder as influenced by crop mixtures:

Crop mixture Crude protein content (%)

Sorghum + legume 13.94
Bajra + legume 14.98
 Maize + legume 14.58
Bajra Napier hybrid grass + legume 12.82

Cropping system approach for year round fodder supply:

 Since most of the cereal fodder crops are shorter in duration, they are amenable to fit in a
cropping system.
 Experiments conducted in Tamil Nadu revealed that the following cropping sequence in a year
were found to give more green fodder yield.

Sl. No. Cropping sequence in a year Yield

1 (Maize + Cowpea) - (Maize + Cowpea) - (Maize + Cowpea) 106 t/ha
2 (Sorghum + Cowpea) - (Maize + Cowpea) - (Maize + Cowpea) 110 t/ha
3 Cumbu Napier Hybrid grass + Hedge lucerne (Desmanthus) 225 t/ha
PLANT PROTECTION

 Generally plant protection is not needed. However, we may anticipate pests such as shoot fly,
stem borer, aphids etc., in sorghum, maize and bajra.
 Similarly diseases such as downy mildew, leaf spot etc., may occur. If the pests and disease
occur in the early stage of the crop (before 30th day), then we have to take up plant protection
measures.
 Care should be taken to avoid cutting the fodder within 30 days of application of fungicides
or pesticides.

HARVEST

 Harvesting is done at 50% flowering . For most of the cereal crops 50% flowering will occur
between 60-75 days.
 For other minor/small millets 50% flowering may occur 10-15 days earlier i.e., 50-65 days.

HARVESTING TIME

Right harvesting time for important cereals:

 From the following table, we understand that flowering stage is the optimum time of harvest in
which animals will get the maximum nutrients.

Composition and IVDMD % at pre-flowering, flowering and post flowering

Treatments DM CP SILICA IVDMD%

Legumes
Pre - flowering 14.7 23.4 0.8 73.1
Flowering 18.3 18.9 1.3 66.4
 Post flowering 28.1 15.7 1.5 63.6
Non-legumes
Pre - flowering 15.5 10.5 1.7 70.1
Flowering 24.2 7.9 2.3 63.6
Post flowering 34.4 6.1 2.9 57.4
PROPER TIME OF HARVEST

 Sorghum/Jowar - immediately after flowering and upto 50% flowering. For multicut varieties:
1st cut two months after sowing and subsequently once in  35 to 40 days.
 Maize : Cob formation to milk stage ( 60 - 70 days).
 Bajra : Boot leaf stage to early flowering.
 For multicut varieties 1st cut at boot leaf stage and subsequent at the intervals of 35 to 40 days
 Harvest at the above period produces forage of good quality with higher nutrients to animals and
also highly palatable stage with higher forage production.
 Yield :
o Green fodder yield varies greatly with crop and variety. The average yield of
fodder sorghum and fodder maize is about 35-40 t/ha. The average yield of bajra ranges
from 30-35 t/ha.
o The yield of ragi varies from 15-20 t/ha. For other small/minor millets the yield variation
is between 10 and 20 t/ha.

Comparative yield of small millets:

S. No Crop Duration Green Crude

(days) fodder protein
(t/ha) (%)
1 Arisipillu (Brachiaria ramosa) 54 18.70 13.53

2 Kudiraivali (Echinochloa colona) 53 18.20 11.93

3 Tenai (Setaria italica) 53 14.57 9.95

4 Varagu (Paspalam scrobiculatum) 64 13.92 9.95

5 Ragi (Eleusine coracana) 66 13.00 9.95

6 Samai (Panicum miliare) 46 9.46 9.76

 SORGHUM
INTRODUCTION TO GRASS FODDERS

 Cultivation of crops in general refers to seed to seed agronomic packages involving the art and
science of crop raising.
 In respect of forage grasses, cultivation means various agronomic operations from sowing to
harvest of grasses for the purpose of green fodder.

GRASSES FOR IRRIGATED CONDITIONS

 Irrigated (Perennials)

Bajra Napier hybrid grass NB 21, NB 37, BN-2, Co-1, Co-2

(Pennisetum glaucum x Co-3, Co. CN-4, Pusa Giant,
P.purpureum) IGFRI 3,5,6,7 &10
 Co -1, Co-2, Co. GG 3 (latest
Guinea grass (Panicum
variety), Hamil, Makuni, PPG-1, 9,
maximum)
13 & 14
Water grass / Para grass/buffalo
No improved variety
grass (Brachiaria mutica)

 Click 
Irrigated (annual /biennial)

Deenanath (Pennisetum pedicellatum) Co-1, PS-3, IG FRI - 3808

Teosinte (Euchlaena mexicana)(Zea Improved teosinte; TL-1(Zea
mexicana) mexicana)
CHOICE OF GRASSES FOR RAINFED
CONDITIONS

 Blue buffel (Cenchrus glaucus): Co-1

 White kolukkattaigrass /Anjan grass: IGFRI 3108, Cenchrus ciliaris, Marwar Anjan (CAZRI -75)
 Black kolukkattai grass/ Dhaman grass: Marwar Dhaman (CAZRI -76) Black Anjan (C. setigerus)
 Marvel grass (Dicanthium annulatum): GMG .1
 Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana)
 Spear grass (Heteropogon contortuous):
 Setaria grass (Setaria anceps and Nandi, Narok, PSS 1 (S. sphacelata)
 Blue panic/Australian grass (Panicum antidotale)
 Congo signal grass (Ruzi grass) (Brachiaria ruziziensis)
 Signal grass (Brachiaria decumbens)
 Arisipillu (Brachiaria ramosa)
 Sudan/Johnson grass (Sorghum sundanense and Sorghum halepense)

CHOICE OF GRASSES FOR HILLY REGIONS

 Kikuyu  grass: Pennisetum  clandestinum

 Tuber  grass: Phalaris  tuberosa
 Rye  grass: Lolium  multiflorum;  L.  Perennae
 Dactilis  grass: Dactilis  glomerata
 Setaria: Setaria  anceps; S. sphacelata

CULTIVATION METHODS

 Cultivation methods include all the package of practices to be adopted for getting higher green
fodder yield.
 It includes
o Field preparation,
o Seeds and sowing,
o Manures and fertilzers,
o Weed and irrigation management,
o Plant protection and
o Harvest.
 FIELD PREPARATION

 For both irrigated and rainfed grasses, especially perennial grasses, deep ploughing with
disc/mould board plough is essential. Because the perennials will be maintained in the field for
many years. Their fibrous roots must have more soil depth for effective uptake of soil moisture
and nutrients.
 Deep ploughing is essential to eliminate unwanted weeds besides improving the infiltration of soil
for better harvest of rain water, especially in rainfed areas.
 For better utilization of water, the scarce commodity, beds and channel or ridges and furrows
system of irrigation is recommended.
 Mostly ridges and furrows system is preferred, not only for higher water use efficiency
(WUE) compared to beds and channels but also for certain other advantages such as easy cultural
operations in view of line sowing/planting on the ridges.
 Under rainfed condition, in particular for pasture development, when there is no water for
irrigation, formation of ridges and furrows or beds and channels are not needed.
 Instead, after ploughing, the land is left as such for sowing. Sometimes, if needed, leveling of
ploughed field will be done.

SEEDS AND SOWING

 Seed collection is a problem in many of the grass species. The seeds of Bajra Napier hybrid
grasses (Co-1, Co-2, C-3 and Co CN-4) are sterile and there is no chance of seed propagation.
Hence, vegetative propagation either through root slips or stem cuttings is done.
 By this way, we are able to maintain genetic purity also. One disadvantage of using root slips is
that we need more volume of bulky stem cuttings/root slips which warrants additional expenses
on cutting and transport.
 For guinea grass, seeds are available but there is seed dormancy for about 6-8 months and the
germination is also very poor (20-40%). Considering this aspect, propagation through root slips is
better. Similar is the case with buffalo / water grass and Cenchrus species. Hence, we can go for
root slips in respect of guinea and water grass.
 In case of Cenchrus and other grass species, depending on the availability we can use either root
slips or seeds (if available) or both (for covering larger area for pasture) under rainfed condition.
Almost all the grass seeds are having dormancy at least for 4-6 months. Deenanath and Teosinte
can be propagated through seeds.
 Season is also an important consideration for the success of the crop. Irrigated grass can be
sown/planted throughout the year since there is water availability.
 Whereas, under rainfed condition, the grasses are to be sown/planted only during the onset of
monsoon season (June / July sowing for S.W monsoon; Sept/ Oct sowing for N.E.monsoon)

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS

 Since all the grass species are having only fibrous root system, they are getting their nutrients
mainly from the top soil layers (0-30 cm depth). Hence, keep the soils fertile and aerated.
Application of organic matter, irrespective of the soil type is essential.
 Also the grasses are perennial and they need sustained support through improved physical
condition of the soil. This can be achieved through adequate supply of FYM (Farm Yard Manure)
or compost @ 25 t/ha.
 Moreover, grasses are the most neglected crops among the cultivated crops. Hence, it is obvious
that only marginal or poor lands will be allotted to them. Under that situation, not only
application of FYM/compost is essential, but application of inorganic fertilizers such as NPK
(Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium) as basal is essential.
 In Europe and other western countries, the farmers are applying the micronutrients (such as Iron,
Zinc, Copper, Boron, Molybdenum, Manganese, Sodium etc.,) to irrigated and rainfed pastures to
avoid micronutrient deficiency in the animals. Such awareness and practice are yet to be
inculcated to our farmers.
 Application of NPK have been found to increase the fodder yield of grasses by nearly 2 to 4 times.
In irrigated grasses such as Bajra Napier hybrid and guinea grass, top dressing of N after every cut
is adopted. But in rainfed grasses, it is not followed in view of the non-availability of water.
However, application of N to the tune of 20-40 kg/ha is advocated, whenever there is favourable
rainfall.
 Biofertilizers such as Azospirillum + Phosphobacterium mixture can be used for both seed
treatment (3 packets 600 g/ha) and soil application (10 packets or 2000 g/ha) before sowing.
Biofertilizers were found to increase the green fodder yield by 1-2 t/ha.

WEEDING

 It is an important operation to be done both for irrigated and rainfed grass at the early stage of
the crop, between 20-40 days after sowing/ planting.
 Otherwise, the grass will be suppressed by the prolific growth of weeds and this may result in gaps
in the field (due to mortality of grasses) and ultimately results in reduction in the green fodder
yield.
 Preferably weeding with hand hoes is better since it creates better aeration for soil by the way of
scrapping the soil surface.
 Depending on the weed intensity and nature of grass growth, either one weeding (between 20-30
days) or two weedings (20th and 40th day) may be needed.
 Under irrigated condition, weeding and earthing up is essential after every harvest.
 In rainfed condition, unwanted bushes, shrubs and prominent weeds should be removed as and
when they are noticed.
 Once in a year, shallow ploughing with worn out country plough or worn out tractor tiller harrow,
may be given. This practice not only keeps the unwanted weeds under check but also incidentally
improves soil aeration and grass growth by root pruning, besides conserving rain water.

IRRIGATION
 For irrigated grasses (Bajra Napier grass, guinea grass, buffalo grass, Teosinte
and Deenanath), life irrigation must be given on 3rd day after sowing/planting.
Thereafter depending on the soil and climatic conditions, irrigation must be
given once in 7-10 days.
 If there is a moisture stress due to some unexpected reasons, it will be ultimately
reflecting on the yield.
 Under rainfed condition compartmental bunding can be followed for better
harvest of rain water.
 If there is excess moisture/water, it has to be drained out. Water logging for
more than 3 days may affect the growth of certain grasses such
as Cenchrus sp. Panicum maximum, P. antidotale etc.

PLANT PROTECTION

 It is generally not needed for Bajra Napier grass, guinea grass and buffalo grass. But in Teosinte
and Deenanath, there may be some pests (aphids, shoot fly) and diseases (rust, leaf spot etc.)
 Since they are mainly used as fodder crops, the occurrence of pests and disease at later stages
(beyond 40 days) may not affect the crop yield and quality to a greater level.
  If they occur in the early stage, we have to resort to plant protection. It must be borne in mind
that the crop should not be fed within 30 days of pesticide/fungicide application, to avoid any
residual toxicity to animals.

HARVEST

Proper stage of harvest of grass fodders:

 Hybrid Napier: 6-7 weeks (40 to 45 days advocated to have less oxalate toxicity)
 Guinea Grass: At 6 weeks intervals
 Para grass: 4 to 6 weeks intervals
 Deenanath: At Mid flowering
 Blue panic grass: Every two months
 Rhodes grass: At flowering
 Cenchrus: At 50% flowering

GREEN FODDER YIELD

 The green fodder yield ranges from 300-350 t/ha in respect of BN hybrid grass, for guinea grass it
ranges from 200-250 t/ha and for buffalo grass it ranges from 120-180 t/ha. Deenanath will yield
50-60 t/ha and Teosinte will give 30-35 t/ha.
 Kolukattai grass(Cenchrus sp.) yields about 20-30 t/ha. The other rainfed grasses yields on an
average 10-15 t/ha/year. We must remember that yield is the function of genetic potential,
environment and management factors.

Y = Genetic potential (Variety) x Environment (Climate & soil) x Management (Agronomic

packages)

 When any one of the above three factors are below optimum, then the yield will be reduced
drastically. This implies that even with good variety and suitable soil and climate for a particular
crop, without proper agronomic management will result in poor yield.

MODULE-5: AGRONOMICAL PRACTICES FOR PRODUCTION OF

LEGUME AND TREE FODDERS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 The major objectives of

this module are to make
the user to learn the
following:
o What are legume
fodders?
o What are the
annual and
perennial legume
fodders specific to
irrigated, rainfed
and hilly regions?
o What are the
agronomical
package of practices
for cultivation of
these legume
fodders?
o What is the right
time of harvest for
the important
legume fodders?
o What are the
importance of tree
fodders?
o What is sylvipasture
and the important
fodder components
in the system?
o What are the
suitable tree species
for different zones
of the country?
o Multi-tier sytems
for grassland
development.
o Nutritive value of
important tree
leaves.
o Various
multipurpose tree
species for different
rainfall zones.
 INTRODUCTION

 Legumes are most important component of animal fodder in view of their high content of crude
protein (20-25%) compared to fodder cereals (8-12%) and fodder grasses (5-10%).
 Non-leguminous fodders (Cereal and grass) provide much of the required energy (carbohydrate)
for livestock, while legumes improve the quality of fodders when mixed with non-leguminous
fodders. This is by virtue of the high protein content present in the legumes.
 Green fodders of non-legumes are fed in bulk quantities (about 10% of body weight of the animal)
whereas that of legumes are fed in small quantities (1-2% of body weight).
 If legumes are fed in bulk, it may create problems like bloat in animals. The following are the
choices of leguminous fodder.

LEGUME FODDERS FOR IRRIGATED CONDITIONS

Irrigated legumes - Perennial

 Lucerne (Medicago sativa)(Click here for video...): Co-1, T-9 Anand 1 & 2, Chetak (S-224), RLS
-88
 Desmanthus (Desmanthus virgatus) (Click here for video...): local varieties

Irrigated legumes - annual

 Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata): (Click here for video...) Co-5, Russian Giant, EC 4216, UPC –287,
Co- F.C 8, BL 1 and BL 2.
 Cluster beans (Cyamopsis tetragonaloba): Guar -80, FS-277, HFG.119 and 156
 Soybeans (Glycine max)

LEGUME FODDERS FOR RAINFED CONDITIONS

Rainfed legumes - perennial

 Desmanthus: Desmanthus virgatus
 Stylo: Stylosanthes hamata, S. scabra, S. guianensis, S. humilis
 Desmodium: Desmodium tortuosum (green leaf), D. unciniatum (Silver leaf)
 Siratro: Macroptilium atropurpureum
 Clitoria: Clitoria ternatea
 Centro: Centrosema pubescens
 Rice bean: Vigna Umbellata - K.1, K.16 ,Syn. Phaseolus calearatus
 Moth bean: Phaselous aconitifolius
 Vigna marina bean: Vigna marina
 Velvet bean: Stizolobium deringianune (IGFRI -S-219895, IGFRI - S-2286)
 Beans: Phaseolus vulgaris
 Jack bean: Canavalia gladiata (white seed)
 Sword bean: C. enciformis (Pinkish seed)
 Red gram: Cajanus cajan - BSR -1

Rainfed legumes - annual

 Red gram: Cajanus cajan : Co-1, Co-6

 Horse gram: Macrotyloma uniflorum : Co-1 and Paiyur -1
 Lab - lab: Lab-lab purpureus var. typicus : Co-1 to Co-12, Lab - lab purpureus var. lignosus :
Co-1, Co-2
 Cowpea: Vigna unguiculata : Kohinoor, NP-3 , HFC 42-1, UPC - 5287, Co.FC 8
 Cluster bean: Cymopsis tetragonaloba : Durga pura safed, HFG - 119, IGFRI -S- 212

LEGUMES FOR TEMPERATE REGIONS

 Berseem / Egyptian clover (Trifolium alexandrianum): Wardan, Mescavi and BB 3

 Lucerne (Alfalfa) Medicago sativa: T9, LLC-3 & 5, Chetak
 Senji (Sweet clover) Melilotus indica: Safed-76, FOS-1,YSL-106
 Shaftal (Persian clover) Trifolium resupinatum: Ch.20, Ch.48
 Beans / Velvet bean / Jack bean / sword bean
 Lotus: Lotus corneculatus

CULTIVATION METHODS

 Cultivation methods include all the package of practices to be adopted for getting higher green
fodder yield.
 It includes field preparation, seeds and sowing, manures and fertilzers, weed and irrigation
management, plant protection and harvest.

FIELD PREPARATION

 A  deep  ploughing  with  disc/mould  board  plough  followed  by working  with  tillers/harrows 
for 2  times  is  essential,  to  bring  the  soil  into  fine  tilth. 
 Then  beds  and  channels  are  formed  for  irrigated  crops.  Ridges   and  furrow  system  is
followed  wherever  water  is scarce.

SEEDS AND SOWING

 Seed rate differs with size of the seeds. For small seeded crops like lucerne, desmanthus etc., 15-
20 kg/ha are needed.
 For cowpea, cluster bean, lab- lab, horse gram and red gram, a seed rate of 20 -25 kg/ha is
needed. For soyabean about 75-80 kg/ha is recommended.
 Before taking up sowing, seed treatment with Trichoderma viridi has to be done to avoid root
rot/wilt disease.
 In irrigated condition, line sowing is a must to maintain adequate population as well as to exploit
the resources viz., water, sunlight, space and nutrients effectively. In rainfed condition
broadcasting is practiced.

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS

 Application of FYM at 25 t/ha and 12.5 t/ha is essential under irrigated and rainfed conditions,
respectively.
 Inorganic fertilizers at 25:120:40 kg NPK/ha is advocated for lucerne, 25:40:20 kg NPK/ha for
cowpea and 10:60:30 kg NPK /ha for Desmanthus under irrigated conditions. Half of this dose
will be sufficient under rainfed conditions for these crops.
 For all other rainfed pulses, fertilizer dose of 10:25:0 kg NPK/ha is recommended as basal dose.
Biofertilizers viz., Azospirillum + Rhizobium + phospho-bacterium mixture both as seed
inoculation and soil application is recommended. Wherever possible specific strains of rhizobium
should be used for better results.

WEEDING

 Both perennial and annual legumes under irrigated as well as rainfed conditions, needs one
(20th day) or two (20th and 40th day) weeding and hoeing.
 For all the perennial legumes, one hoeing and weeding is essential after every harvest to keep the
soil aerated as well as to keep the weeds under check.

MIXED CROPPING/ INTERCROPPING

 Legumes are generally grown only as mixture with non-legumes, with an exception of lucerne and
desmanthus. The later being a perennial is grown as pure crop in view of their high yielding
potential.
 And also repeated harvests and cultural operations in the standing crop become easy when grown
as purecrop. However growing legumes as intercrop with cereal fodders or grass fodders make the
green fodder available a complete and balanced source of nutrients to the animals.
 For improving the quality of pastures, legumes such as stylo, clitoria, siratro etc., may be mixed
with grass species such as Cenchrus ciliaris, C. Setigerus, C. glaucus and Stylosanthes at one row
of legumes for every three rows of grass, if line sowing is possible.
 Otherwise the seeds of legumes and grasses can be mixed in the same proportion and sown by
broadcast method.

PLANT PROTECTION

 Generally  plant  protection  is  not  needed.  However,  if any insect pest or disease is noticed, 
one can take up  plant  protection measures. 
 Care must  be  taken  for  not  feeding  the  fodder within  30  days  of  fungicide  or  insecticide 
application.

IRRIGATION

 Depending  on  the  soil  and  climatic  condition,  irrigation  is  needed  once  in  7-10  days  for 
irrigated legumes. 
 Though  irrigation  is  very much  essential  to  obtain  maximum  yield,  waterlogging  for  more 
than  48 hours  may  result  in  wilting/rotting  of  most  of  the  leguminous  fodder  crops.

HARVESTING

 Harvesting  is  to  be  done  at  50%  flowering. Fodder cow pea is ideal for harvesting around
70  to  75  days.  
 Lucerne is harvested   at an  interval  of  40  days   in  summer  and  at an interval of 20  to 
30 days during winter months. 
 Delay  in  harvest  may affect the  quality of  the   fodder  interms  of  crude  protein  content
and other nutrients.
 YIELD

 Desmanthus  yields  about  125 t  green  fodder/ha,  while  lucerne  yields  70-80 t/ha. 
 The  fodder yield  of  cowpea,  cluster  bean  and  soybean  ranges  from  20-30  t/ha.  
 For  all  other  legumes  the  yield  of  green  fodder  under  rainfed  condition  may  range  from
10-15  t/ha/year.

WHY TREE FODDER?

 All the tropical and subtropical grasses, owing to their faster rate of growth during the monsoons
provide grazing for the livestock, mainly in the monsoon and post-monsoon periods.
 With the advent of winter in most parts of the northern India, and owing to the lack of sufficient
moisture in the soil in a ready available form, they enter dormancy.
 In the case of south Indian conditions, the grass land look dried or partially dried during the
summer months and post monsoon periods thereby causing poor grass growth and grass land
deterioration.
 During these periods, livestock gets only a meager part of the feed requirement through grazing.
For such lean periods, tree-tops come to the rescue of the livestock-owners.
 The young leafy, succulent material, highly nutritive and rich in crude protein and minerals, serve
as a concentrate, even if fed in small quantities along with other dried grasses and crop residues.
 The loppings of the trees obtained in spring and summer seasons also contain some substances
which bring the animals quickly into the reproduction phase.
 Some of the important trees giving loppings and producing gum are Soobabul (Leucaena
leucocephala) and Sesbania aegyptica and S. maculeata.Click

SYLVIPASTURE SYSTEM
 The silvipastrol system involves production of forage grasses and legumes with
multiple purpose trees used initially under cut and carry system and later on
grazed in situ.
 The current land use statistics show more than one- third of the land area as
wastelands needing early attention for their development to meet the growing
shortage of forage/grazing, firewood and healthy environment.
 It becomes still more important when we cannot increase the area under fodder
crops due to growing demand for food of human population.
 Thus, under present circumstances it is essential to follow an integrated
approach of growing trees and forage grasses and legumes simultaneously on the
same land under sylvipastoral system of farming - which is closer to the natural
approach and is ecologically sound.
 It has three major components:
o The trees: Conserve land and ameliorate climate in arid and semi- arid
regions, besides their forage, fuel and timber value
o Animals: Milk, meat, energy, manure, etc.
o Occasional cash crops: Income for farmers.

FODDERS FOR SYLVIPASTURE SYSTEM

Trees
  Subabul, Desmanthus, Albizia, Acacia, Hardwickia, Dalbergia sissoo

Grasses

 Cenchrus ciliaris, Cenchrus setigerus, Chrysopogon fulvus, Dicanthium annulatum

Legumes

 Stylosanthes scabra (in arid and semi-arid regions), Stylosanthes hamata, Stylosanthes

guianensis (in high rainfall areas), Macroptilium atropurpureum, Lablab etc.
 In sylvipastoral system the trees are planted at a spacing of 6x 5m, 4 x 3m or 3 x 2 m depending
upon their rotation.
 The experiment conducted in vertisols of Regional Research Station, Aruppukottai during rainy
season (North-east monsoon) revealed that subabul (16.2 t/ha) and Desmanthus (14.5 t/ha)
recorded higher fodder production compared to Sesbania.
 Among the different forage crops grown under this system Subabul + sorghum combination
recorded higher fodder production (20.5 t/ha).
 For the terrains and difficult areas, some of the fodder - trees that have shown promise and
compatibility with the grass species in various parts of our country are given below.

Trees + Grasses

 Israli babool (Acacia tortilis) + Anjan (Cenchrus ciliaris, C. setigerus)

 Babool (Acacia arabica) + Dhaulu (Chrysopogon fulvus)
 Siris (Albizia lebbeck) + Sain (Sehima nervosum)
 Unjal (A. amara) + Dinanath (Pennisetum pedicellatum)

NORTH - WESTERN REGION

 Acacia tortilis, A. Catechu

 A. nilotica (Syn. A. arabica), Albizia amara
 A. lebbeck, Anogeissus pendula
 Azadirachta indica, Capparis spinosa
 Dalbergia sissoo, Grewia oppositifolia
 Ficus carica, Leucaena leucocephala
 Prosopis cineraria, P. juliflora
 Quercus incana, Q. semecarpifolia
 Salix tetrasperma*, Robinia psedacacia
 Salvadora oleoides, Dendrocalamus strictus

INDO-GANGETIC PLAIN

 Acacia nilotica , Acacia torilis

 Alibizia amara, A. lebbeck
 Adina cordifolia, Anogeissus latifolia
 A. pendula, Azadirachta indica
 Artocarpus integrifolia, A.chaplasha
 Basia latifolia, Bridelia retusa
 Bauhinia spp, Cassia fistula
 Cordia dichotoma, Castania sativa
 Dalbergia sissoo, Ehretia laevis
 Syzygium cumini (Eugenia jambolana), Fagus sylvatica
 Ficus spp., Gmelina arborea
 Grewia oppositifolia, Helicteres isora
 Kydia calycina, Leucaena leucocephala
 Mallotus philippinensis, Millettia auriculata
 Moringa pterigosperma, Morus spp.,
 Qugeinia dalbergioides, Musa sapientum
 Pithecellobium dulce, Delonix regia
 Quercus spp., Schleichera trijuga
 Sesbania grandiflora, Terminalia spp.,
 Tamarindus indica, Ulmus wallichiana
 Zizyphus jujuba, Dendrocalamus strictus

CENTRAL ZONE

Adina cordifolia Abizia lebbeck
Anogeissus spp., Azadirachta indica
Artocarpus integrifolia Basia latifolia
Bridelia ratusa Bauthinia spp.
Cordia dicholoma Dalbergia latifolia
Syzygium cumini Ficus spp.
Gmelina arborea Gliricida maculata
Hardwickia binata Kydia calycina
Leucaena leucocephala Moringa
pterigosperma
Morus spp., Qugeinia dalbergioides
Pithecolobium saman Delonix regia
Pterocarpus Terminalia spp.,
marsupium
Zizyphus jujuba

COASTAL ZONE

Acacia tortilis Cassia siamea

Tamarix Albizia amara
 articulata
Syzygium cumini Ficus retusa
Erythrina indica Ailanthus
malabarica
NORTH-EASTERN
ZONE

 Alibizia spp., Bamboos

 Artocarpus integrifolia, A. chaplasha
 Bauhinia spp., Castania sativa*
 Desmodium spp., Fagus sylvatica*
 Syzygium cumini, Ficus benghalensis
 F.religiosa, Gliricida maculata
 Gmelina arborea, Moringa pterigosperma
 Morus alba, Ougeinia dalbergioides
 Delonix elata, Schleichera oleodies
 Terminalia tomentosa, Tinospora cordifolia
*Species for high altitudes
  
MULTI-TIER SYSTEMS (COMBINING TREES) FOR GRASSLAND
DEVELOPMENT

 Silvipastoral systems or the combining of fodder and fuel plantations seem to be the answer for
meeting the chronic shortages of fuel and fodder in the country.
 Vast areas of culturable wasteland and marginal forest lands extending over 47 million hectares in
the country may be particularly suitable for the purpose Multi-tier system of growing trees and
grasses/legumes. The central soil and water conservation research and training institute
(CSWCRTI), Dehra Dun and its regional centres have generated valuable information in this
regard.
 At Dehra Dun, Delbergia sissoo (fuel), Chrysopogon fulvus (fodder) and Acacia catechu (fuel)
+ Eulaliopsis binata (fibre) plantations were found to be highly successful in the old terraces of
the torrents of the region which are bouldery in nature.
 At Chandigarh, on sloping lands, the combination of Eucalyptus hybrid (fuel) and Eulaliopsis
binata (fibre) , adapting tie ridging technique for moisture conservation has yielded 179
tonnes/ha of air - dry mass of fuel and 45 tonnes/ha of grass within a period of 8 years and 3
months. In the ravine lands of Agra, gullied lands were found to support good stands of Acacia
nilotica and Cenchrus ciliaris.
 At Kota and Vasad, on the other hand, Prosopis juliflora was found to be good for plantation on
gully side slopes, Dendrocalamus strictus alongwith either Dichanthium annulatum or Cenchrus
ciliaris is found to be good for gully-bed plantation.
 In the semi-arid deep black soils of Bellary, Acacia nilotica and Cenchrus ciliaris have been found
to be good fuel-cum-fodder plantations.

MULTI-PURPOSE TREE SPECIES

 Annual rainfall - Poor (< 500 mm) - Dantiwada, Hisar, Hoshiarpur, Jhansi, Jodhpur, Rajkot,
Udaipur
o Acacia nilotica
o A. aneura / torilis
o A. catechu / senegal
o Colophospermum mopane
o Eucalyptus camaldulensis
o Faidherbia albida
o Parkinsonia aculeata
o Prosopis cineraria
o P. juliflora
o Pithecellobium dulce
 Moderate (500 - 750 mm) - Akola, Anantapur, Bangalore, Bellary Hyderabad, Indore, Solapur
o Acacia nilotica
o A. ferruginea
o Ailanthus excelsa
o Albizia lebbeck / amara
o Azadirachta indica
o Butea monosperma
o Cassia flstula
o Casurina equisetifolia
o Eucalyptus sp.
o Leucaena leucocephala
o Tamarindus indica
o Terminalia alata
 Good (> 750 mm) - Bhubaneshwar Dehra dun,Kovilpatti,
Rakh Dhiansar
o Acacia nilotica
o Albizia lebbech
o Alnus nepalensis
o Azadirachta indica
 Good (> 750 mm) - Ranchi, Rewa,Varanasi
o Bauhinea purpurea
o Casuarina equisetifolia
o Dalbegia sissoo / latifolia
o Emblica officinalis
o Eucalyptus sp.
o Gmelina arborea
o Grewia optiva
o Grevillea robusta
 o Hardwickia binata
o Melia azedarach
o Morus alba
o Populus sp.
o Sesbania sp.
o Terminalia sp.

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF COMMON TREE LEAVES

(Jack fruit, Neem, Mowra, Indian Kapok, Coffee, Banyan, Fig and Peepal)

 The utilization of tree leaves for feeding to livestock is not common. They are, however, used for
feeding sheep and goats, and are sometimes fed to cattle during periods of fodder crisis.
 In the early stages of their growth, leaves contain fairly high amounts of crude protein and a
comparatively low percentage of crude fibre.
 As maturity progresses, there is a gradual decrease in protein content with a concomitant increase
in crude fiber. The tree leaves and shrubs are generally rich in calcium but poor in phosphorus.

Jack fruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus)

 A tree up to 15m high with stiff, 3-lobed leaves on young shoots. The fruits are green and clump -
formed with a papillate surface. They grow all along the trunk of the tree.
 The fruits are an important food in the eastern tropics. The leaves are relished by the goat, sheep
and cattle and fed particularly in Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa and West Bengal.

Fresh leaf : As % of dry matter

D.M. C.P. C.F. Ash EE NFE Ca P

53.0 18.5 26.2 10.2 5.0 40.0 2.00 0.11

Neem (Azadirachta indica)

 Neem trees grow throughout South and South East Asia. The tree remain green all the year round
and is drought resistant. Although the leaves are not relished by normal livestock, but buffaloes
are found to consume about 5 kg per day.

Fresh leaf : As % of dry matter

C.P. C.F. Ash EE NFE Ca P

15.4 12.7 11.2 4.2 56.5 2.65 0.24

Mowra (Bassia latifolia or Madhuca indica)

 A large deciduous tree with a short trunk, spreading branches and a large rounded crown. Flowers
are used as vegetable and as source of alcohol. The cake from the oilseed is used as fertilizer.
Cattle eat the leaves, flowers and fruit.

Fresh leaf : As % of dry matter

C.P. C.F. Ash EE NFE Ca P

9.1 18.7 7.8 4.1 60.3 1.53 0.24
Indian Kapok or Red silk cotton tree (Bombax malabaricum)

 A tree native to India cultivated for the fine, lustrous material (kapok) obtained from the seed
hairs. The flowers are collected for human consumption. The leaves which are 5 to 8 cm long are
felted with star shaped hairs. These, together with the twigs, are lopped for fodder.

Fresh leaf : As % of dry matter

CP CF Ash EE NFE Ca P
12.6 22.3 9.3 6.4 49.4 2.70 0.19

Coffee (Coffea arabica)

 The dark, glossy green leaves of the coffee bush are, in some areas, dried and included in
concentrates for cattle. The leaves are reported as palatable and can be fed without any
unfavourable side effects. It has been claimed that feeding of coffee leaves extends the lactation
period.

Dried leaf : As % of dry matter

DM CP CF Ash EE NFE Ca P
93.6 9.9 18.7 13.0 5.9 52.5 ---- ----

Banyan (Ficus benghalensis)

 A large tree, which can have a huge crown of horizontal branches covering as much as 200 square
metres. The crown is supported by aerial roots. It is often planted as shade tree. The leaves are
relished by sheep, goat, cattle and buffaloes.

Fresh leaf : as % of dry matter

CP CF Ash EE NFE Ca P
9.7 22.6 14.4 2.9 50.4 2.56 0.19

Fig (Ficus carica)

 A small spreading shrubby tree with large leaves, native to Asia, but now cultivated in sub-tropical
countries also. The leaves can be used as fodder for cattle and should be collected as soon as the
fruit has been harvested and before yellowing begins.

Fresh leaf : As % of dry matter

DM CP CF Ash EE NFE Ca P
34.2 14.2 17.1 16.7 5.9 46.1 3.16 0.16

Peepal (Ficus religiosa)

 A large glabrous tree with leathery, shining, broad based, pointed leaves, Commonly grown as an
avenue tree. Although the palatability and nutritive value of peepal leaves is not very good but still
the leaves and branches are extensively lopped for fodder.
 Fresh leaf : As % on dry matter basis

CP CF Ash EE NFE Ca P
9.0 15.9 20.0 2.7 52.4 2.97 0.21
MODULE-6: STORAGE OF FEEDS AND FODDERS 
LOSSES IN STORAGE AND PREVENTIVE METHODS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 The major objectives of this module are

to make the user to learn the following:
o What are losses in storage of
feed and feed ingredients?
o Factors responsible for those
lossses.
o Control methods to prevent the
losses.
o Essential criteria for the safe
storage of feed and feed
ingredients.

STORAGE OF FEEDS AND FODDERS

Introduction

 As  the  population  grows increasingly, the  food  supply becomes an  urgent  priority.  One 
vital and  neglected  step  towards  this  end  is  to  reduce  food  losses  that  occur  between 
harvest  and  consumption. 
 Inspite  of  advances  in  technology, tonnes  of  cereals are  wasted  every  year through
spoilage  of  various  sorts.  Protection  of  food supplies  through  sound  storage  practices 
is  a  matter  of most  vital  importance. 
 Storage and  marketing,  if  carried out  efficiently  will  be  a  major  contribution  to  the 
under  developed and  developed  countries  where  food  and  feed  shortage  is  severe.

LOSSES IN STORAGE

 Loss  is measured  as  reduction in  weight  in  the  amount  of  feed  available  for consumption. 
Loss  may  be 
o Quantitative
o Qualitative
o Economical
o Nutritional  and  
o Germinative
 The loss  can  be  prevented  or  reduced  by  better  management  at pre-harvesting stage, during 
harvesting, threshing  and shelling,  drying and  by  applying  sound  storage practices.
 Grains stored  under favourable  conditions for  many years  undergo  relatively  minor changes
in  composition  and can  be used as  a source  of  nutritious  and  palatable  food  or  animal  feed, 
 but under  unfavourable conditions  result  in  complete  spoilage of  grain  for  food or  feed 
purpose  within  a  few  days.

FACTORS AFFECTING FEED VALUE AND DETERIORATION

 Basically there are some physical, biological and chemical agents that cause the damage and
ulitmate loss to the stored feed and feed ingredients.
 It may include
o Temperature
o Moisture
o Insects
o Fungus
o Rodents etc.

PHYSICAL FACTORS

 Moisture  content  and  temperature are the   principle  factors in  safe  storage.  At  low  moisture
and temperature, destructive  insects  become  inactive. 
 The  optimum  levels  of  moisture for storing the  feed ingredients  is  less  than  10% in  India. 
Further, the  lower  the  temperature, higher the  level  of  permissible moisture for  storage. 
 High  temperature     (21-43° C) speeds  up  the  life process  of  all  microorganisms.  Temperature
below 15° C retard insect reproduction.

Control

 Proper  drying  of the  grain before  storage and  storing the  grains at  lower  temperature as  far 
as  possible.

BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

 Principle biological  agents  that  cause  deterioration  during  storage are 

o Insects
o Fungi
o Rodents

INSECTS

 At temperature of 32°C rate of multiplication of insect species is fifty times. The nutritive
requirements of insects are same as those of vertebrates.
 Crops with high nutritive value are more susceptible to insect damage. Dead and live insects and
their excreta cause the commodity unpalatable and unacceptable.
Control

 Good hygiene.
 Cleaning and checking of storage containers as well as the stored food as far as possible.
 New dry grain should be kept separate from old grain.
 Stores should be remote from the field to reduce the risk of infestation.
 Traditional pest control system such as use of local herbs, mixing ash with grain and smoking are
effective and should be encouraged.
 Making use of grain storage insecticides like
o Contact poisons such as dust, dispersible powders and emulsions (Malathion),
o Fumigants: Gases which can penetrate bulk of grain but should be used by trained
personnel.

FUNGI

 Fungi produces metabolites  like  aflatoxin, zeara-lenone. The  fungus  development  occurs  in
the  stored  feed  ingredients in  cases  of  
o Inadequate drying, 
o Due  to  high  humidity and  
o Due  to  wetting.

Control

 Losses due  to fungi can  be  reduced  by  applying  drying  and  storage technology.

RODENTS

 Rodents not only consume food but also foul with their excretions. Further they destroy
containers by gnawing holes that results in leakage and wastage of grain.

Control

 Rodent exclusion efforts in store construction.

 Improved sanitation.
 Fumigation with phosphine and other gasses.
 Trapping and hunting.
 Use of cats and dogs.
  Rodent repellants.
 Poison baiting with chlorofacinone, warfarrin, coumarin, zinc phosphate, barium carbonate
etc.

Dose

 In acute case :
o Zinc phosphide
o Calcium cyanide 0.5%
o Aluminium phosphide
 In chronic cases:
o Warfarin 0.05%
o Coumarin

CHEMICAL AND ENGINEERING FACTORS

Chemical  factors

 The pesticide residue in the  produce will  effect  the  feed  value  and  detoriations occur during 
storage. 
 Hence, care should  be taken for correct dose of spraying pesticides and also avoiding spray at the
late stages of maturity.

Engineering  factors

 Engineering factors refer such  as  storage structures (bag  or  bulk storage), mechanical
(conveying  of  produce, threshing and  shelling).
 During  these  process  grains  are  broken  and  may  result in rapid spoilage during  the  storage.

DESIGNS OF STORES

 Building  for  the storage  of  feeds  and  feed  ingredients must  be  watertight.  The  roof  walls, 
doors,  windows  and  floor  must  be  leakproof. 
 The  floor  must  not  transmit water  vapour from the  soil.  Doors,  windows  should  be sealable 
in  order  to  permit  control  of  ventilation. 
 Building  must  have  devices  to protect against  the  entry  of  rats  and  mice and  birds  (gaps
between roof  and  walls  should  be  sealed  with local  mud, sheet metal  or  close  netting). 
 Pipes, shafts, ducts etc.  should  be  fitted with wide  metal  guards  outside  and  netting  inside.

Essential  criteria  for  safe storage  of  products

 Entirely  weather  proof.

 Gas  tight to enable  fumigation  of  entire  contents.
 Fitted  with  controllable  ventilation.
 Proof  against  entry  of rodents  and  birds.
 Free  from  light  transmitting  areas  in  the  roof  in  order to  avoid  high temperature areas  on
top  of stored  produce.
 Designed  to  permit  incorporation  of  few  fans  in  the  walls  and  ducting  on  the  floor  for
special  storage requirement.
 MODULE-7: SILAGE MAKING
IMPORTANCE, PRESERVATION METHODS AND ADVANTAGES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 

 The major objectives of this

module are to make the user to
learn the following:
o What is Silage, Ensiling
and Silo?
o Various types of silo and
its size requirement
o Preparation of forage for
silage making
o Common
additives/preservatives
used
o Silo filling and sealing
procedure
o Quality characteristics of
silage, advantages and
disadvantages

SILAGE MAKING

Introduction

 The  rainfall  in  India  is  seasonal.  As  a  result,  abundant  grass  is  available  in  the  rainy 
season,  all  of  which is  not  properly  utilised. 
 We  can  also produce  a  good  amount  of  fodder  during  this  season  with proper  selection of 
the  plant  material  and  proper  cultural  practices. 
 To  satisfy the  needs  of  the livestock  during  the  lean  months, an  adequate  amount  of  the  
surplus  grass  available during  the  rainy season  must  be  conserved. 
 The  ideal  and  simple  method  of  conservation  is  to  drive off  the  moisture  in the  fresh grass 
with  artificial  heat  and  store  the  product  as  dried  fodder  for  use  when required. 
  Unfortunately,  considerable  capital  expenditure  is  involved.  In  practice  the  moisture in 
grass  is  reduced  through exposure  to  sun  and  wind,  and  hay  is  obtained.  This   process  is 
simple  in  theory  but  is  fraught  with  difficulties  in  practice.
 To  combine  cheapness  and  simplicity,  and yet to  ensure at  the  same  time  a  product  of  high
feeding  value  and virtually  independent  of  weather  conditions.
 For this,  natural  fermentation  must  be  used  and  the  process  of  ensilage  adopted.  There 
lies  the  choice  of  the  farmer - hay  or  silage.

SILAGE

 Silage  is  a  fermented feed  resulting from  the  storage  of  high  moisture  crops,  usually  green 
forages,  under  anaerobic  conditions  in  a  structure  known  as  a  silo.
 Click here for video... 

Ensiling / Ensilage

 The  name  actually  stands  for  all  physical  and  chemical  changes  that  take  place  when 
forage  or  feed  with  sufficient  moisture  are  stored  in  a  silo  in  the  absence  of  air. 
 The  entire  ensiling  process  requires two  to  three  weeks  for  converting  forage  into  silage.

Silo

 A  silo  is  an  airtight  to  semi-airtight  structure  designed  for the  storage  and  preservation  of 
high moisture  feeds  as  silage.  Silos  are  of  different  types.

CHARACTERISTICS AND VARIOUS TYPES OF SILO PITS

 The  size  should  be  decided  on  the  basis  of  the  number  and  kind  of  animals  to  be  fed
daily,  the  length  of  the  feeding  period,  and  the  amount  of  forage  available  for  ensiling.  
 Silos should exclude  air  from  the  stored  material  including  entrance  of  air  around  the 
doors  of  tower  soils.
 The   side  walls should  be  straight  and  smooth  in  order  to  prevent  the  formation  of  air 
pockets  which  may  retard  the  normal  microbial  fermentation.
 Silos should   be  of  adequate  depth,  thereby  making  for  better  packing  and  less  surface 
area  to  total  mass  exposed.
 The  walls  should  be  strong  and rigid  in  order  to withstand  the  pressure  which  develops 
inside  the  pit  as  fermentation  take  place.  Note  that  silage  made  from  cut  grass  will  exert
from  a  1/2   to  2 1/2  times  as  much  pressure  on the  walls  as  does  maize  silage. 
Reinforcement  of  walls  will  be  desired.
 That  adequate  provision  be  made  for  the  escape  of surplus  juices,  either  by  a drain  or  by 
a  gravel  bottom.
 That  it  be  conveniently  located  and  accessible  in  all  kinds of  weather,  from  the  standpoint 
of  both  filling  and  feeding.
 That  silo pits (not tower  type)  are  always  located  preferably  at  the  highest  spot  on  the  farm 
to avoid  water  seepage.

CHARACTERISTICS TYPES OF SILO

 The kind of silo and the choice of construction material should be determined primarily by
economics. Silos may be classified as follows:
 Conventional upright (tower)silos
o Concrete stave (thin strips of concrete set edge to edge to form the wall).
o Wood stave
o Tile block
o Brick
 Gastight (oxygen - limiting)silos
o Concrete stave
o Brick
 Pit silos
 Horizontal silos
o Trench silos (below ground level)
o Bunker silos (above ground level)
 Temporary silos
o Plastic or polythene bag silos
 o Modified trench - stack silos

Conventional upright (tower) silos

 All upright silos are circular in shape and equipped with a series of doors about 2 sq. ft.
approximately every 6 ft. up on one side of the silo. These are closed as the silo is filled and
opened as the silo is emptied. Recent developments in construction of tower silos have been made
in bottom unloaders with large diameter features (24-30 ft.). However, the size varies from about
12-20 ft. in diameter and 40-80ft. in length. For effective preservation of silage, the forage should
contain between 25 and 35 per cent dry matter.

Gastight silos or airtight or sealed silos

 These silos resemble conventional tower silos, but they are more expensive because of their
construction to make the tower completely free from oxygen. Gastight silos are designed for
forages having as high as 50-75 per cent dry matter or for the storage of high moisture grain
containing 60-75 per cent dry matter.

Pit Silos

 A pit silo is shaped like the tower silo, but inverted into the ground. It resembles a well. This type
of silo can be made only in places where the water table is low enough (in semi- arid or in arid
regions) that the silo will not fill with water.
 In comparison with tower silos, pit silos have the following
o Advantages:
 They are never damaged by storm and
 Require less reinforcing.
o Disadvantages are
 They are dangerous, due to the frequent presence of suffocating Co2 and
 Considerable work is involved in removing the silage.

Horizontal Silos

Trench Silo

 At a comparatively low cost this type of silo can be constructed quickly. It is most popular in areas
where the weather is not too severe and where there is good drainage. A trench silo should be
wider at the top than at the bottom, and the bottom should slope away from one end so that
excess juices will drain off if material with high moisture content is ensiled.
 Advantages
o Low initial cost and ease of construction.
 Disadvantages
o In comparison with the tower type it will require larger space to seal. When filling is
completed, the top should be carefully sealed by polyethylene, plastic or by wet straw
mixed with mud or by saw dust to make it air tight.

Bunker silos

 As a labour saving measure, bunker type of silos above the ground (for slightly recessed) usually
with concrete floors are generally catching the attention of many farmers.

Click here for video...

 SIZE OF SILOS FOR CONSTRUCTION

Number of adult Diameter of silo Height of silo Tonnes of silage

cow (metre) (metre)
12 3.05 7.93 39.4
20 3.66 8.23 56.4
30 4.27 9.14 84.6
50 5.49 10.68 141.0
100 6.10 11.89 282.0
CROPS USED FOR SILAGE MAKING

 The  most  commonly  used  silage  crops  are

 Graminaceous  
o Maize,  sorghum,  sudan  grass,  bajra,  hybrid napier,  etc.
o Out of  all,  maize  and  sorghum  are  supposed  to  be  the  best  crops  for  silage 
making. 
 Leguminaceous 
o Lucerne,  Berseem, Cowpea etc.,
o For  preserving  leguminous  crops  which  have  less  percentages  of  sugar,  the  
fodder  is  sprinkled  with  a  solution  of  molasses  in  water  at  every one-third 
metre  of  filling  to  provide  the  necessary  amount  of  sugar  for  silage  making. 
Graminaceous forage  crops  can  be  mixed  with  legumes  for  making  silage  of 
good  quality.

PREPARATION OF FORAGE FOR MAKING SILAGE

 Harvest  proper  stage  of  maturity

o The  crop  for  silage  making  is  generally  harvested  at  the  flowering  stage  when  it 
has  the   maximum  amount  of  nutrients. 
o For  maize  this  is the early  dent  stage  (well  matured  stage, normally harvested  for 
seed)  of maturity  and  for sorghum  the  late  dough  stage  (stage  at  which  the  seeds 
are  soft  and  immature). 
o Silage  materials  containing  less  than  25  per  cent dry matter  (more  than  75  per  cent 
moisture)  will  form  a  very  sour  silage  and  will  usually  lose  significant  amounts  of 
silage  juices  during  storage,  involving  a  considerable  loss  of  nutrients.  Thus  plants 
for  silage  making  may  be  allowed  to  mature  till  the  dry  matter  content  attains 35-
40  per  cent.
 Cut  to  proper  length (Click here for video...)
o The  length  of  the  cut  sections  affects  the  packing  and  hence,  the  quality  of  the 
silage.  Silage  crops usually  vary  from  a  fraction  of  an  inch  to  over  an  inch  in 
length.  Chopping forage crops into 1 to 2 cm length is ideal.
o Grass  silages  require  to be  more  finely  chopped  than  maize  or sorghum.  Wilted  and 
dry  forages  and  forage  with  hollow  stems  should  be chopped  more finely  than 
forage  of  high  moisture  content,  thus  permitting  more  thorough  packing  and 
eliminating  most  air  pockets.
 Control  the  moisture  content  
o Practical  experience  has  indicated  that  35-40  per  cent  dry matter (that  is  60-65 
per  cent moisture) is very ideal  for  most  crops  to   be  ensiled.

Forage  containing  more  than  60-65  per  cent  moisture has the following characteristics:
  It is  heavier  and  more  costly to handle  that  is unnecessary ;  
 It will produce poor quality silage ie.,  slimy,  putrid  silage,  due to  the  presence  of  butyric acid
and  other  undesirable  acids ; 
 It will  have  excessive  seepage  of  the  juices and  some loss of  nutrients,  except  carotene,  from
the  silo;  
 It will  result  in  excessive  deterioration  in the  silo walls  due  to  the  high  acidity;  
 It will  exert  high  pressure  on the  silo walls.

The  high moisture  content  of the  silage  may be  lowered  by  any  one  or  a  combination  of  the 
following  methods:

 Conditioning - wilting: 
o The  method  is  suitable  for  making  of grass  silage.  Conditioning  and/or  wilting for 
three  to four  hours  on  a  good  drying  day  may  reduce  10-15  per  cent  reduction  of 
moisture  content.
 Adding  dry  hay or  straw:
o During  poor  wilting  weather,  the  moisture  content  of  grass  forage  can  be  reduced 
within  the  desired  range  by  adding  5-20  per  cent straw.
 Combining  high  and  low  moisture  crops:
o By  mixing  at  a  calculated  ratio between  high  and  low moisture crops,  the  forage 
may be  made  into a desired  moisture  content.
 Addling  dry  preservative: 
o Dry  preservatives  as  ground  grains,  maize  and  cob  meal,  dried  molasses  etc.  will 
reduce  moisture  content.
o If  the  crop  is  over-ripe  and  too  dry  when  cut,  or  if  it  becomes  over-wilted, it  will 
be  necessary  to add  water  to  the  silo after  fine chopping  and  during  packing.
 Additives  or  preservatives:
o Addition  of  additives  or  preservatives  serve  one  or  more  of the  following  purposes:
 Add nutrients.
 Provide  fermentable  carbohydrates.
 Furnish  additional  acids. 
 Inhibit  undesirable  types  of  bacteria  and  moulds. 
 Reduce  the  amount  of  oxygen  present,  directly  or  indirectly.
 Reduce  the  moisture  content  of  the  silage. 
 Absorb  some  acids  which  might otherwise  be  lost  in  seepage.
 Increase  nitrogen  content.

COMMON ADDITIVES / PRESERVATIVES USED

 Molasses:
o Some  green  forages  such  as  legumes and  certain  grasses  are  rather  low  in  sugar 
content. 
o Adding  molasses  definitely  improves  the  quality  of  silage  by  increasing  lactic  and 
acetic  acid  production.  It  also  increases  the  palatability  and  nutritive  value  of the 
silage. 
o Molasses  may  be  added  (3.5  to 4  per  cent  of  the  green  weight  of  the  forage)  in 
either  liquid  or  dehydrated  form. 
o Molasses and  starches  when  added in the  form  of  grains  supply  the  silage  bacteria 
with  ample  food  so  that  fermentation  proceeds  normally.
 Urea:
o Adding  urea  at  a  level  of  0.5 per  cent  of  fresh  forages  is recommended. 
o The  very  idea  of  adding  urea  is  to  enrich  the  silage  with  nitrogen  as  cereal  forages 
are  mostly  deficient  in this  element.  
  Limestone: 
o This  is  calcium  carbonate  and  may be  added  at  a  level  of  0.5 to 1.0 per  cent  to 
maize  silage  to increase  acid  production. 
o It  neutralizes  some  of  the  initial  acids    as  they are formed  allowing the  lactic  acid 
bacteria  to perform  longer  and  to produce  more  desirable  acids.
 Sodium metabisulphite:
o Sulphur dioxide (SO2 a gas)  is  a  very good  antibacterial  preservative.  It  also  improves 
carotene  content.
 Organic  acids: 
o Propionic and  formic  acids  are  used  for  enhancing  preservation  of  forages  without 
the  loss  of  palatability. 
o These  are  costly and when added, the following guidelines may  be  observed:
 Add  1  per  cent  propionic  acid  to  the  forage  in  the field  at  the  time  of 
harvest or at the  chopper.
 Limit  the  presence of  oxygen  by  using  a  sound  well  built  silo.
 Prevent  dilution  of  organic  acid  treated  silage  by  rain  and  cover  it  with 
plastic  when  it  is  stored  outside.
 Bacterial  cultures: 
o Silage  preservatives  containing  cultures  of  acid - forming  bacteria  like  Lactobacillus 
acidophilus, Torulopsis  sp.,  and  Bacillus subtillis,  are  added  to  silage  crops. 
o The basis  for  including  these  as  a  preservative  is  to  provide  an  inoculum   or  to 
increase  the  number  of  bacteria  for  helping  rapid  fermentation.

SILO FILLING AND SEALING

 Once  silo filling  is  started, it  should  be  rapid,  say  within  two days  or  less.  For  creating  the 
desired  type  of  anaerobic  condition  inside  the silo,  the  forages  during  filling  should  be 
compressed.  Never  fill  a  silo  when  it  is  raining.

Distribute  forage  uniformly  in  the  Silo:

 Again  in  order  to avoid  the  presence  of  air  pockets  and  spoilage,  chopped  forage  should 
uniformly  be  distributed  in  the  silo  and  packed  well.

Sealing  of  Silo:

 For  maintaining  the  silo  anaerobic  it  is  a  must  to  stop  the  entrance  of  atmospheric  air  in 
the  silo. 
 This  may  be  done  as  follows  : 
o Level  the  top  and  tramp  the  last  few  feet,  especially  near  the  walls. 
o Cover  the  top  by  using  any  type  of  insulator  like  mud,  plastic  or  loose  earth. 
o For  bunker  or  trench  silo   apply  sufficient  load  on top  to facilitate  compactness.

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WHEN TO OPEN THE SILO?

 Within  a  period  of  two  to  three  weeks  the  forages  will  be  converted  into  silage.
Depending upon the type of the crop used for ensiling, addition of additives, packing and sealing
of the silo pits and the atmospheric condition, the duration of silage getting ready may vary.
 However a maximum of 6 - 8 weeks is enough for the anaerobic fermentation of the forage crops
to get itself converted into a good silage material.
 The  silage  may  be  taken  out  of  the silo from  the  top  in  case  of  tower  and  trench  silos  and 
from  the  front  side  in  case  of  a  bunker  silo.  After  opening  it  becomes  necessary  to  feed  a 
pit  completely. 
 A  two  to  four  inch  layer  of  silage  must be  removed  daily.  In  case  the silage  is  not  used 
for  livestock  feed  immediately  after  its  preparation,  the  accumulation  of  by-products  of
bacterial  metabolism  will  tend  to  preserve  the  forage  material  as  silage  for  an  indefinite 
period  unless  air  is  permitted  to  enter.

QUALITY OF SILAGE

 Very good silage

o It is clean, the taste is acidic, and has no butyric acid , no moulds, no sliminess nor
proteolyses.
o The pH is between 3.5 and 4.2. The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen should be less than
10 per cent of the total nitrogen.
o Uniform in moisture and green or brownish in colour. Taste is pleasing, not bitter or
sharp.
 Good silage
o The taste is acidic. There may be traces of butyric acid. The pH is between 4.2 and 4.5.
o The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen is 10-15 per cent of the total nitrogen. Other
qualities are same as that of very good silage.
 Fair silage
o The silage is mixed with a little amount of butyric acid. There may be slight proteolysis
along with some mould. The pH is between 4.5 and 4.8.
o Ammoniacal nitrogen is 15-20 per cent of the total nitrogen. Colour of silage varies
between tobacco brown to dark brown.
 Poor silage
o It has a bad smell due to high butyric acid and high proteolysis. The silage may be
infested with moulds.
o Less acidity, pH is above 4.8. The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen is more than 20 per
cent. Colour tends to be blackish and should not be fed.

ADVANTAGES OF SILAGE

 Green  fodder  can be  kept  in  a  succulent  condition  for  a  considerably  long  period.  Silage 
furnishes  high  quality  forage  in  any  desired  season  of  the  year  at  a  low  expense.  As  there 
is  an  acute  shortage  of  green fodder  during  the  summer  months,  silage  can  meet  this
deficiency  during  that  part  of  the  year.
 Grass  silage  preserves  85 per  cent  or  more  of  the  feed  value  of  the  crop,  whereas  hay 
making  will  preserve  significantly  less  percentage  of nutrients.
 It  is  the  most  economical  form  in  which the  whole  stalk  of maize  or  sorghum  can  be 
processed  and  stored.  On the  other  hand,  a  considerable  part  of  this  crop  is  wasted  during 
the  course  of  feeding  in  dry condition  even  if it  is of  good  quality.
 During  the  monsoon  months,  it  becomes  exceedingly  difficult  with  dry grasses  for making 
hay.  Preserving  the  fodder  as  silage avoids  this  difficulty.
 Weed species   which  tend  to  make  poor  hay  may  produce  silage  of  good quality.  The 
ensiling  process  kills  practically  all  weeds  that  are  present in the   field  because  of their 
harvest  before  seed  formation  and  thereby  stopping  dissemination  of  their  seeds.
 Silage  is  a  very  palatable  feed  and  slightly laxative  in  nature.
 It  is  a  better source  of  protein  and  of  certain  vitamins,  especially  carotene,  and  perhaps
some  of  the  unknown  factors,  than  dried  forage.
 Wastage of the plant is less  as the whole plant is  being  consumed for ensiling,  which  is  an 
important  consideration  with coarse,  stemmy  forages.
 The  produce  from  a given  area can  be  stored  in  less space  than  dry  fodder  of the  same 
quantity.  A  cubic  foot  of  silage contains  about three  times  more dry  weight  of  feed  than  a 
cubic  foot  of  long  hay  stored  in  the mow.
 It  offers  many advantages  over  pasture,  including:  
o No fencing  required, 
o Approximately  one-third  more forage  from  the  same  acreage, 
o Harvesting  at  optimum  maturity, 
o More  uniform  quality,  and  
o Closer  observation  of  animals  that  are  confined  to  a  lot.
 It  helps  to control  weeds,  which  are  often  spread through  hay  or  fodder.

DISADVANTAGES OF SILAGE

 It  requires  a  silo (a permanent structure)  in  comparison  with the  simpler methods  of  field 
curing  and  storing hay, this is  likely  to  mean  higher  costs  for  small  farmers.
 Wastage my be  more, if silage is not properly made.
 Poorly prepared silages are not accepted by animals.
 It  possess  considerably  less  vitamin D  than  sun-cured hay.
 Ensiling  incurs  an  added  expenditure  when  preservatives  are  necessary.
 Extra  labour  is  needed  at  silo filling  time.
 Transportation problem is generally experienced in silage than that of hay.

WASTELAGE

 A material obtained after ensiling of waste material (animal organ waste ) in a suitable
combination with forages and additives, under anaerobic condition through fermentation by
lactic acid producing bacteria. 
 Except for this, the other steps in the preparation of wastelage is similar to that silage.

MODULE-8: HAY AND WASTELAGE MAKING

IMPORTANCE, PRESERVATION METHODS AND ADVANTAGES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 The major objectives of this module

are to make the user to learn the
following:
o What is hay and what are the
requisites of good quality hay?
o Types of hay.
o Steps in the preparation of hay
making.
o Losses of nutrients in hay
making.

WHAT IS HAY?
  Hay  refers  to  grasses  or  legumes that  are  harvested,  dried  and  stored  at  85-90 percent  dry
matter. 
 In other words,  Hay refers to  a forage plant when preserved through reducing the moisture
content to the level at which tissues are dead nor dormant.
 High  quality  hay  is  green  in  colour,  leafy  and pliable  and  free  from  mustiness. 
 When  harvested  in  the  proper  physiological  stage  of  growth  and  well  cured  to  15  per  cent
or less  moisture  at  the  time  of  storing, hay  can  be utilized  as  an  excellent  feed  for  dairy 
cattle,  particularly  when  fodder  is  scarce  or  pasturage  is  insufficient.

PRINCIPLES OF HAY MAKING

 The  principle involved  in  hay  making  is to  reduce  the  water  content  of  the  herbage  so 
that  it  can  safely  be  stored  in  mass  without  undergoing  fermentation  or  becoming 
mouldy. 
 This  must  be  accomplished  in  such  a  manner  that  the  hay is  not  leached  by  rain  and 
that  the  loss  of  leaves  is  kept  at  a  minimum.

Requisites  of  good  quality  hay

 Good  hay  should  be  leafy.  It  has  been  found  that  leaves  are  richer  in  food  value
compared  to  other  parts  of  the plant.  The  leaves are generally  rich in  proteins,  vitamins 
and  minerals.  Loss  of  leaves  in  hay making  would  mean  deterioration  in  feeding  value 
of  the  ultimate  product.
 It  should  be  prepared  out  of  herbage,  cut  at  a  stage  nearing  maturity,  preferably  at 
the  flowering  stage  when  it  has  the  maximum  of  nutrients.  Delay  in  cutting  would 
mean  losses  of  a  part  of   nutrients which  would  be  used  up  by  the  plant in  seed 
formation.
 It  should  be  green  in  colour.  The  green  colour  of  leaves  indicates  the  amount of 
carotene  which  is  a  precursor of  vitamin  A.
 It  should  be  soft  and  pliable.
 It  should  be  free  from  dust  and  moulds.
 It  should  be  free  from  weeds  and  stubbles.
 It  should  have  the  smell  and  aroma  characteristic  of  the crop.
 The  moisture  percentage  in  hay  should  not  exceed  15 percent.
 Hay of  average  quality  will  usually have 25-30  per  cent  crude  fibre  and 45-60 percent 
TDN.
 Hay  is  primarily  feed to  cattle,  buffalo,  horse,  sheep  and  goat.  Very  little  of  hay  of  any
kind is  ever  fed  to  swine.

TYPES OF HAY

 The hay depending on the  various ways of processing can be divided into the following
categories.
o Jungle hay
o Sundried hay
o Barn dried hay
o Dehydrated fodders
 Jungle hay and Sundried hay mostly refer to the field curing.
 Barn refers to a simple roofed farm building for storing hay.
 Hay is baled in the field and brought to the barn .
 Driers are also used for dehydration.
  Two types of driers are available
o Low temperature driers,  80 to 180°C                   
o High temperature driers, 300 to 600°C.

Advantages

 Reduce the cost of transportation to the drying site.

 Drying time is reduced.
 Loss of nutrients due to rains is avoided as the process is performed in a barn.
 Loss of plant parts especially leaves is less to that of field curing.

Disadvantages

 High cost involved during erection of dehydration plant

 High cost of processing if sufficient amount of forage is not available.
 Operation skill is required, unskilled operation may lead to fire hazards.

LEGUME AND NON-LEGUME HAY

 Legume  hay
o Good  legume  hay  has  many characteristics  that  make  it  of  special  value  to  the 
dairy  cattle.  It  has  a  higher  percentage  of  digestible  nutrients.  It  has  more  of 
digestible  proteins  because  of  the  high  protein  content.  Furthermore,  the  proteins 
of  legumes  are  of  superior  quality  as  compared  to  proteins  from  other  plants.  Well
- cured  legume  hays  are  higher  in  vitamin  contents.  They are  particularly  rich in 
carotene and may  even  contain  vitamin  D.  They  are  also  a  rich  source  of  vitamin 
E.  The  legume  hays  are  particularly  rich  in  calcium  and  are  generally  palatable. 
Among  various  leguminous  fodder  crops  lucerne,  berseem,  cowpea  and  soybean 
hays  are  considered  first.
 Non-legume  hay
o Non -legume  hays  made  from  grasses  are  inferior  to  legume  hays.  They  are,  as  a 
rule,  less  palatable  and  contain  less  proteins,  minerals  and  vitamins  than  the 
legume  hays.  Non-legume  hays  have  the  advantage  over  legume  hays because  their 
output  per  hectare  is  more  than  that  of  legume  hays  and  the  former  can  be  grown 
easily.
 Mixed  hay
o Hay  prepared  from  mixed  crops  of  legumes  and  non-legume  is  known  as  mixed 
hay.
o The  composition  of  such  a  kind  of  hay  will  depend  on  the  proportion  of  the 
different  species  grown  as  a  mixed  crop.

STEPS IN HAY MAKING

 Selection of crop and suitable stage of harvest:

o The quality hay can be prepared from the forages having soft and pliable stem. Oat is the
best crop for hay  making as the crop has soft and pliable stem. Annual and perennial
grasses are also suitable for hay making. Legumes are also used for hay making but the
problem of leaf shattering should be taken care of by careful handling. Berseem, lucerne,
cowpea, pillipesera etc., can be used for hay making. 
o The  crop  should  be  harvested  during  the  day  time  after the  dew  has  dried  off  so 
that  plants  when  spread  over  the  ground  may  dry  evenly.  Another  factor  which 
 needs  attention  is  that  the  field  should  not  be  wet,  otherwise  uniform  drying  will 
not  be  effected.
o The  crop cut  early is  higher  in  protein,  lower in  crude  fibre,  contains  more  of 
vitamins,  is more  palatable  and  leaf shedding will be  less.  The  best  time  for  cutting 
a  crop  for  hay  making  is  when  it  is  one-third  to  a  half  in  blossom.
 Selection of suitable method of drying:
o Quantity of crop available (For a small quantity forage, skilled operation and costly 
structures would be unsuitable).
o Duration for which forage is available for hay making  (If forage supply is continuous for
the hay making at least 300 days in a year, then the dehydrators may be worthwhile).
o Relative humidity (Field curing is not suitable for hay making if the relative humidity is
high which may cause moulds/fungi). 
o Intensity of rains (Rain causes loss of nutrients due to leaching.  Continous rains
combined with high relative humidity pose a serious problem for hay making).
o Atmospheric temperature (The intensity and duration of bright sunshine hours decide the
atmospheric temperature. During the hot weather period of March-April to  May - June,
hay making through sun drying is very convenient and efficient).
o Cost of installation (The choice of barns or dehydrators depend on the cost of it. Simple
field curing during summer months is cheap and best for the poor farmers with few
animals).
o In  curing,  it  is  necessary  that  the  herbage  should  be saved  from  bleaching  by  the 
sun  and  as  far  as  possible,  leaves  preserved from  shattering.  The  maximum 
quantity  of  moisture  should  be  evaporated,  so that  it  can  be  stored  without 
generation  of  heat  and  consequent  loss  of  nutrients.
 For  reasonably rapid  curing and  production of  high  quality  hay,  it  is  best  to  let  the  herbage 
lie  in  the  field  for  a  few  hours  until  it  is well wilted  or  about  one-fourth  to  one-third 
cured.  It should be  raked  into  small  loose  heaps  known  as  windrows.  If  good  weather 
continues,  the hay  is  cured  in  windrows  alone. 
 When  the  weather  is  such  that  the  hay cures  slowly, turning  may  also be  necessary. Besides 
field  curing,  hay  can  be  cured  by  hanging  the  herbage  on  tripods,  and  on  farm  fences. 
 In  artificial  curing, the  material  is  placed  in  a  suitable chamber  where  it comes  in  contact 
with heated  air  and  exposure  is regulated  depending  on  the  material  and  the  temperature.

LOSSES OF NUTRIENTS IN HAY MAKING

o Some  nutrients  are always  lost  in  field  curing of  hay,  but  under  favourable 
conditions  this  loss  is  not  too  much. 
o Drying  of  green  forage  at  ordinary  temperature  reduces  its  digestibility . If  the 
plants  are  dried  without  fermentation  or  bleaching,  they  contain  a  high 
percentage  of  nutrients.
 Due to Late  cutting: 
o Late  cutting  means  greater  lignification  and  lower  carbohydrate  and  protein 
digestibility.  
o One disadvantage of early cutting is that we get  low  yield and  high  moisture 
content  of  the  forages  meant  for  hay making.
 By shattering:
o The  loss  due  to shattering  of  leaves  and  finer  parts  in  hay  making  is  of 
importance,  especially in  the  case  of legumes. 
o The  leaves  are  much  richer  in  digestible  nutrients  than  the stem  and  hence 
losses  by  shattering  materially decrease  the  nutritive  value  of  hay.  To  avoid 
these  losses,  hay should  never  be  overdried  or handled  during  warm  periods  of 
the  day.
 Loss of Vitamins:
 o In  the  process  of  drying,  much of  the  green  colouring  matter  containing 
carotene,  a  precursor  of  vitamin  A  is lost with  bleaching. 
o In  general,  the  carotene content  of  freshly  cured  hay  is  proportional  to  the 
greenness.  With  severe  bleaching,  more than  90  per cent  of carotene may  be 
destroyed.
 Losses in Fermentation:
o In  fermentation  of  hay,  some  of  the  organic  nutrients  like  starch  and  sugars 
are oxidized  into  Co2  and  water.  If  drying is  prolonged  because  of  unfavourable 
weather  conditions, changes  brought  about  by the  activity  of  bacteria  and  fungi 
may occur. 
o Mouldy  hay is  not  only unpalatable  but  also  may be  harmful  for  animals  as 
well  as  for  persons  handling  the hays  due  to  the  presence  of  mycotoxins.  Very 
often  such  hays  contain  actinomycetes,  responsible  for  the  allergic  condition  in 
man  known  as  "Farmer's  Lung".
o One of  the  ways  to  prevent  the  development  of  mould  growth  is  to  spray 
propionic  acid  uniformly on  entire  hay.  In  general, it  is  not  uncommon  to  find 
patches  of  mouldy  hay  in  a  stack  resulting from  uneven  drying.
 By Leaching:
o If  hay is  almost  cured  and  is  exposed  to  heavy  and  prolonged  rains,  especially
when it  is  in the  field,  severe  losses may  occur through  leaching. 
o Unless  the  rain  is  so heavy  as  to  soak  the  material,  losses  by  leaching  will  not 
occur.  For  this  reason  losses  will   be  much  less  even  in  heavy  rain  if  the  hay 
is  in  good sized  windrows.

STORAGE OF HAY

 Hay  is  usually  stored  in  stacks  in this  country.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  hay is  in  a 
good  and  dry condition  before  it  is  stored.  It  should  be  stacked  in  a  shady  place  where 
there  is  no danger  of  fire. 
 The  stacks  should  be  made  at  an  elevated  place.  Machines  are  also  available  for  baling 
the  hay.  Baled  (a large  package  or  bundle)  materials  occupy  less  space.

Brown  hay 

 Sometimes  because  of  very  unfavourable  weather  conditions,  good  hay  cannot  be  obtained 
by the  ordinary method  of  curing. 
 Under  such  circumstances,  hay  is  allowed  to  dry  until  about  50  per  cent  moisture  has 
been  removed and  then  it  is  packed  in  stacks  or  piles. 
 Fermentation   takes  place  and  the  hay may  become very  hot,  the  temperature  however, 
should  not  be  allowed  to  exceed  80°C . 
 There  are  great  losses  in  the  nutritive  value  on  account  of  fermentation.  These  losses 
range from  30  to  40  per cent.  Such hay  is  often  quite  palatable.

MODULE-9: SCARCITY FODDERS
NECESSITY AND VARIOUS TYPES OF SCARCITY FODDERS
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES 

 The major objectives of this

module are to make the user to
learn the following:
o Various types of scarcity
fodders,
o Importance of straw as a
valuable feed during
scarcity,
o Possibility of using the
Failed crops, Vegetable
crop residues, Non
traditional plants, Agro
industrial wastes and
unconventional feeds as
scarcity fodder

SCARCITY FODDERS

Introduction

 Scarcity  of  feeds may  result  due  to  either  floods  or  droughts.  During 1986-87, 75% of the 
cultivated area in India  was  severely affected due  to  drought  and  the  remaining 25% due  to 
floods. 
 Even  during normal  years,  there  is  shortage  of  animal  feeds  to  the tune  of  60% or more. 
 Ruminants,  owing  to their larger  body  size, need  huge quantity  of feed   dry  matter.  They 
need  bulky  and  fibrous  feeds.  Roughages  are natural  feeds  for ruminants. 
 However, roughages are usually not  available  in  adequate  quantity during  scarcity.  During  the
scarcity  it  is important  to find  out the  roughage  substitute which will  be  helpful in  providing
minimum roughage  requirement of  animals.

TYPES OF SCARCITY FODDERS

 Failed crops
 Crop residues
 Vegetable crop residues
 Non traditional plants
 Plant oriented wastes
 Agro- Industry wastes and other unconventional feeds
 Vegetable and Animal protein sources

FAILED CROPS

 When ever failure of monsoon occurs, the existing crops fail to grow adequately and such crops
can be utilized for feeding the animals under scarcity condition.
Sugarcane:

 It occupies in the country about 2863 thousand hectares of land. Cane byproducts available are

o Tops and leaves (DCP 2.3 % and TDN 18.8%): 68 million tonnes
o Bagasse: 15455 tonnes and
o Molasses: 5152 tonnes 
 Sugarcane being deficient in protein and phosphorus, needs to be supplemented with
proteinaceous and phosphorus rich feeds. The tops are high in oxalates and must be
supplemented with calcium.
 Silage of whole sugarcane as well as tops and leaves can be prepared by adding 0.5 % urea and 1.5
% salt.
 Silage of sugarcane is very useful during extreme summer of drought years. Ureated
silage provides 4.0% of DCP and 48% TDN on D.M. basis.

Banana:

 The leaves, stem, flowers etc. are available for feeding to the animals. Leaves and flowers have
adequate crude protein content and are high in calcium. They also supply carotene.
 The stem, though low in protein content, can provide bulk to the animals. The stem and bulbs are
fed after chopping with sharp blades.

Papaya:

 It is cultivated as fruit crop in many parts of the country. Leaves are high in crude protein and
calcium.
 The outer skin is removed off the stem and then fed to the animals after cutting into small pieces.

CROP RESIDUES

 These are  available from  crops  of previous  years. It can also be  available  from  the non-
drought  areas.  Apart  from  the known  straws and  stovers  some  other  less  used  crop 
residues  are  very  valuable during  scarcity. 
 They  can  be mixed  with  concentrate  in  higher  proportion  so  as  to  minimise the  need  for 
roughage.  They  can  also be  used  upto  30% level  in  preparing  complete  feeds.
 Hulls and husks  are  fibrous  materials  and  provide  bulk  to the  animal  feeds  during scarcity. 
Normally they  can  be  used  upto  filler  5% level  in  compounded  concentrate  mixture  as  filler 
materials.  However, during  scarcity their  use should  be intensified.
 Mustard  plant parts (stem  + leaves + pod  cover) is a  potentially useful roughage  source  for 
feeding  to  animals  during  scarcity.  It  is  richer  in protein  and  calcium than  cereal  straws.
 During  severe  scarcity, stalks of  cotton, pigeon  pea  and  other  similar crops can  also  provide 
bulk  to  the  animals in satisfying hunger  of  large  bovine  population.  They  can  be  fed  after 
grinding and mixing  with  concentrate  and  roughage  or  by  incorporating  them  in  complete 
feeds.
 Crop  residues  such  as  straws  of wheat  and  paddy  are  also  not utilized efficiently  during 
normal years.  Under  normal years, if  straws  are properly  stored  in the  fodder bank, then  they 
will  be  very useful during  drought. 
 Improvement  of  straw  by  urea  treatment  or  by supplement  of  urea  will  be useful during 
drought.  Straws  with  thick  stems such as sorghum, pearl millet  etc. must  be  chopped before 
feeding.  Chaffing  reduces the wastage  to the  tune  of 15  to 20%.
 Some  facts  and  figures about straw 
o Burning  of a  hectare of  straw  from  a  average  rice  crop  of  let  us  say  3000kg  paddy 
results  in the loss  of 
  4000kg  x 0.6 % N = 24 kg  of  Nitrogen in  the smoke the  equivalent  of  almost 
50 kg  of  urea.
o Export  of  the  bran  results  in  the  loss  of 300 kg bran  of  10%  protein, i.e. 5 kg of 
nitrogen, leave  alone  the  other  nutrients  like  P  and K.
o If  a  cow  of  300kg  body  weight  can  eat  approximately 5 kg  dry  matter  of  straw  per
day, the  same  quantity  of  4000 kg straw  provides  for  800 days animal  feed.
o The  quality  of  particularly  slender  straws  like  from  rice  and  wheat  is not  good 
enough to keep  the  animal alive  over  a long  period, but the quantity  is  large  and  the
value of  the  straw  yield  can  represent  between  10-15% or  higher  of  the  total crop
value

VEGETABLE CROP RESIDUES

 The  vegetable crop  residues  are  grown  wherever irrigation  facilities  are  available.  The  crop
residues of  vegetables  such  as  cabbage, cauliflower, sweet  potato creepers,  potato tops  and 
leaves, pod  covers  of  legume  crops etc. are  available  in  large quantity.  They  can  be  used 
effectively  during  scarcity. 
 The  residues  of  vegetable  crops  contain  high crude  protein (11-20%) and  calcium and low  in 
fibre. Being  green  they  also provide carotenes. 
 Cabbage  and  cauliflower are  high  in  molybdenum content  (6.1 and  1.1 ppm  respectively)
hence  they should  be  fed  in  limited  quantity  along  with  some dry  fodder  so  as  to  avoid 
problem  of  digestive disorders.  Before feeding  such  residues, it  is  essential  to ensure  that 
such feeds  are  free  from  harmful level  of  pesticide residues.

NON-TRADITIONAL PLANTS

 Certain  plants  which  come up  with  little  rains  in  the beginning  of  monsoon  can  be  used
for  feeding  animals  during  severe  scarcity periods.  
 Cassia tora plants, even  when young, are  not  palatable  to  cattle and  buffaloes. However, 
silage  of  cassia  tora  is quite  palatable  to  the  animals.  The  silage  can  be  prepared  by 
adding 1.5% salt  and  1.5 % molasses.  Animals can  consume daily  20kg  of silage. 
 Some  dry  fodders  should  be  given with silage.  The  silage  provides  6.3%  DCP and  47.2%
TDN on  DMB.  The  silage of cassia tora  is  very useful during  scarcity  conditions.
 Cactus  has been  used  as  fodder  for  animals  during  scarcity in  the past.  After  burning  the
thorns, cactus  can  be  fed to  cattle and  buffaloes. 
 One  kg  of  cactus  is  equivalent  to   1 kg  of  grass  in  DCP and 1.5 kg  of  grass  in  net  energy 
on  DM  basis.  Cactus can  be  fed  after chaffing  and  mixing with  wheat  straw  or  feeding  it
with cotton  seed  hulls.
 Water  hyacinth  grows  abundantly  in  ponds  and  stagnant  water.  It  is  high  in  crude  protein 
but  contains  high  amounts  of  oxalic acid (3.6%). 
 Feeding  of  fresh  leaves  causes  diuresis  and  diarrhea.  Water  hyacinth in  hay  form  is  not 
quite  palatable  but  when  mixed  with  20%  molasses  the animals  consume  the mixture
slowly.  The hay  of  water  hyacinth  has  4.1 DCP and 48.1 % TDN. 
 The  silage  (water  hyacinth + 1 part paddy  straw  and  4.2%  salt) provides 5.6% DCP and  40.3%
TDN on DMB.    There  is  no  adverse  effect  of  feeding  of water  hyacinth to  the  animals  nor 
adverse  effect  on milk  flavour noticed.
 However, water hyacinth absorbs  heavy  metals, it  is advisable  to  feed  limited  quantity  along 
with dry  roughages  to  the animals.

PLANT ORIENTED WASTES

 Saw dust  is  one of  the  important  sources  of feed  during  acute  scarcity. It  is highly lignified 
and  has  very  low  digestibility.  However it can  provide  bulk  to the  animals. 
 Saw dust after cleaning   to  remove  wood  pieces  will  be  suitable  for  animal  feeding.  Saw dust
feeding  at  the  rate  of  30%  level  in high  urea-molasses  and  maize  bran ration had  no
deleterious  effects  on body  weight, digestibility  and  balance of  nutrients.  Saw  dust  thus,  is a 
useful source  for short term  feeding of  animals during  acute  scarcity atleast  for  satisfying 
hunger.
 Paper is also considered as a scarcity fodder.  Papers  are  made up  of  cellulose. Since  they  have 
lower lignin content  their  digestibility  is  around  50-60%. 
 The  stray  cattle  usually  eat paper  wastes.  In  developed  countries  waste  paper  are  not 
resaleble. After  grinding, paper waste  can be used  between 20-40% in concentrate mixture. 
Such mixture  improves milk fat  content  without  affecting  flavour  and  quality  of  milk.  The
improvement  in  fat  content  is  attributed  to  carbon ink  used  for  printing  and  high  crude
fibre  content  of the  paper.  Paper  waste  upto  30% level  can be  used in complete  feeds.
 Fallen  dry  leaves  from  forest  or  road  side  trees  can  also  be  used  for  feeding  to the 
animals.  They are especially  valuable  during  scarcity  as  without disturbing  the  trees, they 
can  be  collected  and utilized  for  animal  feeding.
 The  dry  fallen  leaves  contain  low  crude  protein  than fresh  leaves but  higher  than that of the 
cereal  straws.  However, their  digestibility  is  lower  than that  of  cereal  straws  probably
because  of higher  tannin  content.  They  are  also  higher in calcium.  In order  to improve  the 
nutritive  value of  dry  fallen leaves, they  can  be  ground  and  mixed  with  molasses,  urea, salt,
mineral mixture  etc. in  complete  feeds.

AGRO-INDUSTRY WASTES AND OTHER UNCONVENTIONAL

FEEDS

 Besides tree leaves as roughages, other byproducts such as flowers, fruits and pods can also be
sued as cattle feed. Important trees where byproducts can be exploited are subabul, mango,
tamarind etc. The ground pods (Prosopis juliflora) can be used upto 30% level in concentrate of
milch cow.
 Mango seed, mango seed kernels (1.1 DCP and 73.7% TDN) are generally available in summer
season and can be used upto 10, 20 and 40% in concentrate part of the ration for milk production,
growth and maintenance.
 Subabul seeds can be used as part of the ration for feeding the livestock. The seeds have 19.6%
DCP and 68.4% TDN on DMB. The seeds contain higher amount of mimosin (3.1%) hence the use
should be restricted. Other materials such as tomato waste, neem seed cake, etc. will also be
useful during scarcity.
 The importance of utilising the unconventional feeds to augment the existing resources of
conventional livestock feed was recognized more than 30 years ago. India is facing a shortage of
animal feeds and fodder in terms of nutrients.
 Moreover, this condition aggravates due to natural calamities like drought and flood. Recent
studies indicated that quite a large number of agricultural by-products and industrial waste
materials could be used for feeding livestock. Some of the unconventional livestock feeds used in
India are described below in four groups :
o Vegetable protein sources
o Animal protein sources
o Energy sources
o Other miscellaneous unconventional feeds

USE OF MOLASSES
 The different types of molasses are similar in feeding value and are available in both liquid
and dehydrated forms. Molasses is usually used in rations for cattle, buffaloes, sheep and
horses. Advantages of molasses are
o As a source of energy
o As an appetisor
o To reduce the dustiness of a ration
o As a binder for pelleting
o To stimulate rumen microbial activity
o To supply unidentified factors
o To provide a carrier for NPN and vitamins in liquid supplements
o In the case of cane molasses, to provide trace minerals
o In ruminant rations, molasses is restricted to the level of 10-15% of the ration.
Excessive amounts of molasses (greater than 15%) will cause the feed to become
messy as well as create digestive disturbance along with disrupted rumen microbial
activity.
o Poultry are rather sensitive to molasses as excess levels cause diarrhoea. Levels are
restricted to 2-5%.

VEGETABLE PROTEIN SOURCES

 Sunflower  Meal
o Work  on Sunflower  seed  oil  meal  in India is  limited  but  studies  abroad  indicate  that
decorticated  sunflower  seed  oil  meal  in  combination  with other  protein  supplement 
is  good  for  poultry.
o Good  quality  sunflower  meal  contains  about  40-44  per  cent  high  grade  protein 
especially  rich  in  methionine,  but  that  made  from  unhulled  seed  has  only  20  per 
cent  protein.  Sunflower  seed  meal  is  a  satisfactory substitute  to  groundnut  cake  in 
starter  rations  and  it  can  replace  100  per  cent GNC  without  any  adverse  effect  on 
weight  gain  and  feed  efficiency.  The  meal  can  also  be  satisfactorily  used  in  layers' 
ration.  Studies  indicated  that  it  could  be  used  in  total  replacement  of  groundnut 
cake  without  any  adverse  effect  on  egg  production  and  egg  weight.
 Guar  Meal
o Guar  is  a  drought  resistant  legume,  and  the meal,  a  by-product  from  the 
preparation of  Guar  gum,  is  a  potential  source  of  protein. Guar  meal  is  not 
palatable  to  cattle  since  its  inclusion  at  a meagre   5  per  cent  level  itself was  refused 
at  the  initial  phase  by cows,  although  if  accustomed,  cows  can  accept  rations 
containing  as  high  as  15  per  cent  raw  guar  meal. 
o Higher  levels  of  guar  meal  may  cause,  diarrhea,  particularly in  young  calves.  It  is, 
therefore,  always  advisable  to incorporate  guar  meal  in the  ration  very  gradually and 
once  accustomed  may  be  used  as high  as  10-15  per  cent  level  in  cows  and  5-10 
per  cent  level  in  calves.
 Niger  Cake
o Niger  cake  compares  well  with  other  oil  seed  cakes  in  its  chemical  composition.  It 
contains  about  36  per  cent  crude  protein  and  5.98  per  cent  mineral  matter,  but 
contains  about  14  to  18 per  cent  crude  fibre.
o  It  is  suggested that  niger  cake can  completely  replace  groundnut  cake  on  protein 
equivalent  basis  for  the  growing chicks  and  the two   oil  cakes  have  a  complementary
effect  on chick  growth  with  better  efficiency  in economics  of  feeding.
 Karanja  Cake
o Karanja  cake  is  less  palatable.  It  contains  probably  some  polyphenolic  compounds 
which  have  a  deleterious  effect  on  growth  and  production.
 o Extracted  karanja  cake  can  be  included  in  the  ration  replacing  til  cake  to  the 
extent  of  30 per  cent  on  protein  equivalent  basis  in  starters  and  growing  chicks  (18
week)  with  distinct  economic  advantage. 
 Neem  Cake
o The  potential  production  of  neem  seed  is  estimated  at  4.15  lakh  tonnes.  This  can 
give  3.3  lakh tonnes  of  cake  and  83,000  tonnes  of  oil  every year  provided  this 
potentiality  is  fully utilized .
o Neem  cake  contains  34 per cent  protein   while  processed  cake  shows  48 per cent 
protein.  Fibre  content  is  only  4.4  per  cent.  The  amino acid  content  in  terms  of 
lysine  and  methionine  is also  comparable  to  groundnut  cake  protein.
o It  is  observed,  however,  that  if  this  cake  is  introduced  gradually then  it  can  be
included  in  the  cattle  ration  about  15-20  per  cent  level.  A  few  animals,  however, 
may be  reluctant  to consume  feeds  at  this  level.  1  per  cent  inclusion,  however,  is  a 
safe  level.
 Rubber   seed  cake
o Rubber  seed  meal  contains  some  cyanogenetic  components.  A  good  quality  rubber 
seed  cake  contains  about  30 per  cent  protein.
o It  can  be used  in  lactating  cows  at  20  per  cent level  in  concentrate  mixture. 
Rubber  seed  cake  can  also be  used  at  a  maximum  level  of  10  per  cent  in poultry 
ration  without  any adverse  effect.
 Sunnhemp seed
o The seed  is grown  throughout  India  but  in  most  cases  this  is  used  as  manure.  In 
some  parts,  however,  this  is  fed  as  fodder.
 Dhaincha  seed
o This  is  a  leguminous  seed and  is  excellent  in  protein  quality.  It  contains  30-33  per 
cent  protein,  and  8.32  per  cent  and  1,019 g /  16 g  N  lysine  and  methionine 
respectively.
o The  seed cannot  be  used  as  such,  as  it  contains  deleterious  factors  like  gum, 
trypsin   inhibitor  and  tannin.  Enzymic  treatment  as  in the  case  of  guar  meal  can 
improve  the  feeding  value  of  this  material. 
o Fermentation  by  fungi decreases  the  gum  content  and  trypsin  inhibitory activity 
appreciably  and  increases  the  crude  protein  content  of  the  seed. 
o Studies  with  dhaincha  seed  in  cattle  is limited.  However,  autocalved  dhaincha  seed 
may be  used in  cattle  in  limited  quantities.
 Cassia  tora  seed
o Boiled  cassia  tora  seeds  up  to the  level  of  15 per  cent in the  concentrate  ration  can 
safely be  fed  to  milch  cows.
 Kapok  seed  cake
o It  can  be  used  as  one  of  the components  of  cattle  feed  concentrate;   D.C.P.  and 
T.D.N.  being  26 per  cent  and  69  per cent  approximately.
 Corn  gluten  meal
o This  feed  consists  chiefly  of  the  dried  residue  from  maize  after  the  removal  of  the 
larger  part  of  the  starch  and  bran  by  the  process  employed  in the  wet  milling 
manufacture  of  maize  starch. Occasionally  it  may  include  maize  oil  meal.  It 
contains  protein  from  50  to  60  per  cent.
 Safflower  meal
o The  meal  is  produced  after  removal  of  most  of  the  hull and  oil  from  safflower 
seed.  In  decorticated  form  it  has  about  40-45  per  cent  protein  while  the  value 
goes  down  to  about  18-20   if not  decorticated.

ANIMAL PROTEIN SOURCES

 Incubator  Waste  or  Hatchery  By-product  Meal (HBPM)

 Liver  Residue  Meal
 Frog  Meal
 Dried  Poultry  Manure
 Cow  Dung  Meal  (Cow  Manure)
 Shrimp  Shell  Powder  (Prawn  Waste)
 Crab  Meal
 Poultry By-product  Meal
 Hydrolysed  Poultry  Feathers
 Squilla  Meal
 Processed  Fish  ensilage

ENERGY SOURCES

 Sal  Seed  Meal

 Cassava  (Tapioca ) Root
 Tapioca  Starch  Waste
 Tapioca  Thippi
 Tapioca  Milk Residue
 Palm  Flour
 Tamarind  Seed  Powder
 Triticale
 Mango Seed Kernel
 Oak  Kernel

OTHER MISCELLANEOUS UNCONVENTIONAL FEEDS

 Sea  Weed  Meal

 Babul  Pods (Acacia  arabica)
 Rain  Tree Pods
 Jack  Fruit  Waste
 African  Payal  (Salvinia  molesta)
 Sugar  Cane  Bagasse
 Sugar  Beet  Pulp
 Sugar  Cane  Tops
 Papaya
 Petro - Protein

MODULE-10: ENRICHMENT OF CROP RESIDUES AND

PROFITABLE UTILIZATION AS ANIMAL FEEDS
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 The major objectives of this

module are to make the user to
learn the following:
o The potential of paddy
straw, wheat straw and
ragi straw as livestock
feed.
o How to increase the
digestibility of straw?
o How to increase the
nutritive value of straw?
o Advantages of urea
treatment.

ENRICHMENT OF CROP RESIDUES AND PROFITABLE

UTILIZATION AS ANIMAL FEEDS

Introduction

 Though  much  of today's  livestock  in  India  survives  on  crop  residues,  this  has  not 
always  been  so.  Early  Aryans   cultivated  crops  in the forested  Gangetic  plains  and  herd
their  animals,  on  grassy  areas or  in  the  forest. 
 Nowadays little forest  is  left in those  Gangetic  plains.  In many of the villages in India, we
have witnessed that  the animals are brought to far off places by the Herdsmen for the
purpose of grazing during day times.
 At the end of the day the animals will be again taken back to the place of rearing. Such
practice meet the forage requirement of the animals to some extent. However, the same can
not be continued for a longer period without any special care given to the  grazing resources.

SCOPE OF CROP RESIDUE UTILIZATION

 Changing resource/demand  patterns  force  society  to  look  for other  ways to  produce. 
These  shifts  in  resource use  (e.g. between  grazing- based  and  straw - based  feeding 
systems)  reflect  shifts  in  the  relative  scarcity  of  resources  used  in  production.
 This  is  clearly  seen  now where  rapid  increases  in  agricultural  productivity  and  output 
in  Punjab  and  Haryana  has led  to  labour  shortages  and  increased wage  rates,  leading 
to innovations  in  labour - saving  mechanical  technologies  (such  as  tractor  ploughing 
and  combine  harvesting)  and  chemical  technologies  (use  of  herbicides  to  reduce 
weeding  labour). 
 The  same  parallels  can  be  applied to the  livestock  sector  where  increasing  scarcities  of 
common  grazing  lands  led  to  increased reliance  on  feeding of  crop residues  and  by-
products. In  present  days  it  has  become  difficult  to  let  the  animals graze  on  common 
grounds,  village  land  and forests. 
 There is  even  a  feeling  that  a  cow  that  used  to  provide  wealth  and  power,  now  costs 
money and  feed  to maintain.  From being  a  "kamdhenu", i.e. the  cow  that provides  all 
the  needs,  livestock  are  slowly  but  surely  becoming  a  burden. 
 Feed  needs  now  to  be  purchased  and  straw  has  to  be  stored  and  kept for  feeding, 
whereas  in the  past  the  straw  was  often  left  in  the  field  or  burned.
 From these  examples, it becomes clear that fibrous  crop residues  (straws)  are  becoming 
the  basal  feedstock  for  the survival  of  many village  animals.  Also in  cities  the  straws 
become  expensive  as  source  of  fibre for  high  producing  animals. 
 The  more  valuable  crop  residues  like  brans  and  oilcakes  are  increasingly  being  taken
to  urban  centres  where  they  serve as  feed  for  high  milk  producers  or  for  pigs  and
poultry.  Also,  they  are  exported  to  other  countries,  depriving  the  place  of  origin  from 
valuable  minerals  and  a  possibility  to  add  value.

THE POTENTIAL OF STRAWS

 Large  quantities  of  straw  are  available  from  cropping,  and  one  hectare  yield  of  rice  straw 
can  essentially  support  the  energy  needs  of one small  350 kg animal for something  like  a
year,  though yields and  qualities  of  straw  vary. 
 Whereas  the  nutritive  value  of  wheat  and  rice  straw  is  not  good  enough  to  provide 
maintenance  requirements,  the  use  of  coarse  straws  e.g. from  maize, millets  and sorghum 
may  allow animals to  survive  and maintain  body  weight. 
 In  absence  of  better  feeds,  the  proper  use  of crop  residues  can  therefore  help  to  maintain 
more  animals,  and  to  retain  more  nutrients and  income  in the village. 
 Fortunately, the  yield  of  straw  from  fertilized and  irrigated  area  may  be  higher  than  the 
yield  of  fodder  from  the  natural  vegetation. 
 Unfortunately however,  the  nutritional  value  of  straws  is  likely  to be less  than  that  of green 
leaves  from  forest  or grazing.
 As  a  result,  the  quality  of the  feed  resources  tends  to  decline.  Many  ways  to  overcome 
these  problems are  discussed  in  this  lesson.

PADDY STRAW

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 Rice straw is used as feed for ruminants and for many other uses like manure, thatching,
paper pulp, alcohol, mats, poultry litter and mushroom production.
 Besides the straw, rice also produces rice polish, rice bran and rice husk. On an average,
there is 20% husks, 10% bran, 3% polishings, 1- 17% broken rice and 50-66% polished rice.
 Rice straw is fed to cattle and buffaloes in India since ages. Though rice and wheat straw on
average have a similar nutritive value according to laboratory analysis, in some parts of the
country like Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh, wheat straw is preferred over rice
straw. In rest of the India, paddy straw is fed to animals.

Chemical composition of rice straw (% on dry matter basis)

Organic matter 82
Crude Protein 4
Crude Fibre 37
Non Fatty Ethers 43
Total ash 18
Calcium 0.14
Phosphorus 0.05
Neutral Detergent Fibre 75
 Acid Detergent Fibre 75
Cellulose 54
Lignin 8
Silica 8

 Rice straw is poorly palatable and its intake by animal is low. However , the intake of straw
depends on straw type (coarse, fine, long, dwarf, leafy, steamy, fresh, stored, hard , soft),
animal species and breed, body weight of animals, other feed in the ration, physiological
state, climatic stress etc.
 In general, fine (slender), soft, long, leafy and stores rice straw is preferred by animals.

WHEAT STRAW

 Wheat straw contains on dry matter basis:

Wheat straw contains on dry matter basis

 NDF 72-76%
 ADF 44-49%
 Hemicelluloses 25-29%
 Cellulose 35-43 %
 Ash 7-8 %
 Crude protein 3-4%
 Lignin 6-8%

 Leaves are always better than stems, and straw on the average contains 87-93% dry matter when
dry, depending on environmental conditions.
 The digestibility is around 40-43 % and intake is 1.5-8 kg /100 kg body weight in adult and 1.8-2.2
kg/100 kg body weight in growing heifers, of course depending on the level of production.

RAGI STRAW

 Feeding trials on finger millet straw conducted at NDRI (Bangalore), showed considerable
variation in chemical composition and in intake.
 The accessions from Indian and African origin differed in organic matter, crude protein and
cell wall content, within as well as between origins. Organic matter and cell wall digestibility
varied among cultivars.

Chemical composition of Ragi (finger millet) straw

Chemical composition (%)
 Organic matter 89-92
 Crude protein 3-5
 Crude fibre 34-39
 Cell solubles 10-21
 Water solubles carbohydrates 3-6
 Calcium 0.7 -1.2
  Phosphorus 0.05-0.21
Intake (kg DM per 100 kg BW)
 Bullocks 1.6
 Heifers 1.7
 Milch animals 2.0
ENRICHMENT METHODS

 Large quantities of straw (Rice, Wheat, Ragi, Oats and stovers of Maize, Cumbu, Sorghum)
available in India are of poor nutritive value.
 The quality of such straws need to be improved to have a balanced ration to the animals and to
supplement the major roughage requirement of the Indian livestock.
 There are three methods of crop residue enrichment
o Ammoniation
o Urea molasses mixture
o Urea enrichment

INCREASE THE DIGESTIBILITY

 The alkali treatment of straw increases the digestibility. Alkali dissolves lignin, silica and
hemicellulose. However Cellulose is not dissolved by alkali but the Cellulose swell when treated
with alkali.
 For the alkali treatment, the straw can be sprayed with NaOH about 3 - 6 grams / 100 grams of
straw.

INCREASE THE NUTRITIVE VALUE

 Increase the nutritive value. (Enrichment of Straw or Fortification):

o Ammoniation
o Urea/Molasses mixture
o Urea enriched paddy straw

AMMONIATION

 Ammoniation is technique by which the poor quality crop residues can be improved and made
more palatable. The steps involved are
o Chaff the crop residues : Crop residues are cut into pieces of 2 to 3 cm length.
o Dig a circular pit on an elevated place.
o Add 35 to 40% water to moisten the crop residues.
o Fill the moistened crop residues in the pit and apply 2.5 to 3.0% liquid ammonia.
o Cover and seal the pit with a plastic sheet.
o Open the pit after 30 or 35 days by which time the feed is ready for livestock.
o For daily use, required quantity of the ammonia treated forage can be removed from the
pit and kept in the open for over night before feeding. This will help to evaporate excess
quantity of ammonia.

UREA-MOLASSES MIXTURE

Required inputs
 S. Contents Quantity (in kg)
No
1 Urea 1.5
2 Water 1.5 to 2
3 Molasses 10
4 Salt 1
5 Mineral mixture 1

Preparation of mixture

 Dissolve 1.5 kg urea in 1.5 kg water.

 Stir well till the urea is dissolved.
 Add 10 kg molasses and mix thoroughly.
 Finally add 1 kg salt and 1 kg mineral mixture and mix thoroughly.
 This mixture should be stored in a covered earthen pot for a period of one month.

Method of feeding

 Take 1/2 kg of the mixture each day and mix it with 2 kg of water. Sprinkle the solution on atleast
5 kg of chopped straw. The urea mixture must be thoroughly and evenly mixed with straw.
 After 20 days the use of mixture may be increased to 3/4 kg and used as above. This mixture can
also be used for chopped green fodder (grasses and cereals).

Precautions

o The urea mixture must not be fed to animals less than 4 months old. Animals starts
ruminating only after 4 months.
o The mixture must not be kept for more than one month.
o Animals should not be fed more than 3/4 kg of the mixture / day.
o The mixture must be stored in covered earthen pot.

UREA ENRICHED PADDY STRAW

Required inputs

 Paddy straw: 100kg

 Urea: 4kg
 Clean water: 65 litres
 Sprinkler

Steps in the preparation

 For enrichment of 100 kg of paddy straw.

 Dissolve 4 kg urea in 65 litres of water
 Spread a polythene sheet/Gunny bag on the floor. Initially spread 5 kg of paddy straw in layers.
 Using the sprinkler, sprinkle the prepared urea solution over the paddy straw ensuing that all the
paddy straw is wet by it.
 Similarly spread another layer of paddy straw over the first layer and repeat the sprinkling of urea
solution.
  Repeat the spreading and sprinkling for the entire 100 kg of paddy straw and heap it and cover
the straw with polythene sheets to prevent the escape of ammonia liberated from urea. This step
facilitates the breakage of lignocellulose bond by ammonia thereby releasing cellulose from lignin
bondage for easy digestion and more utilisation.
 After 21 days the urea treated paddy straw is ready for feeding.
 The urea enriched paddy straw, may be left in the open for 5 minutes prior to feeding in order to
remove the pungent odour of urea.
 It is advisable to feed the urea treated Paddy Straw for calves above 6 months of age

Advantages of urea treatment

 Total digestible nutrients (TDN) increased from 45 to 60%.

 Crude Protein (CP) increased from 2% to 10%.
 Palatability increased therefore feed intake increases.

MODULE-11: FEED AND FODDER MANAGEMENT FOR

INDIVIDUAL ANIMALS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 The major objectives of this

module are to make the user
to learn the following:
o Feeding systems
generally practiced.
o Nutritional
requirements of cattle
and buffaloes.
o Feeding standards.
o Formulation of
standard ration.
o Safety aspects in cattle
feeds.
o Performance of Bovines
in Traditional pasture
vs. Improved pasture
o All forage diet for Sheep
and Goat
o Efficient feed ration
o Use of molasses in
livestock feeding
o Daily requirement of
green fodder, dry
fodder and
concentrates for sheep
and goat.
 FEED AND FODDER MANAGEMENT FOR INDIVIDUAL
ANIMALS

Introduction

 In India, system of forage feeding differs from grazing on a poor herbage cover to thick
vegetation.
 In larger areas it is mostly seasonal grazing followed by a scarcity period of summer months.
 Pastures and grasslands have reduced considerably in larger parts and also disappeared in
many areas leaving behind mango orchards, roadside bunds and river basis for grazing.

FEEDING SYSTEMS

 Feeding on exclusive grazing: Animals are let out for grazing for 6-8 hrs daily.
 Feeding on roughage supplemented grazing: Common in low rainfall areas, where grazing is
limited on poor pasture, road sides and canal bunds. The animals are offered dry crop residues
(bhusa, straw,etc) during a larger part of the year.
 Feeding on grazing supplemented with concentrates: Grazing of animals followed by feeding of
concentrates (grains, grams, oil cakes etc.) to productive dairy animals and working bullocks.
 Stall feeding of all roughage rations: All roughage ration may be of single forage or mixture of 2 or
more forages. The combination mostly fall in the following categories
o Dry roughages: Straw, stovers, mixed grass hay, legumious hay, cereal crop hay fed
either as long hay or chaffed
o Green forage feeding: The feeding of green chaff of cultivated forages is limited to a small
period of kharif seasons.
o Feeding of mixed forage: The mixture of forages depends on their availability with the
farmers and not with the choice for balancing or palatability and feeding value of the
forage.
 Stall feeding of forage: Concentrate diets - This system of feeding is common where there is no
scope of grazing due to shifting of entire land under the grain and cash crops.
 Feeding of compounded feeds: Feeding of compounded feeds with basal roughage of wheat bhusa
or chaffed paddy straw is limited to unorganised and organised daries of towns and cities.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF CATTLE

 The first need of animal's life is energy and the central element for this is carbon. Carbon occurs
in starches, sugars and other carbohydrates, fats, oils, proteins and even in plant pigments and
vitamin compounds. All these are present in forage.
 Depending upon the animal's capacity, the forage is the main source of energy which aids in the
support of life, growth, secretion of milk, work performance and reproduction. The portion of the
nutrient that is digested and absorbed by the body is called digestible nutrient.
 Some of the nutrients are essential (not synthesized in sufficient quantity) which must be
supplied by the diet. Non-essential materials are those that are required by the animal for
physiological functions. They can be synthesized by the body tissues or microflora in the digestive
tract.
 For example, a young calf with rudimentary rumen must depend on B-Vitamins from the diet. On
the other hand, a mature cow can synthesize sufficient B-vitamins to supply her needs. Simple
stomached animals depend on the diet for essential vitamins, aminoacids and fatty acids.
 For normal Physiological functions such as respiration, muscular contraction, heart beat, body
heat, digesting feeds and body movements energy, proteins, vitamins and minerals are required.
Protein is needed daily to replace cells that are broken down.
 To replenish minerals for formation of bones and new tissue cells minerals are needed. If the feed
is reduced a dairy cow will use available energy for maintenance and reproduction at the expense
of growth and lactation. Therefore, it is important to supply adequate nutrition if normal growth,
high milk production and profits are to be obtained.
 Energy: The most important nutrient in the formulation of rations for dairy cattle is energy. The
energy values are expresed in different ways.
o Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN) content of a feed is expressed as a percentage. It is
estimated in a digestion trial in which feed and faeces are analysed for crude protein (CP)
= (N x 6.25), Crude fibre (CF), Nitrogen-free extract (NFE) and either extract(EE) (Fat x
2.25). The data are used to calculate TDN.

% TDN = (CP + CF+ NFE+(EE X 2.25) X 100) / 100 KG Feed

o This formula ignores gaseous and urinary energy and losses due to heat production.
Extensive TDN data on many feeds are available and long tradition insure its continued
use in practice.
 Digestible energy (DE):
o Gross energy of feed is the total amount of heat liberated when it is completely
combusted.
o The difference between gross energy in the feed and that in faeces is termed digestible
energy.
 Fibre and energy:
o Fibre is necessary in a ration although it is not a nutrient. It controls feed intake,
stimulates rumination, maintains pH in rumen and digestion.
o Lignified fibre is less digestible. It also decreases dry matter intake. The stimulating
rumination of fibre is destroyed by reducing particle size in grinding, pelleting or
excessive chopping of fodder. An increase in fibre content decreases the energy value.
 Protein:
o In the animal's diet provides aminoacids for its physiological functions. The cow does not
depend on its diet for protein because the rumen is capable of converting nitrogen from
the feed and non-protein - nitrogen (NPN) sources into aminoacids.
o The protein requirement of a mature cow depends on the amount of protein in the diet,
which is broken down to ammonia by microbial digestion.
o The rumen microbes convert ammonia to microbial protein. All the feed protein sources
are not degraded in the rumen to the same extent.
o The optimal ration meets the nitrogen requirements for maximum rumen microbial
protein synthesis, avoids losses of excess ammonia from the rumen and provide
undegraded protein.
o When microbial synthesis is inadequate to meet protein demands of high production by-
pass protein becomes important in lactation. The synthesis depends on feed intake, feed
type, protein level, digestibility and feeding method.
o NPN is any compound that contains nitrogen not in the form of amino acid.
o Common NPN compounds fed to dairy cows are feed grade urea, ammoniated straw,
mono ammonium phosphate and liquid supplements having molasses, urea, minerals
and vitamins. NPN in the ration is cheaper than feed protein sources per unit of nitrogen.
o Urea is limited to 1 percent of grain mixture or 200 g/cow/day. Protein is one the most
expensive ingredient of dairy ration and hence overfeeding is avoided.
o Excessive nitrogen intake may affect delayed conception, embryonic death or increased
services/conception. Protein requirements for different classes of animals are computed
with data available on digestible crude protein.
 Fat:
o Ruminants ingests and digests large quantities of forages and since fat can be formed
from other nutrients, dietary fat needs are nominal.
 Minerals:
 o Inorganic elements are needed for cattle for various physiological functions such as for
1. Bone and teeth formation,
2. Enzyme systems,
3. Maintenance of osmotic relationships and acid-base equilibrium,
4. Functioning of muscles and nerves and
5. To serve as constituent of proteins and lipids in muscles, organs, blood cells and
soft tissues.
 Vitamins:
o Dairy cattle require no dietary B vitamins and vitamin K as these are synthesized by
microorganisms in the rumen. Vitamin C is synthesized by the body tissue.
o However, until the rumen of young calves become functional at about 6 weeks of age, the
calves need dietary B vitamins. The dietary needs of cattle are vitamins, A,D and E. These
vitamins or their precursors are present in natural feeds in varying amounts.
 Digestible crude protein (DCP ):
o From the digestibility coefficient of protein in a feed, the amount of DCP can be
determined. For instance suppose an animal consumes 10 kg of a good hay (Guinea grass)
containing 7.5% crude protein, then the quantity of crude protein ingested/day is 0.75kg.
o The animal is found to pass daily 6 kg dung. The moisture content of the dung is 50% so
that 3 kg of dry matter is being excreted. If the crude protein content of the dung is 8% on
dry basis, the animal excretes daily 0.24 kg of protein as undigested.
o Therefore from 10 kg hay, only 0.51 kg of protein is being digested giving a digestible
protein content 5.1%.
 Total digestible nutrients (TDN):
o It has been explained before that the major organic nutrients help in producing heat and
energy in an animal. Thus, the TDN estimation provides an index of its energy yielding
capacity.
o Suppose a feed like ground nut cake contains 42 kg digestible protein. 12 kg digestible
carbohydrate and 8 kg of digestible fat in 100 kg, its TDN will be 42+12+ (8 x 2.25) = 72
kg/100 kg.

COMMON FEEDING STUFF

 The cattle feeds are classified as concentrates and roughages.

 Concentrates are low in fibre with high TDN. They include cereals, oil seeds, oil cakes and cereal
and animal by-products.
 The feeds such as grasses, silage, hay and straws have high fibre are called roughages.

FEEDING STANDARDS

 A  knowledge  of  the  nutritive  value of  different  feeds  is  necessary  to prepare  a  balanced 
ration  to  the  animal.  However,  before a ration  can  be  formulated  for  an  animal,  its
requirements  are  first  to be known.  The  ration  is  classified  as  maintenance  and  production
ration. 
 The  usual  practice  is  to divide  the  requirements into  two  parts.  The  maintenance 
requirement  indicates the  amount  of  nutrients to  be  supplied  to  an  adult  animal so  that  it 
may carry out its vital  processes  without  loosing  or gaining  weight.  This  requirement 
depends  on  the  live  weight  or more  precisely  on  the  surface  of  the  body  of  the  animal 
althoughnot  strictly proportional. 
 In  the  case of  growing  animal  or lactating  animal or an animal in  advanced  stage  of 
pregnancy  or working animal,  extra  nutrients  have to  provided.  The  excess  will depend  on 
the  nature and  quantity  of  production.  Thus,  a  cow giving  4% milk fat   will  require  less 
quantity  of  extra  nutrients than  a  buffalo  of  the same  body  weight  giving  same quantity of 
milk  but  containing  7%  milkfat. 
  Similarly,  a  bullock working  8 h/day will  require  more  nourishment  than  another  working  4
h/day.  For  milk  and  work  production  the  figures  are  to be  added to the  maintenance 
requirements  per  day.  These  figures are  based  on  foreign  data  and  slightly  on  the  higher 
side. However,  it  is  better  to  stick  to  higher  figures  at  least  for  the valuable  cattle.
 In  devising  production  ration, the  nature  and  quantum  of production  has  to  be  considered. 
For  example  a calf  growing  0.5 kg/day  needs more  nutrient  than  another  growing  at  0.25
kg/day. 
 In  this case the  nutritive  ratio  should  be  narrower  than  that  of maintenance  ration. This 
holds  good  for  milk  production  where the  quantity  of  milk  as  well  as  milk  fat  percentage 
needs  to  be  taken  together. 
 For  work production extra protein has to be supplied. For this therefore  a  supplementary  feed
with  wide  nutritive  ratio  has  to be  added  to the  maintenance  ration. 

FORMULATION OF BALANCED RATION

 The first consideration is the capacity for consumption of food by the animal. Cattle generally eat
2-3 kg dry matter for 100 kg live weight.
 If feed is succulent, the dry matter consumption may be as high as 3.5 kg/100 kg body weight.
Buffaloes are slightly more heavy eater than cows. Out of this the dry matter 1/3 may be supplied
as concentrates and 2/3 roughages like green grass, silage or hay.

Computing ration for a milch cow

 A cow weighing 400 kg and yielding 8 kg milk/day with 4% milk fat has to be provided a balanced
ration. The available feed stuffs for the purpose are jowar silage, wheat bhusa, gram husk, barley,
wheat bran and groundnut cake. The animal's capacity of total dry matter consumption is around
10 kg which should be conveniently divided two parts, one for maintenance and the other for milk
production. The maintenance requirement is 0.28 kg DCP and 3.4 kg TDN.

Feed Quantity (kg) DM (kg) DCP (kg) TDN (kg)

Wheat 3.0 2.7 0.00 1.32
Jowar Silage 10.0 3.0 0.07 1.53
Groundnut Cake 0.5 0.5 0.21 0.36
13.5 6.2 0.28 3.21
COMPUTING RATION FOR A MILCH COW
The requirements for 1 kg milk are 0.048 kg DCP and 0.340 kg TDN. This can be
supplied by a mixture of the following composition.

Parts DCP (%) TDN (%)

Forage
Barley 5.0 4.02 38.8
Groundnut Cake 10.0 4.17 7.1
Gram Husk 20.0 0.00 11.0
Wheat Bran 20.0 2.12 13.5
1 kg mix 0.10 0.70
Requirement per 2 kg milk 0.10 0.68
 Thus one kg of mix is sufficient for producing 2 kg milk with 4.5% fat. Therefore
for 8 kg of milk 4 kg mix should be fed in addition to maintenance quota,
 providing DCP 0.68, TDN 6.01 and total dry matter 6.2 + 3.6 = 9.8 kg.
 A blend of grasses, green legumes , dry roughages and concentrate feeds is
generally suited for milch animals. Providing high quality forages with lucerne
berseem or cow pea saves costly concentrate feeds and reduces cost of milk
production: such a combination for cow/buffalo providing 8 kg milk/day is
indicated below in kg.

20 Berseem Green 25 Maize Silage 30

Maize Green
Cowpea Green 10 Wheat Bhusa 7 Lucerne Green 10
Jowar Hay 7
37 32 40
 
Last modified: Monday, 1 August 2011, 01:13 PM
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Fodder and Grass

COMPUTING RATION FOR A MILCH BUFFALO

 Suppose a ration is needed for a milch buffalo weighing 450 kg and giving 10 kg milk with 8%
milk fat. The available feeds are green maize, wheat bhusa, crushed maize, crushed gram,
groundnut cake and wheat bran. The dry matter consumption will be 12 kg. The maintenance
requirement will be 0.28 kg DCP and 3.37 kg TDN/day. This can be met as follows.

Feed Quantity (kg) DM (kg) DCP (kg) TDN (kg)

Green maize 16.0 4.0 0.17 2.7
Wheat Bhusa 3.0 2.7 0.00 1.3
Groundnut 0.25 0.2 0.10 0.7
Cake
19.25 6.9 0.27 4.7

 For the production requirement for 10kg milk with 8% fat an additional requirement of 0.69 kg
DCP and 5.53 kg TN is needed. This can be given by 5 kg of concentrate mix with maize 50%,
gram 30%, groundnut cake 20% and wheat bran 10%. One kg of mix with have 0.17 DCP and 0.83
kg TDN. Thus,

Feed Quantity (kg) DM (kg) DCP (kg) TDN (kg)

Maintenance ration 19 6.9 0.27 4.7
Concentrate mix 5 4.5 0.85 4.3
Total intake 24 11.4 1.12 9.0
Total requirement 11.5 0.97 8.9

 In urban areas the farmers have no source of getting quality green fodder and hence they are
forced to use costly compounded feeds to meet most part of the ration and part of the energy
requirements for maintenance and milk production. Such a ration for a 400 kg cow giving 8 kg
milk with 4.5% milkfat is shown below:

Feed Quantity (kg) DM (kg) DCP (kg) TDN (kg)

 Wheat Bhusa 7 6.3 0.00 3.01
Concentrate mix 4 3.6 0.64 2.92
Total intake 11 9.9 0.64 5.93
Requirement 10.0 0.65 5.84
DAILY REQUIREMENT

SAFETY IN CATTLE FEED

 Environmental pollution is done by the Malaria eradication programme and the team some times
unload all DDT/BHC in the sentitive area of cattle sheds, cattle feed stores and rejected places.
Their entry into the animal body and transfer to human beings is possible.
 Pesticide residues are a source of head ache for feed producers. Now the use of DDT has been
banned. But many other poisonous pesticides available in the market need not to used with
utmost care. The preserved feeds must be safe and wholesome.
 The pesticide traffic via cattle feed, fodders and environment or water specifically meant for milch
animals and ultimately to milk for human use must be blocked.
 It is safe to use deoiled feed ingredients in cattle feed mixed as the pesticides are fat soluble and
the deoiling processes help in eliminating them from cattle feed ingredients.
 The presence of aflatoxins is another limitation in cattle feeds. Groundnut cake suffers a lot in this
respect compared with soyabean, sunflower cakes or fish meal.
 As little as 4 mg toxin/kg feed can cause death in cattle. It is desirable to control the moisture
content of the feed to around 10-12 percent during storage to reduce spoilage.
 Complete ration is a normal ration where forages, concentrates, minerals and vitamins are
blended together. It is a promising method for improving the utilisation of fibrous agricultural
poor quality crop residues into a ready made balanced diet in mash or pelleted form for the
ruminant.
 Various fibrous agricultural residues like dried mixed grasses; straws from sorghum, paddy,
wheat and safflower; sugarcane bagasse; fallen tree leaves; cotton seed hulls and wastes from
wood and fruit pulp are amenable for use. This system has been introduced in recent years in
developed countries with minimum labour use.
 The concentrate - roughage levels can be varied from diet to diet to meet the optimum nutritional
requirement for production. Apart from water and some-wastage and feeding costs; permits
consumption of unpalatable portions of the feeding stuff by the animal; causes less digestible
upsets in early lactation; reduces eating and rumination time and provides more rest for the
animal.
 More frequent feeding is desirable to reduce the load on the rumen and avoids changes in acidity
(pH) of the ruminal fluid. Complete ration is very useful for landless, marginal and small farmers
who could maintain cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goat in proper condition.

TRADITIONAL PASTURES

 Unmanaged traditional grasslands and pasture contain hardly, legume species of forage. The
pastures mostly constitute poor quality feeds supplying 2-3% DCP and 50-55% TDN on DM basis.
 For the optimum utilization of excess energy (TDN) intake by cows and buffaloes through the
traditional grasslands it is important to make up the deficiency of protein (DCP) through the
feeding of high protein supplements like G.N. cake, till cake, soyabean cake, linseed cake.
 A non-protein nitrogen (NPN) supplement like urea-molasses supplement or urea mixed
concentrate mixture can also be fed in limited quantity for the better utilization of excess energy
consumed.
 IMPROVED PASTURES

 Well managed pastures are periodically renovated and cropped in a manner to maintain the grass
legume ratio about 1:1 so that good quality nutritious forage would be available for grazing.
 Improved pastures may supply about 6-7 percent DCP and 50-55% TDN in dry matter.

ALL FORAGE DIETS FOR SHEEP AND GOATS

 Sheep prefer grazing close to the ground whereas goats like browsing on newer leaves of herbs
shrubs with variable grass cover. Indian sheep of Northern plains and Southern parts are mostly
mutton type.
 A few breeds produce a small amount of rough carpet wool. Sheep in different tropical and sub
tropical zones are mostly reared on grazing in semi arid areas or on the stubbles left after
harvesting of crops.
 Goats like browsing and some breeds are difficult to adopt for stall feeding Jamunapari goats if
not maintained, milk production outside their home tract will further reduce on stall feeding.
 Diversified breeds of goats ranging from the heavy breeds like Janumapari, Beetal and
osmana (body weighting 50-80kg adult body weights) to light breeds like black bengal weighting
(15-25kg adult body weight) are in existence. (Heavier milk type are mostly born one kid).
 For the optimum utilization of inherent milk production potential of goats it is essential to
supplement the grazing, browsing through the feeding of energy rich concentrate mixture.
However, on the feeding of palatable forages, goats are capable to consume a large quantity of dry
matter (4-5% of body weight).
 Under feeding systems on grazing and browsing lactating goats produce about 0.5 to 2.0 kg milk
and male kids grow to 7-12 kg body weight in light breeds and 15-35 kg in large breeds at about
10-12 months of age. At this stage males are marketed for meat and yield good quality carcass
providing higher proportion of meat.

EFFICIENT FEED RATION

 In  formulating  the  most  efficient  and  economic  ration  for livestock,  one  must  select
ingredients that  supply  basic  animal  requirements - energy,  protein, minerals  and 
vitamins  to  maintain  the  growth, yield  and  health  of  the  animals. 
 Initially  farmers  relied almost  entirely  upon  food  grains  and  roughage grown  on  the 
farm  to  feed  their livestock.  Now it  is  discovered  that  the  byproducts  of  milling,  meat
packing,  oil  seed  processing  and  other  processing  industries  had  considerable  feed  
value as  they  not  only  contain  substantial  amount  of  protein  but  also   furnish  minerals 
and  vitamins  lacking   in  the  feed  grains  and  roughages.
 Use  of  non-conventional  raw  materials  for  animal  feeding  is  thought  of,  which  not 
only  helps  to  reduce  the  feed  cost,  but  also  helps  to  conserve  food  grains  and  other 
material  for human  consumption. eg: Oil  cakes,  brans,  husks,  wastes  from  dal  mills, 
slaughter  houses, etc.
 Usually  the  ration  for  the animals  consists  of  green fodder ,  dry  fodder  and 
concentrates. The  green and  dry  fodders  can  be  from  cereals or grasses and  also 
legumes.
 Dry fodder refers to the dried crop after removal of the grains such as Paddy straw, Wheat
straw, Maize stalk, Sorghum stalk etc., Concentrates are the crop by products such as
groundnut oil cake, cotton seed cake, sesamum oil cake  etc. 
 A  concentrate  is prepared  by mixing  different  ingredients  to  meet  the  animal  needs.
These  would  be grains,  cakes, some  bran  and  other  items  along  with  essentials  like 
mineral  mixture,  salt,  etc. 
 Depending  on  the   availability  and  economics, any  one  can  be  chosen.  Quantities of
green fodder, dry fodder and concentrates to be fed per cattle per day is very important . This
is decided based on the type of cattle, its daily nutritional requirements and milk yield.

USE OF MOLASSES IN LIVESTOCK FEEDING

 The different types of molasses are similar in feeding value and are available in both liquid and
dehydrated forms.
 Molasses is usually used in rations for cattle, buffaloes, sheep and horses.
o As a source of energy.
o As an appetisor.
o To reduce the dustiness of a ration.
o As a binder for pelleting.
o To stimulate rumen microbial activity.
o To supply unidentified factors.
o To provide a carrier for NPN and vitamins in liquid supplements.
o In the case of cane molasses, to provide trace minerals.
 o In ruminant rations, molasses is restricted to the level of 10-15% of the ration.
o Excessive amounts of molasses (greater than 15%) will cause the feed to become messy as
well as create digestive disturbance along with disrupted rumen microbial activity.
o Poultry are rather sensitive to molasses as excess levels cause diarrhoea. Levels are
restricted to from 2-5%.

DAILY REQUIREMENTS

Type of Stage of Green fodder Dry fodder Concentrates

Sl. animal the (kg/day/animal) (kg/day/animal) (kg/day/animal)
No animal
1. Goat Upto 3 0.5 0.4 0.1
months
4 - 12 1.0 0.6 0.2
months
During 2.0 0.8 0.4
gestation
During rest 1.5 0.6 0.3
of the
period
2. Sheep Upto 3 0.5 0.4 0.1
months
4 - 12 1.0 0.6 0.2
months
During 2.0 0.8 0.4
gestation
During rest 1.5 0.4 0.3
of the
period
MODULE-12: FODDER PRODUCTION THROUGH
INTERCROPPING AND BACKYARD CULTIVATION

 
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 The major objectives of this module

are to make the user to learn the
following:
o To know the various
intercropping methods.
o Importance of intercropping
legume fodders.
o Cultivation packages for
important intercropping
systems.
o Possible fodder intercropping
under rainfed and irrigated
situations.
o Means for intensive fodder
production for continuous
supply of fodders.

FODDER PRODUCTION THROUGH INTERCROPPING AND

BACKYARD CULTIVATION

Introduction

 Presently the Indian farmers are giving much importance to cultivation of grain and
commercial crops. The cultivation of crops has become the major enterprise of the farmers
where as other enterprises such as dairy/poultry/fishery/piggery/goatery etc. are considered
as secondary enterprise.
 This is because of the reason that marginal and small farmers depend on farming for their
livelihood and hence produce rice or wheat, being the important staple food crops.
 However this is not the case with the big farmers who are having a larger livestock business.
Majority of the farmers do not pay much attention to feed his livestock with green forages.
 The farmer is feeding his livestock with agricultural by products obtained from his farm, like
paddy straw, Jowar, Bajra, Maize stover etc., which are having poor feeding value.
 As such the livestock are being fed with poor quality roughages, the yield potentiality of the
livestock going down year after year. There is sufficient low cost technology available to feed
the livestock of the farmer and improve the yield potentiality. Intercropping and backyard
cultivation are important ones.
 For increased fodder production from the available land resources, the cropping has to be
intensified in terms of either space or time or both.

TYPES OF INTERCROPPING

 Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land is termed as intercropping.
These crops are grown together for their entire life cycle or atleast for part of their life cycle. There
are different systems of intercropping.
  Mixed cropping : When seeds of two or more crops are mixed and sown by broadcasting without
distinct spacing, the system is termed as mixed cropping. Eg. Sorghum + cowpea + cucumber
 Row intercropping: Owing two or more crops in distinct rows with narrow ratios of 1:1 or 1:2 or
2:2 etc. is termed as row intercropping. Eg. Sorghum + cowpea, Maize + cowpea etc.
 Strip intercropping: The systems of sowing two or more crops in alternate strips (slightly larger
ratios such as 10:10 or so) is termed as strip cropping. Eg. Stylosanthes sp. + guinea grass
 Relay cropping: Usually a legume and a non -legume are sown together in the above systems.
Relay cropping is a system when seeds of one crop (usually legume) are sown into the standing
crop (usually rice) before its harvest so that there is overlapping of part of their life cycles. Eg.
Rice - sunnhemp, Rice - Pillipesara etc. (Food crop followed by fodder crop).
 Sequential cropping: Growing two or more crops in a sequence, one after the other, on the same
piece of land is termed as sequential cropping. Depending on the number of crops grown in one
year, the systems are called as double cropping, triple cropping , quadruple cropping, etc. If the
same crop is grown season after season or year after year, it is termed as monoculture and if
different crops are grown, it is termed as crop rotation,
o Examples:
 Maize - Berseem
 Sorghum - Oats - Maize
 Maize - Cowpea - SSG 59-3 (multicut sorghum)
 Availability of irrigation water is more important to adopt sequential cropping systems

WHY LEGUME IS INTERCROPPED?

 There are many advantages due to inter cropping a legume and non-legume crop. This system
helps in economizing the fertilizer use, improves the forage quality and at times may even
increase the biomass production. This is illustrated through the following example.

System Fertilizer used Forage yield Crude Protein

Kg/ha t/ha (Kg/ha)
N P2O5 Green Dry
Sorghum (pure 120 50 49.0 10.18 680
crop)
Sorghum + Cowpea 70 55 49.3 10.10 1024

 These inter cropping systems aim at production of green forages with the existing resources (land,
labor, capital, water and other inputs) available with the farmer without foregoing the regular
cultivation of grain and commercial crops in the farm.

COMMON FODDER INTERCROPPING

 Common intercropping system recommended

 1.  Cumbu Napier grass  3 rows  +    Hedge Lucerne  1 row

 2.  Fodder sorghum var Co.27  2 rows  +  Soyabean var  1 row
Co.1
 3.  Fodder maize var African  1 row  +  Cowpea var Co.5  1 row
Tall
  4  Buffel grass  1 row  +  Stylo  1 row
.

 Apart from these, Lucerne is considered a good intercrop as well an ideal  strip crop in north
indian conditions where the temperature is cooler. Some images where lucerne is used for
intercropping is given below:

  

CUMBU NAPIER GRASS AND HEDGE LUCERNE

 Both Cumbu Napier grass and Hedge lucerne can be grown in intercropping in 3 : 1 ratio.

Seed rate Grass 30,000 slips/ha, Velimasal 2 kg/ha

Spacing Cumbu napier - 50 x 50 cm, Velimasal - continuous row in between
Fertilizer FYM 25 t/ha, N:50, K:40 kg/ha
Top 100 kg N after every harvest
dressing
Irrigation Once in 10 to 15 days
Harvest First harvest after 80 days of sowing subsequent harvest every 45 days
 Yield 250 to 300 tonnes/ha/year

SORGHUM AND SOYABEAN

 Sorghum variety Co 27 and Soyabean variety Co.1 can be intercropped in 2 : 1 ratio.

Seed rate Sorghum 27 kg/ha, Soyabean 10 kg/ha

Spacing 25 x 10 cm
Fertilizer FYM 25 t/ha, 30:40:20 kg NPK/ha
Top dressing 30 kg N to be applied at 30 days after sowing 
Irrigation Once in 10 days
Harvest at 50% flowering
Yield 40 t/ha green fodder

FODDER MAIZE AND COWPEA

 Fodder maize var. African Tall and Cowpea Co.5 can be intercropped in 1 :1
ratio.

Seed rate Maize: 20 kg/ha, Cow pea 20 kg/ha

 Spacing 30 x 10 cm
Fertilizer FYM 25 t/ha, 30:50:20 kg NPK/ha
Top 30 kg N to be applied at 30 days after sowing
dressing
Irrigation Once in 10 to 15 days
Harvest at 50%  flowering
Yield 34 to 35 t/ha green fodder 
 

Last modified: Monday, 21 November 2011, 01:07 PM

BUFFEL GRASS AND STYLO

 Buffel grass and Stylo can be grown together in the ratio 3 : 1.  

Seed rate Buffel grass: 6 kg/ha, Stylo: 3 kg/ha

Spacing 50 x 30 cm
Fertilizer FYM 10 t/ha, 24:45:19 kg NPK/ha
Top dressing 25 kg N to be applied after each harvest
Harvest Buffel grass can be harvested 3-4 times in an year

Stylo is harvested first on 75 days and subsequently at 40-45 ays

interval
Yield Grass:15-22.5 t/ha, Stylo: 7.5-8.5 t/ha 

MODULE-13: RECYCLING OF ANIMAL
WASHINGS AND WASTES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 The major objectives of this

module are to make the user to
learn the following:
o Manurial value of 
livestock wastes - Farm
Yard Manure.
o Energy value of livestock
wastes - Gobar gas. 
o Value addition of livestock
wastes - Vermicompost
and Panchakavya.

UTILIZATION OF ORGANIC WASTES

 

MANURIAL VALUE

 Proper collection and preservation of dung, urine, leftover fodder and other farm wastes is
important, as they can be converted into valuable manure.
 At present, more than 50% of the cattle dung produced in the country is utilised as fuel without
realizing its manurial value. The urine which is a rich source of K, N and S is also not utilised
properly due to improper methods of collection.
 Cattle Manure or Farm Yard Manure (FYM) is the decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm
animals along with leftover feed material and bedding material.
 FYM is a bulky organic manure and it has long lasting effects on crop production and soil
productivity, when properly used.
o FYM contains all the essential elements required for crop growth.
o These nutrients are present in small quantities (Average N.P.K content on dry weight
basis is 1.0, 0.5 and 1.0 % , respectively), but they are not easily lost from the soil because
they are in organic form.
o There are no ill-effects or pollution effects because of the use of FYM.
o FYM is cheaper compared to the cost of commercial fertilisers. It can be locally prepared
with indigenous technology
o Application of FYM improves the physical properties of soil such as structure, pore space,
water holding capacity, etc.
o It also improves the soil chemical properties because organic matter (humus) has the
highest cation exchange capacity (CEC).
o FYM is the main source of food for all the useful micro-organisms living in the soil. Soil is
biologically improved because of the application of FYM.
  In view of the numerous advantages, animal wastes should be properly collected and converted
into manure.
 The floor of the cattle shed is prepared in such a way that the urine is either collected at one point
because of the slope and hard and rough surface of the flooring, or is collected (absorbed) by
using different types of bedding material like paddy husk, saw dust, groundnut shells, chopped
straw, etc. The dung , urine (with or without bedding material) and left over feed (mainly
roughages) are collected properly.
 There are different methods of storage to prepare FYM.

Heap method

 In this system, the manure is heaped on the ground in an open land exposed to sun and rain.
There is heavy loss of nutrients in this system due to volatilization and/or leaching. The loss can
be minimized by heaping underneath the shade of a tree and by covering with earth or polythene
sheet.

Pit method

 This is better than heap method. The bottom and sides of the pit are plastered with non-
absorbants and as there is no direct exposure to sun or rain, the nutrient losses are minimum.

Covered Pit method

 The opening of  pit is covered and so, it is the best method for FYM preparation.
 Cattle and buffalo manure is available in plenty in our country which needs to be utilized
properly. Pig manure is a rich source of N and P (3.7 and 3.3%), which should also be utilized
more effectively.

ENERGY VALUE -BIOGAS PRODUCTION

 Biogas will make a convenient alternative to alleviate the energy crisis in the farm sector including
farmers' households, apart from providing a good quality manure devoid of viable seeds of weeds.
 Biogas is generated through the anaerobic digestion of organic wastes mainly cattle dung. An
average Indian farm family normally has two or three cattle for basic agricultural operations.
 The dung from these animals can be efficiently used. Increased popularization of biogas plants
has led to about 16 lakh family - type biogas plants in India, starting from a meagre 1000 plants
approximately in 1972-73. In Tamil Nadu state alone there are about 1. 5 lakh number of biogas
plants.

Availability of dung and scope of bio gas plants in Tamil Nadu

Gas Production
Type of No. in Dung / Total (million
Rate Million
animal Million day/animal (kg) kg/day)
m3/kg m3/kg
White cattle 13.6 10 136.0 0.04 5.44
Black cattle 3.2 15 48.0 0.04 1.92
Sheep 5.5 2 11.0 0.04 0.44
Goat 5.2 2 10.4 0.04 0.42
Pigs 0.7 1.5 1.0 0.07 0.07
Poultry 18.2 0.1 1.8 0.06 0.11
 208.2 8.40

 In Tamil Nadu alone, from about 208 million kg of dung available every day, it is possible to
produce about 8.40 million m3 of biogas per day. But only 7% dung is utilised for biogas
production by about 1.5 lakh biogas plants of 4 m3 capacity each requiring 100 kg of dung per
day.
 There is a lot of scope for more bio gas plants and as such, the Department of Non-Conventional
Energy Sources of the Union Government is encouraging the Indian house holds particulary in
the rural areas to install the bio gas plants.
 Apart from cattle dung, wastes from poultry, piggery, sericulture, goat -husbandry, crop and field
wastes and nightsoil are yet to be used in large quantities.

VALUE ADDITION - PANCHAKAVYA

 The Sanskrit word Panchakavya means “mixture of five products” and it has been used in
traditional Hindu rituals throughout history. In recent years panchakavya has found a prominent
position in the context of organic farming.
 Panchakavya is a concoction prepared by mixing five products of cow. The three direct
constituents are dung, urine and milk; the two derived products are curd and ghee. These are
mixed in proper ratio and then allowed to ferment and used.
 Panchakavya is said to have miraculous effects on plants, animals and human beings. It can act as
growth promoter and immunity booster. It enhances the shelf life of vegetables, fruits and grains
but also improves the taste.
 The present form of Panchakavya is an organic input , which acts as a growth promoter and
immunity booster. The ingredients include

Ingredients Quantities
Gobar gas slurry 4 kg
Fresh cowdung 1kg
Cow’s urine 3 litres
Cow’s milk 2 litres
Cow’s curd 2 litres
Cow’s ghee 1kg
Sugarcane juice 3 litres
Ripe bananas 12 nos.
Tender coconut 3 litres
water
Toddy (if available) 2 litres

 This will make about 20 litres of Panchakavya . The concoction is stored in a wide mouthed
earthern pot or concrete tank kept covered with a cotton cloth and placed in an open area.
 Sufficient shade should be provided and the contents should be stirred twice a day both in the
morning and in the evening.
 The methane gas likely to generate inside gets released while stirring. In seven days, the modified
Panchakavya will be ready. Panchakavya is diluted to 3% and sprayed on crops to get the best
results.

BENEFITS OF PANCHAKAVYA IN AGRICULTURE

 In the preliminary research conducted by Rural Community Action Centre, headed by Dr. K.
Natarajan, it is said that the following benefits were realised by the use of Panchakavya. His
findings have been validated by some of the research institutes in the country.
 Seeds can be soaked and seedlings can be dipped in 3% solution of Panchakavya for about 30
minutes before sowing to get good results from the crops.
 Various cereal crops, such as rice, maize, vegetables such as brinjal, bhendi, fruit crops like
mango, banana, guava, cash crops like sugarcane, turmeric, jasmine and moringa and plantation
crops have responded extremely well to application of Panchakavya.
 Earth worms grow faster and produced more Vermi compost when treated with this solution.
 When sprayed with Panchakavya the plants produce larger leaves and develop a denser canopy.
The stem produces lateral shoots and sturdy branches to bear heavy yields.
 The rooting is profuse and penetrates rates deeper, helping the plants with stand drought
condition. Roots helps in better in take of nutrients and water.

BENEFITS OF PANCHAKAVYA IN ANIMAL HEALTH

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS OF PANCHAKAVYA

 Presence of growth regulatory substances such as IAA, GA and cytokinin, essential plant
nutrients, naturally occurring, beneficial effective micro organizations predominately lactic acid
 bacteria, yeast, actinomycetes, phyto synthetic bacteria and certain fungi besides beneficial and
proven bio-fertilizers such as Acetobacter, Asospirillum and phosphobacterium and plant
protection substances can be detected in Panchakavya .

Sl. No. Contents (in ppm) Panchakavya

1  Total sugars 345
2.  Reducing sugars 121
3.  Protein 66
4.  IAA 8.5
5.  GA 3.5
6.  Total Nitrogen 238
7.  Total Phosphorus 995
8.  Total Potash 1540
9.  Total Sodium 218
10.  pH 3.76
11.  EC (dSm-1) 8.25
VALUE ADDITION - VERMI COMPOST

 Vermicompost is the castings of earthworms. Organic waste gets decomposed by micro-

organizms and is consumed by earth worms. The castings of these worms is popularly known as
vermicompost.
 Vermicompost can be prepared easily. The essentials are space, cowdung, organic wastes, and
Epigeic phytophagous earthworms.
 Vermicompost is a good organic manure as it improves soil quality. Conversely, over time,
inorganic fertilisers can deprive the soil of fertility.

REQUIREMENTS OF VERMICOMPOST

Housing:

 Sheltered culturing of worms is recommended to protect the worms from excessive sunlight and
rain.
 All the entrepreneurs have set up their units in vacant cowsheds, poultry sheds, basements and
back yards.

Containers:

 Cement tanks were constructed. These were separated in half by a dividing wall. Another set of
tanks were also constructed for preliminary decomposition.

Bedding and feeding materials:

 Cowdung is used in the bedding material in order to breed sufficient numbers of earthworms.
 Once the earthworm multiply in sufficient numbers, one can start using all kinds of organic waste.

PROCESS OF VERMICOMPOSTING
 The bedding and feeding materials are mixed, watered and allowed to ferment for about two to
three weeks in the cement tanks. During this period the material is overturned 3 or 4 times to
bring down the temperature and to assist in uniform decomposition.
 When the material becomes quite soft, it is transferred to the culture containers and worms
ranging from a few days to a few weeks old are introduced into them.
 A container of 1 metre by 1 metre by 0.3 metres, holds about 30-40 kgs of the bedding and feeding
materials. In such a container, 1000 - 1500 worms are required for processing the materials. The
material should have 40 to 50 percent moisture, a pH of 6.3 to 7.5, and a temperature range of 20
to 30 degree celsius.
 The earthworms live in the deeper layers of the material. They actively feed and deposit granular
castings on the surface of the material. The worms should be allowed to feed on the material until
it is converted into a highly granular mass.
 The earthworms take 7 weeks to reach adulthood. From the 8th week onwards they deposit
cocoons. One mature worm can produce two cocoons per week.
 Each cocoon produces 3-7 young after an incubation period of 5-10 days depending on the species
of worms, quality of feed, and general conditions. The resulting increase is about 1200-1500
worms per year. The population doubles in about a months time.

HARVESTING OF VERMICOMPOST

 The harvesting of vermicompost involves the manual separation of worms from the castings. For
this purpose, the contents of the containers are dumped on the ground in the form of a mound
and allowed to stand for a few hours.
 Most of the worms move to the bottom of the mound to avoid light. The worms collect at the
bottom in the form of a ball. At this stage, the vermicompost is removed to get the worms. The
worms are collected for new culture beds.
 The vermicompost collected is dried, passed through a 3 mm sieve to recover the cocoons, young
worms, and unconsumed organic material.
 The cocoons and young worms are used for seeding the new culture beds. The vermicompost
recovered is rich in macro-nutrients, microbes such as actinomycetes and nitrogen fixers, and is
used as a manure.

PESTS AND PREDATORS

 Earth worms have a large number of predators, including: birds, fowl, rodents, frogs, toads,
snakes, ants, leeches, and flat worms such as bipalium.
 To avoid attacks of these predators vermiculture should be practised in protected places.

BENEFITS OF VERMICOMPOST

  By establishing vermiculture units entrepreneurs can recycle their own resources and create
an effective fertiliser in the process. The extra worms that are produced can be used as feed
for poultry and fish. The advantages of this technology include:
o Recycling of organic wastes.
o Production of energy rich resources.
o Reduction of environmental pollution.
o Provision of job opportunities for women and jobless people.
o Improvement of soil pH. (vermicompost acts as a buffering agent).
o Improvement in the percolation property of clay soils (from the compost's granular
nature).
o Improvement of the water holding capacity in sandy soils.
 o Release of exchangeable and available forms of nutrients.
o Increase of oxidizable carbon levels, improving the base exchange capacity of the soil.
o Improvement of the nitrate and phosphate levels.
o Encouragement of plant root system growth.
o Improvement in the size and girth of plant stems.
o Early and profuse plant flowering
o Creation of a substitute protein in poultry and fish feed.
 One disadvantage of this technology is that pesticides and heavy metals accumulate in the
bodies of the worms that are raised on contaminated organic wastes. If such worms are used
as protein source in animal feeds, health hazards may result. 

MODULE-14: SOIL AND MOISTURE CONSERVATION METHODS

FOR FODDER PRODUCTION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 At the end of this module

the user can learn the
following:
o Types of soil erosion
o Methods to prevent
soil erosion
o Methods to prevent
water erosion
o Methods to conserves
soil and water

SOIL AND MOISTURE CONSERVATION METHODS FOR

FODDER PRODUCTION

Introduction

 Soil conservation is using and managing land, based on the capabilities of the land itself,
involving the application of the best practices to result in greatest profitable production without
damaging the land. This is accomplished by
o Land use based on its capability
o Conservation of soil and moisture to avoid damage to the soil
o Use of the best soils and crop management practices, correction of acidity, alkalanity and
drainage etc.
 Soil conservation is adopted to prevent the soil from soil erosion.

SOIL EROSION

 Soil erosion is the process of detachment of soil particles from the parent body and transportation
of the detached soil particles by wind and or water. The agents causing erosion are wind and
water. (Click here for an animated illustration of the surface movement of water) 
  The detaching agents are falling raindrops, channel flow and wind. The transporting agents are
flowing water, rain splash and wind. Depending on the agents of erosion, it is called as water
erosion or wind erosion or wave erosion.

Water erosion

 Water erosion causes several types of damages by removing soil gradually. Sheet erosion, rill
erosion, gully erosion, ravines and land slides are the types of soil losses caused by water erosion.
 The rate of erosion depends on intensity of rainfall, slope of the land, characteristics of soil and
type of vegetation.
 The soil erosion due to rainfall in bare soil ranges from 1.9 t/ha to 16.6 t/ha, depending on the
intensity of rainfall, soil type etc.
 The water erosion is negligible in soils with plant cover.
 Losses due to water erosion
o Loss of rain water: Loss of rain water is through run off
o Loss of fertile top: Loss of top soil is about 16.35 t/ha annually in India
o Nutrient losses: Soluble forms of nutrients in the top soil is lost through run off,
exchangeable and fixed forms of nutrients are lost through sediments.
o Silting of reservoirs: Flow velocity is reduced, and sediments settles on the floor of the
reservoir which reduce the depth of the reservoir

Wind erosion

 Wind erosion is a serious problem in areas where land is bare and devoid of vegetation and is a
natural phenomena in arid and semi arid zones.
 Factors affecting wind erosion are wind velocity, temperature, rainfall, soil texture, structure,
cohesiveness, bulk density, organic matter, moisture content, surface roughness, height and
density of vegetative cover and type of vegetation.
 Losses due to wind erosion
o Loss of fertile top soil
o Drifting of sand by wind and deposit on the good fertile land
o Damage to crops due to abrasive action.

Wave erosion

 Wave erosion is caused by the combined action of wind and water.

 Wave erosion mainly occurs in rivers and canals. Lining the canals mainly controls wave erosion.

MEASURES TO CONSERVE SOIL DUE TO WATER EROSION

 Measures to prevent erosion are broadly classified as

o Agronomic measures
o Mechanical measures
o Forestry measures and
o Agrostological measures

AGRONOMIC MEASURES

 Agronomic measures are mostly adopted in dryland areas where slope is gentle i.e. less than 2%
when one or more agronomic measures are combined, erosion can be reduced even if the slope is
more than 2%.
 Following are the commonly adopted agronomic measures
o Contour cultivation
o Tillage
o Mulching
o Cropping systems
o Strip cropping
o Use of chemical and
o Others
 Contour cultivation
o Contour cultivation includes contour ploughing, contour sowing and other intercultural
operations. By ploughing and sowing across the slope, each ridge of plough furrow and
each row of the crop act as an obstruction to run off and provide more time for water to
enter into the soil and reduce soil loss.
 Tillage
o Conservation tillage is disturbing the soil to minimum extent necessary and leaving crop
residues on the soil. Mostly adopted conservation tillage system is zero and minimum
tillage, and this can reduce the soil loss to an extent of 50% over conventional tillage.
 Mulching
o Mulching with plant materials reduces soils loss upto 43 times compared to bare soil and
17 times compared to cropped soil without mulches. Mulches covers more soil surface
and protects it from rain drop impact, thus reducing the run off loss. When the crop
residues are pressed down into narrow continuous slots of 5 to 10 cm width and 20 to 25
cm depth, the infiltration capacity is increased.
 Cropping systems
o Pasture land has faced negligible run off and sediment losses. Growing a crop with
maximum vegetative cover reduces run off and soil loss. In multiple cropping systems,
where the soil is covered with crops throughout the year, the soil loss is minimum as the
falling rain drops are interrupted by the crop.
 Strip cropping
o Strip cropping is a system of crop production in which long and narrow strips of erosion
resisting crops (close growing crops) are alternated with strips of erosion permitting
crops (erect growing crops) across the slope. Groundnut, moth bean, horsegram, is some
of the erosion resistant crops and erosion permitting crops are sorghum, maize and
millet.
 Use of chemicals
o Aggregate stability can be increased by spraying chemicals like polyvinyl alcohol at 480
kg/ha, the rate however depending on the type of soil. Bitumin application also increases
the water stable aggregates and infiltration capacity of the soil.
o Application of organic matter, farmyard manure, crop residues and green manure
increases the aggregate stability and thereby reduces the runoff and soil losses.
 Other agronomic practices
o Application of manures and fertilizers provides early crop cover due to quick growth and
thereby reduces the soil loss. Formation of dead furrows with closed ends at 3.6m interval
after emergence of the crop sown across the slope, reduces the length of the run off water,
hold water and increases the time for infiltration.

MECHANICAL MEASURES

 Mechanical measures are supplemented with agronomical measures when the latter, alone is not
sufficient. Some of the mechanical measures are
o Contour bunding
o Graded bunding
o Bread base terrace
 o Bench terracing
o Trenching
o Vegetative barriers
o Grassed waterways and
o Gully control.
 Contour bunding
o The contour bunds are formed at all lines of the greatest slope and this ensures uniform
water depth and distribution throughout its length and enables better possible cultivation
than any other type of bund.
o As the bunds are at regular intervals, they intercept the run off from attaining erosive
velocity and causing erosion. Contour bunds are adopted in areas with rainfall of less
than 1500 mm and the slope of upto 6%.
 Graded bunding
o This is recommended where the rain water is not readily absorbed either due to high
rainfall or low intake of the soil. The graded bunds are designed for conveying the peak
rate of the inter bunded run off at non scouring and no silting velocity.
 Broad base terrace
o This is a combination of ridge and channel built across the slope on a controlled grade
and has a wide base and low height of ridge. Suitable for deep black soils.
 Bench terracing
o Usually practiced on slopes ranging from 16 to 33%. Bench terracing consists of
principally transforming relatively steep land into a series of level strips or platforms
across the slope of the land. It reduces the slope length and consequently erosion.
 Trenching
o Contour trenches are made in non - agricultural land for providing adequate moisture
conditions in order to raise tree and grass species. Size of the trench varies with slope,
rainfall and depth of soil available.
o Trenches are formed at an interval of 60m. The trenches are half refilled diagonally with
excavated material and remaining half of the soil forms the spoil bank.
 Vegetative barriers
o These are closely spaced plantation, usually a few rows of grasses or shrubs, grown along
contours. Act as a barrier, to check the velocity of overland flow entrapment of silt load
behind them. Eg. Khus (Vettiveria zelanica)
 Grassed waterways
o Grassed waterways are drainage channels developed either by shaping the existing
drainage ways or constructed separately to agricultural lands.
o Used to handle run off discharge from graded bunds, broad base terraces, bench terraces
etc. Suitable perennial grass, deep rooted and spreading type such as Panicum
repens, Brachiaria mutica, Cynodon plectostachyus, Cynodon dactylon and Paspalum
notatum may be established for the stability of the waterways.
 Gully control
o Gullies are controlled by diverting run off by adoption of agronomical measures and
stabilizing the gully sides and bed by establishing vegetation and reducing the gradient of
the channel to maintain velocities below erosive level by temporary and permanent
structures such as check dams, drop spillways and chutes.

FORESTRY MEASURES

 In forest lands, slopes are steep, uneven, soil is less stable, highly erodable and precipitation is
high.
 The vegetation and dried leaves on the floor intercept the rain and reduce the impact of rain
drops.
 Due to overgrazing and felling of trees, most of the hills and hillocks became naked and barren.
  Re-establishment is essential to avoid erosion and to maintain ecological balance.
 Afforestation by adopting contour trenching helps in reducing the soil erosion and increases the
infiltration rate.

AGROSTOLOGICAL MEASURES

 Grasses are used to prevent soil erosion by intercepting rainfall, binding the soil particles and by
improving soil structure.
 Grasses should be perennial, drought resistance, rhizomniferous, develop good canopy, deep root
system, prostrate in habit and useful for cottage industries. Eg. Chloris gayana, Dicanthilum
annulatum, Heteropogon contortus etc.
 Grass legumes association is ideal for soil conservation. Legumes build up soil fertility by fixing
atmospheric nitrogen.
 Grasses are used to stabilize the surface of waterways, contour bunds, bench terraces etc.
 Further, grasses improve, the soil structure, porosity, infiltration and also add organic matter to
the soil.  

 A good example of grass–legume association is Cenchrus ciliaris +  Stylosanthes hamata.

MEASURES TO CONTROL WIND EROSION

Should aim at reducing the wind velocity and altering soils characteristics.

Reducing wind velocity

 Adopting vegetative measures or tillage measures or mechanical measures can reduce wind
velocity.
o Vegetative measures
 A long barrier of a several rows of trees planted across wind direction is called as
shelter belts and is useful for soil and moisture conservation as it filters the wind
and at the same time lift it from the surface.
 Some of the commonly used tree species are Prosopis specigera, Albizzia
amara, Tamarindus indica, Eucalypthus species etc. Close growing crops like
ground nut, green grass are more effective.
o Tillage measures
 Rough and clody surface resists the force of wind from causing erosion. Stubble
mulching reduces wind velocity and also trop the eroding soil.
o Mechanical measures
 Physical obstructions such as fences, terraces known as wind breaks reduces the
wind velocity.

Altering soil factor

 Bigger the size of the aggregates, lesser will be the effect of wind on soil erosion. Soil aggregates
can be improved by increasing the organic matter content.

MOISTURE CONSERVATION PRACTICES

 Since water is the predisposing factor for the successful crop production in dry land areas, the job
of an efficient farmer starts right from the time rain falls on the earth till it is efficiently utilized by
the plant.
 o Arresting Maximum Amount of Rainfall at the site of Occurrence
o Maximizing soil Moisture storage
o Reducing soil Moisture Losses
o Overcoming Soil-Physical Constraints
o Antitranspirants

ARRESTING MAXIMUM AMOUNT OF RAINFALL AT THE SITE

OF OCCURRENCE

 Mechanical practices like levelling, bunding, terracing, contour furrowing, trenching, ridging, etc.
help arrest the rainfall at the site of occurrence and provides more time to the rain water to soak
into the soil.
 Levelling and grading
o It is the process of the reshaping land surface to a planned grade which usually requires
cutting of high areas and filling of low sports to remove surface irregularities and
unevenness.
o It reduces erosion, controls water flow and improves surface drainage.
 Contour bunding
o Contour bunds are constructed to intercept the run-off. Contour bunds are usually less
than one metre in height.
o They are followed in low to medium rainfall area and relatively permeable soils.
o In areas having rainfall more than 500 mm graded bunds are preferred to remove the
excess water.
 Bench terracing
o These are followed in areas of steep slopes (10-30%).

MAXIMIZING SOIL MOISTURE STORAGE

 Rapidity of water infiltration and higher moisture storage capacity of soil are desired for
successful crop production under dry land farming.
 An improvement in both these essential may be brought about by making sub-soil pervious and
improving structure of surface soil.
 The practices like hot weather cultivation, deep ploughing, sub-soiling, chiselling, growing of
legumes and grasses and other deep rooted crops have been round to make the soil pervious to
hold larger quantities to rain water which ultimately result in increased yield of crops.
o Off- season tillage
 Any tillage that is carried out between two crop periods is termed as off-season
tillage. This aims at keeping the soil open for more water to soak into the soil and
to control weeds.
o Primary deep tillage
 This aims to get weed-free seedbed with good water intake capacity so as to get
more time for seeding and better germination.
o Chiselling
 This refers to breaking and loosening of compact soil or sub-soil with a chisel so
as to increase root penetration.
o Addition of organic matter
 Organic matter improves soil structure consequently to more water holding
capacity apart from improved soil fertility and better physical condition of soil,
which results in higher yields.
 Growing of deep rooted crops with particular reference to legumes also help to
improve soil permeability and water storage in soil.
 REDUCING SOIL MOISTURE LOSSES

 Surface evaporation and weeds are the two most important unwanted sources of the loss of
soil water under dryland conditions, an effective control of which is of great concern to the
dryland farmer.
 It has been estimated that surface evaporation is responsible for 30-40% of available soil
moisture and if weeds are not kept under control the magnitude of loss increases upto 60-
80%.
 Intercultivation by khurpi, hoe, harrow, cultivator, etc. in between the crop rows remove
weeds and help check evaporation losses by forming a sort of dust mulch on the soil surface.
 Applications of mulches (organic, chemical, polyethylene etc.) antitranspirants, chemical
weed control are other ways to reduce unproductive water losses through evaporation,
transpiration and weed growth.

Mulches

 Organic mulches such as crop residues like rice straw sugarcane trash, maize stubbles, dry
grasses etc., on soil surface in between the crop row is an effective way to check weed growth
and to reduce soil moisture losses.
 Apart from this, it minimizes temperature fluctuation, improves physico –chemical
properties of soil, adds to soil fertility and ultimately increases crop yields.
 Chemical mulches and polyethylene mulching are also used but done to their higher cost
their use is generally prohibitive.

OVERCOMING SOIL - PHYSICAL CONSTRAINTS

 Dryland farmer may confront with one or more of the following soil physical constraints.
 Surface crusting
o The problem is experienced in light soils where seeding emergence is hampered.
Incorporation of stubble of crop residues minimizes crusting.
o Set line cultivation, seeding on ridges also minimises the effect of crusting. In case where
crusting has occured, passing of thorny branches on the surface reduces crusting.
 Soil cracking
o This is a serious problem of heavy textured soils. Intercultivation, mulching and selection
of short duration varieties, which may complete the life cycle before the cracks develop
can tackle this problem.
 Textural profiles and hard pans
o Deep ploughing, chiselling and growing of deep rooted crops help to over come these
problems.

ANTITRANSPIRANTS

 Antitranspirants are generally used to reduce the photosynthesis activity in the crops, therefore,
their use is limited to save the crops under nurseries only.
 Antitranspirants are the following types :
o Growth retardants: Such hormones are reduce shoot growth and increase root growth
and also enhance female flower ratio, thus increase the production and resist to drought.
o Stomata closing type: Such chemicals reduce water loss through stomatal closing.
o Film farming type: Retard moisture loss due to formation to thin films as physical
barrier.
 o Reflecting type: Such materials reflect the radiation and thus reduce leaf temperature
and vapour pressure gradient from leaf to atmosphere and ultimately transpiration is
reduced.

MODULE-15: METHODS OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE FOR

FODDER PRODUCTION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 At the end of this module

the user can learn the following:
o Meaning of irrigation and
drainage
o What are the various
methods of irrigation?
o What are the various
methods of drainage?
o Possible methods of
irrigation for fodder
cultivation.

METHODS OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE FOR FODDER

PRODUCTION

Introduction

 Water is essential for human, animal and plant life. It is a part of all organisms and some of the
organisms contain more than 90% of water. It is an essential part of protoplasm and
photosynthesis. Water is also required for translocation of nutrients and dissipation of heat.
 About 400 to 500 litres of water is necessary for the production of a kilo of plant dry matter.
Biomass (Plant dry matter) production is vital for increasing green fodder productivity.
 Soil water is depleted due to evaporation from soil surface, transpiration through the plant and
deep percolation into the soil beyond the root zone. Water availability to crops is reduced
gradually and plants are subjected to moisture stress. Root growth is reduced due to high
mechanical resistance of dry soil. In order to favour root plant growth, water should be
supplemented through irrigation.
 Irrigation is the artificial application of water to soil to supplement rainfall for crop production.

WATER REQUIREMENT OF CROP

 Water requirement of a crop is the quantity of water regardless of source, needed for normal crop
growth and yield in a period of time at a place and may be supplied by precipitation or by
irrigation or by both.
 Water is needed mainly to meet the demands of evaporation (E), transpiration (T) and metabolic
needs of plants, all together known as consumptive use.
 Water is currently the most limiting resource for crop production and is recognized as the most
critical resource for future developments.
  Water use efficiency can be increased through introduction of short duration and drought tolerant
crop cultivars, mulching to reduce evaporation, land leveling to reduce water requirement and
optimum irrigation regime.
 Water use efficiency is defined as the yield of marketable crop produced per unit of water used in
evapotranspiration.

DIFFERENT APPROACHES FOR IRRIGATION SCHEDULING

 Soil moisture depletion approach

 Climatological approach
o IW / CPE approach
o Can evaporimetry method
o Combination approach
 Critical stage approach

Soil moisture depletion approach

 When the soil moisture in a specified root zone depth is depleted to a particular level, it should be
replenished by irrigation.
 Eg. Irrigation can be scheduled at 25% depletion of soil moisture for crops like maize, wheat etc.
and at 50% depletion of soil moisture for crops like sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet etc.

Climatological approach

o This is mainly based on evapotranspiration. Based on the climatic data different methods
are employed.
 IW/ CPE approach
o A known amount of irrigation water is applied (IW) when the cumulative pan evaporation
reaches a predetermined level.
 Can evaporimetry
o Small cans of one litre capacity painted white and covered with 6/20-size mesh are used
to indicate evaporation from the cropped field.
o An indicator point is fixed at 1.5 cm below the brim. When irrigation is given bringing the
soil to field capacity, the can is filled up with water to pointer level and kept to the crop
height.
o Evaporation from can is directly related to crop evapotranspiration. Irrigation is
scheduled when the water level in the can falls to a predetermined level and can is again
filled to the pointer level.
 Combination approach
o This is based on soil moisture depletion and climatological approach for sufficient and
deficit irrigation water conditions.

Critical stage approach

 In each and every crop, there are certain growth stages at which moisture stress leads to
irrevocable yield loss and these stages are known as critical period or moisture sensitive period.
This is highly suitable under limited water supply conditions. Here the irrigation is scheduled at
moisture sensitive stages and irrigation is skipped at non-sensitive stages.
 For higher water use efficiency by a crop, application efficiency, storage efficiency and
distribution efficiency, different methods of irrigation can be followed based on land slope,
amount of water and equipment available, crop and method of cultivation of crop.
 IRRIGATION METHODS

 Surface irrigation
 Sub surface irrigation
 Over head or sprinkler irrigation
 Drip irrigation methods

Surface irrigation methods

 The common surface irrigation methods are flooding, check basin, border strip and furrow
methods.
o Flooding
 Exclusive for lowland cultivation
o Check basin method (View animation)
 Mostly adopted method of irrigation. Suitable for closely growing crops. Here,
field is divided into small plots surrounded by bunds or all the four sides.
 Water is impounded in the basins and the bunds prevent water flow from one
basin to the adjacent. Suitable for forage crops, which are tolerant to standing
water, usually ranging from 12-24 hours.
o Basin method (View animation)
 This is highly suitable for fodder tree crops. Basins are formed around the trees
and the basins alone are irrigated which are interconnected by an irrigation
channel.
o Border strip method (View animation)
 The field is laid out into long, narrow strips, bordering with small bunds. Mostly
the strips are about 30 to 50m in length and 3 to 5 m in width.
 Suitable for medium to heavy textured soil with close growing crops.
o Furrow irrigation (View Straight and Contour furrows animation)
 Furrow irrigation is adapted to crops grown with ridges and furrows. The size and
shape of the furrow depends on the crop grown and the spacing adopted for the
crop.
 Commonly grown crops with furrow irrigation are cumbu napier hybrid grass
and guinea grass.

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Sub surface irrigation

 Water is applied to the subsurface soil through underground-perforated pipes. Here, the surface
soil is dry even though the root zone is wet. Suitable, where water table is shallow.

TOP

Sprinkler irrigation

 Water is applied as spray or as rain drops over the crops. Water is pumped through a system of
pipes under pressure in the pipeline system to sprinkle water over the crops.
 Small quantities of irrigation water can be applied with sprinkler irrigation. This is highly suitable
for pasture crops, and in dry areas where water is the limiting factor.

Click here for video... 

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Drip irrigation

 Drip irrigation is defined as the precise, slow application of water in the form of discrete or
continuous or tiny streams or miniature sprays through mechanical devices called emitters or
applicators located at selected points along with delivery lines.
 Drip irrigation is adopted extensively in areas of acute water scarcity and especially for crops such
as coconut, grapes, banana, surgarcane, brinjal, cotton, maize etc.

Irrigation for fodder crops

 Irrigation water is an expensive input and has to be used very efficiently. Irrigation efficiency at
the field level can be increased by selecting suitable method of irrigation, adequate land
preparation and engaging an efficient irrigator. At the project level, it can be increased by proper
conveyance and distribution system.
 Forage crops are usually grown as rainfed crop. In some cases, where the dairy farming is
predominant, it is grown in irrigated upland situation. Most of the crops grown in irrigated
upland situation are fairly drought tolerant, and it can withstand a drought period of upto five
weeks, and thereafter is very susceptible.
 Irrigation is required on the day of sowing and subsequently once in 10-15 days interval or based
on the soil moisture availability. Eg. Maize, cumbu napier hybrid grass, sorghum etc. Usually
rainfed crops are sown as pre monsoon sowing. Once the rain occurs it utilizes the available
moisture for its growth. Eg. Cenchrus, stylosanthes.
 Some of the crops are susceptible to water logging and in such cased provision of drainage
channel is a must. Eg. Maize.

DRAINAGE

 Agricultural drainage is the provision of a suitable system for the removal of excessive irrigation
or rain water from the land surface so as to provide suitable soil conditions for better plant
growth.

Advantages of drainage

 Facilitates early sowing of crops.

 Land can be used for a long time without any deterioration due to damaged soil structure and salt
concentration
 Lowers underground water table so as to facilities increased root zone depth.
 Improves soil aeration and increases soil temperature

METHODS OF DRAINAGE

 Surface drainage
 Subsurface drainage

Surface drainage

 Simplest and commonly adopted method is India. Drainage is achieved by digging open drains at
suitable intervals and depth. Irrigation channels also serve as drainage channel.
  Surface drainage may be needed to prevent or modify saline-alkali condition in a soil by leaching.
If the land is not naturally well drained, artificial drainage must be established at the same time,
the irrigation system is installed.
 See page from over irrigated areas at higher elevations and irrigation canal can damage lands in
the low-lying areas. Interceptor drains may be necessary at the upper boundaries of the low-lying
area to divert the seepage and to prevent water logging. Integrated irrigation and drainage
planning is often necessary for laying out a farm area for efficient water use.
 Different methods of surface drainage are adopted, depending on the topography of the land, soil
characteristics and crops that are proposed to be grown.
o Random field ditch method
 Standing water may be present in the field at several places distributed randomly.
These depressions or micro ponds are connected by means of shallow channels or
ditches and these are led into an outlet.
o Land smoothing
 The elevated areas are cut off and excess soil is spread over lower areas, so that
the surface is even with uniform slope. Excess surface run off is collected and
conveyed into the field ditches provided at the lower end of the field.
o Bedding
 Small furrows are formed at known intervals parallel to the slope for draining out
water and known as dead furrows. The land between these furrows is known as
beds. Small ridge or bund is made at the centre of the bed with gradual slope to
drain water into the dead furrows.
o Parallel field ditch system
 Almost similar to bedding system except for deep drains and uneven interval
between drains.
o Broad bed and furrow method
 The field is laid out into 1.05 m beds and 45 cm wide furrows across the slope.
About 0.5% slope is provided for the furrows for free drainage.
 Crops are sown on the beds and furrows help in drainage of water when there is
excess rain.

TOP

Subsurface drainage

 When surface drainage is not possible due to subsoil conditions, water table and topography,
subsurface drainage is resorted to remove ground water, or to lower water table.
 Unlike open drainage, land is not wasted and there is no interference to farming operations by
subsurface drainage. However, this requires less maintenance and high investments.

MODULE-16: FARM POWER AND AGRO ENERGY 

SOURCES, MERITS AND DEMERITS
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 User can learn the following in this

module:
o Differet forms of farm power
o Units of power
o Agro energy
o Biogas, wind mill and solar
energy sources

FARM POWER AND AGRO ENERGY - AN INTRODUCTION

Power

 In physics, power (symbol: P) is the rate at which work is performed or energy

is transmitted, or the amount of energy required or expended for a given unit of
time. As a rate of change of work done or the energy of a subsystem, power is:

P=W/t

 where P is power, W is work and t is time.

Units of power

 Generally, it refers to the units of energy divided by time. The SI unit of power
is the watt (W), which is equal to one joule per second. Non-SI units of power
include ergs per second (erg/s) or horsepower (hp).
 One unit of horsepower is equivalent to 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, or the
power required to lift 550 pounds one foot in one second, and is equivalent to
about 746 watts. (one pound = 0.453 kg)

Last modified: Monday, 9 J

SOURCES OF FARM POWER

 There are different sources of farm power in India which are classificatied as
o Human power
o Animal power
o Mechanical power (Tractors + Power tillers + Oil engines)
o Electrical power
o Renewable energy (Biogas + Solar energy + Wind energy)

Human power
  Human power is the main source for operating small implements and tools at the farm.
Stationary work like chaff cutting, lifting, watering, threshing, winnowing etc are done by manual
labour.
 An average person can develop maximum power of about 0.1 hp for doing farm work.

Animal power

 Power developed by an average pair of bullocks is about 1 hp for usual farm work. Bullocks are
employed for all types of farm work in all seasons.
 Besides bullocks, other animals like camels, buffaloes, horses, donkeys, mules and elephants are
also used at some places. The average force a draft animal can exert is nearly one-tenth of its body
weight.

Mechanical power

 Broadly speaking, mechanical power includes stationary oil engines, tractors and power tillers.
Internal combustion engine is a good device for converting fuel into useful work. These engines
are two types
o Diesel engine and
o Petrol or Kerosene engine.
 The thermal efficiency of diesel engine varies from 32 to 38 per cent whereas that of petrol engine
varies from 25 to 32 per cent.
 In modern days, almost all the tractors and power tillers are operated by diesel. Oil engines are
used for pumping water, flour, mills, oil ghanis, cotton gins, chaff cutter, sugarcane crusher,
threshers, winnowers etc.

Electrical power

 Electrical power is used mostly in the form of electrical motors on the farms. Motor is a very
useful machine for farmers. It is clean, quest and smooth running. Its maintenance and operation
needs less attention and care.
 The operating cost remains almost constant throughout its life. Electrical power is used for
pumping sets, diary industry, cold storage, farm product processing, fruit industry and many
similar things.

Renewable energy

 It is the energy mainly obtained from business sun and wind. Biogas energy, wind energy and
solar energy are used in agriculture and domestic purposes with suitable devices.
 It can be used for lighting, cooking, water heating, space heating, water distillation, food
processing, water pumping, diesel engine operation anmd electric generation. This type of energy
is inexhaustible in nature. 

DIFFERENT FORMS OF POWER AND THEIR ADVANTAGES

Merit Demerit
Human Power
1.  Easily available. 1.  Costliest power compared to all other forms of
power.
2.  Used for all types of work. 2.  Very low efficiency.
3.  Requires full maintenance when not in use.
 4  Affected by weather condition and seasons.
.
Animal Power
1.  Easily available. 1.  Not very efficient.
2.  Used for all types of work. 2.  Seasons and weather affect the efficiency.
3.  Low initial investment. 3.  Cannot work at a stretch.
4  Supplies manures to the field 4  Requires full maintenance when not in use.
. and fuels to farmers. .
5.  Lives on farm products. 5.  Creates unhealthy and dirty atmosphere near the
residence.
6  Very slow in doing work.
.
Mechanical Power
1.  Efficiency is high. 1.  Initial capital investment high.
2.  Not affected by weather. 2.  Fuel is costly.
3.  Cannot run at a stretch. 3.  Repairs and maintenance needs technical knowledge.
4  Requires less space.
.
5.  Cheaper form of power.
Electrical Power
1.  Very cheap form of power. 1.  Initial capital investment high.
2.  High efficiency. 2.  Requires good amount of technical knowledge.
3.  Can work at a stretch. 3.  If handled carelessly, it causes great danger.
4  Maintenance and operating
. cost is very low.
5.  Not affected by seasons.
AGRO ENERGY

 Biogas energy, wind energy and solar energy are used in agriculture and domestic purposes with
suitable devices.
 It can be used for lighting, cooking, water heating, space heating, water distillation, food
processing, water pumping, diesel engine operation and power generation.

BIOGAS
 Plant matter created by process of photosynthesis is called biomass. It includes
all plant life, trees, agricultural plants, bush, grass, algae and livestock wastes.
 Photosynthesis is a naturally occurring process which derives its energy
requirement from solar radiation. In its simplest form the reaction of this
process can be represented by H2O + CO2 à CH2O+O2.
 It is seen that in this process, water and carbon dioxide are converted into
organic material. The gas produced by biomass is called biogas.
 Biogas is obtained through the fermentation of animal waste and other biomass
in a digestion chamber. Biogas is a mixture of methane (45 to 70 per cent) and
carbon dioxide.
  The production of biogas is of particular significance for India because of its
large cattle population.

History of Biogas

 History of biogas in India is petty old. Sri.S.V.Desai of Indian Agricultural

Research Institute, New Delhi was a pioneer man in India who worked
extensively on this subject in 1937. After that, contribution of Prof.N.V.Joshi of
I.A.R.I. in 1964 is of great significance, Sri Satish Chandra Das Gupta had
studied in detail the different aspects of biogas in the year 1952. Besides these, a
large number of persons worked on different aspects of biogas at different places.
Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) started a project on biogas in a
big way in 1962.

Biogas Plant

 It is a composite unit consisting of : (1) Digester and (2) Gas holder. The gas
holder floats on the top of digester in conventional designs (Fig.2.1.). In KVIC
design the gas holder is a fixed type unit.

Digester

 It is a chamber containing the animal waste in the form of slum. It is normally

situated below the ground level. It is made of masonry work.
 There is a partition wall in the middle of the digester which divides the digester
into semi-circular compartments.
 Two slanting pipes are fitted to reach the bottom of the well on either side of the
partition wall. There is one inlet pipe and another outlet pipe for the system.
 Outlet opening is lower than the inlet opening.
 The diameter of the digester ranges from 1.2 to 6 metres while its depth ranges
from 3 to 6 meters.

Gas Holder

 It is a drum like structure of mild steel sheet in conventional designs. It is like a

cap on the mouth of the digester where it dips in the slurry and rests on suitable
base inside the digester.
 Gas holders may be made of mild steel sheet, fibre glass, reinforced plastic (RFP)
and high density polythelene (HDP). In some designs there is fixed type gas
holder.

Gas generation process

 The gas generation process occurs in two stages. In the first stage the organic
substance contained in the waste are acted upon by certain kind of bacteria
called acid formers.
 The material is broken up into small chain simple acids. On the second stage,
these acids are acted upon by another kind of bacteria which produce methane
and carbon dioxide. The biogas contains about 55% methane (CH4) and about
45% carbon dioxide (CO2).

Feeding process of slurry

 Cattle dung is mixed with water in the proportion of about 4:5 ratio and fed
through inlet opening. Cattle dung can be obtained from buffaloes, bullocks,
cows and calves.
 Buffaloes give about 15kg dung per day, bullocks or cows give about 10kg dung
per day and calves give about 5kg dung per day.

Gas Plant Capacity

 Gas plants are available in nearly 20 sizes ranging from 2 to 150 cubic metre.
Smallest plant may be 2 cubic meter size where 2 to 3 animals are required.
 Gas production may be 0.037m3 per kg of wet dung.
 For cooking purpose 0.227 m3 gas per day per person may be required.
 For lighting purpose 0.127 m3 gas per lamp of 100 candle power may be required.
 For a 5 hp engine, 18 m3 gas may be required for 8 hours.

Condition for gas production

 Suitable condition for gas production is when the pH of the slurry is between 7 to
8 in the digestion chamber. Bacteria dies when the pH is above 8 in the digestion
chamber.
  Gas production is at higher rate when the temperature inside the chamber is
around 35°C. The process is retarded very much below 15°C.

Utilization

 Gas is used for : (i) cooking purpose (ii) lighting (iii) running of diesel engine (iv)
fertilizer supply. The sludge which comes out from the gas plant retains all the
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, so it is an excellent fertilizer at the farms.

Last modified: Thursday, 10 May 2012, 12:58 PM

WIND ENERGY

 Air in motion is called wind. Contrast in temperature causes pressure difference which generates
wind. Energy derived from wind velocity is wind energy.
 It is a non-conventional type of energy which is renewable with suitable devices. This energy can
be used as a perennial source of energy.
 Wind energy is obtained with the help of wind mill. The minimum wind speed of 10 km/hr is
considered to be useful for working wind mills for agricultural purpose.
 Along the sea coast and hilly areas, wind mills are likely to be most successful in Karnataka,
Maharastra and Gujarat State.

Function of wind mill

 Wind mill extracts energy from the wind and produces mechanical energy. This energy may be
converted into electrical energy.
 A minimum wind speed of less than 10 km/hr is not suitable to operate a wind mill on economical
basis .

Types of wind mill

 Wind mill may be of two types :

o Horizontal axis rotor
o Vertical axis rotor

Horizontal axis rotor

 Horizontal axis (or wind axis) rotor is an unit whose axis of rotation is parallel to the direction of
the wind. This rotor has three types of blades :
o Multiblade unit
o Sail type unit and
o Propeller type unit.
 Multiblade type rotor
o It is very widely used in wind mills. It has usually 12 to 20 blades fixed over it. The blades
are made by suitably shaping the metal sheets. It runs at speed of 60 to 80 revolutions
per minute .
 Sail type unit
o It has three blades made by stretching out triangular pieces of canvas cloth. It runs at 60
to 80 revolutions per minute.
 Propeller type unit
o It has 2 or 3 aerofoil blades and runs at speeds of 300 to 400 revolutions per minute.
Advantages

 Wind power has many advantages:

o Zero pollution
o Provides extra income for rural farmers by renting land for turbines
o Creates more jobs per GW of electricity generated than coal power stations
o Renewable source of electricity
o Sustainable source of electricity

SOLAR ENERGY

 Sun is the biggest fusion reactor known to mankind which supplies to the earthy daily about
10,000 times energy needed by the world population.
 Apart from being the source of life, sun happens to be the source of all energy except nuclear
energy and geothermal energy. Sun radiates energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
 In order to obtain solar energy, a dark surface is exposed to solar radiation so that radiation is
absorbed. A part of the absorbed radiation is then transferred to a fluid or air.

Collection of solar radiation

Collection of solar radiation can be done in three ways :

 By flat plate collector.

 Focussing or Concentrating collector
 Photovoltaic cell.

Application of solar energy

 Solar water heating

 Space heating
 Space cooling
 Thermal electric conversion
 Photovoltaic electric conversion
 Solar distillation
 Solar pumping
 Agricultural and Industrial process heat
 Solar furnace
 Solar cooking
 Solar production of hydrogen
 Solar green house

MODULE-17: FARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENTS

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 After this module the user would

know the following:
o What is tillage?
o What are the various tillage
implements?
o What are the various sowing
implements?
o What are the various
intercultural implements?
o What are the various plant
protection equipments?
o What are the various types of
spraying?

FARM MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENTS

Introduction

 Use of machines in agricultural production has been one of the outstanding developments all over
the world during the past century.
 The farm machines have reduced the burden and human drudgery of farm work to a great extent.
Various types of farm equipments that are important and commonly used are listed into four
broad categories:
o Tillage implements
o Sowing equipments
o Interculture equipments
o Plant protection equipments
o Harvesting equipments

TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS

Tillage

 Tillage is the preparation of soil for sowing seeds and the process of providing favourable
conditions in the soil by improving the soil tilth for good crop growth. Tillage is the preparation of
soil zone (about 100 to 900 mm of the top soil layer) for crop production.

Objectives of tillage

 The tillage has the following objectives:

o To obtain a seed bed of good tilth.
o To add humus and fertility to the soil by covering the crop residues.
o To increase soil aeration.
o To improve the moisture retaining capacity of the soil.
o To destroy soil insects and their breeding places.
o To destroy the competitive weeds.
 o To improve physical conditions of soil so as to reduce soil losses due to water and wind
erosion.

COUNTRY PLOUGH

 Country plough or indigenous plough is the most commonly used plough in India. The shape and
size of the country plough varies from place to place depending on the type of soil and tillage
requirements.
 The main parts of the plough are body, shoe, share, beam and handle. All the parts except share
are made of wood. Share is made of mild steel. The share makes an angle of 10° to 30° with
ground level.

MOULD BOARD PLOUGH

 The mould board plough was imported to India during the British rule. The mould board plough
does the following functions:
o Cutting
o Lifting
o Turning and
o Pulverisation

DISC PLOUGH

 Disc plough is used in the following conditions:

o Clayey and sticky soils where mould board plough does not scour well.
o Soil having hard pan or plough sole below regular ploughing depth.
o Dry and hard land which are difficult to plough with mould board plough.
o Stony and stumpy soils which are likely to cause damage to mould board plough.
 Disc plough is capable of ploughing at more depth than mould board plough. Disc plough
does not completely invert the soil. A disc plough consists of 2 or 3 discs, cross shaft, frame,
 disc bearing brackets, scrapers, land wheel and furrow wheel. Diameter of steel concave discs
varies from 600 to 900 mm.
 Furrow wheel is attached at the rear of disc plough. This is provided to counter act the soil
side thrust force exerted on the discs during ploughing. Scrapers are used to keep the disc
surfaces clean. Discs are set at an angle to the direction of travel and also to vertical line.

METHODS OF PLOUGHING

 To form furrows at the right hand side of the plough all the times, following methods are followed
for ploughing the fields.
o Round and round ploughing
 In this method, plough moves around a field strip. Ploughing can be started
either from the center of field or from the field boundary.
o Gathering
 When a plough works round a strip of ploughed land, it is said to be gathering.
o Casting
 When a plough works round a strip of unploughed land, it is said to be casting.
o Continuous ploughing
 This method consists of gathering and casting alternately so that idle runs are
minimised. Field is divided into strips of equal width. Each strip is divided into
two parts in the ratio of 3:4. Casting is started at the first strip leaving 1/3 of the
strip at the middle.

CULTIVATOR

Cultivator

 Cultivator is a secondary tillage implement used to stir the ploughed land for shallow depth prior
to sowing. It is popularly known as tiller. When soil has sufficient moisture, cultivator is directly
used as primary tillage implement. It is the only implement that can be used for tilling the soil in
between standing rows of crops.

Functions of cultivator

 It breaks the clods.

 It does weeding and intercultural operations in between standing rows of crops.
 It aerates the soil.
 It conserves soil moisture by preparing soil mulch.
  It sows seeds when provided with sowing attachment.
 Cultivator consists of 9 or 11 tynes attached to a rectangular frame. The tynes are staggered in two
rows one behind the other. Spacing in between the tynes is adjustable. The bottom of the tynes
are fitted with shovels, which are replacable and reversible.
 The cultivator has two heavy coiled springs fitted with each tyne. The spring loaded tynes deflect
when the tynes hit obstacles in the field infested with stones and root stumps. It covers 0.40 ha/h.

HARROWS

Harrows

 Harrows are used to break the clods, to stir the soil and to destroy weeds after ploughing.

Type of harrows

o Disc harrows
o Spike tooth harrow
o Spring tooth harrow
o Triangular harrow
o Blade harrow
o Power harrow
 Disc harrow is a tractor drawn secondary tillage implement which has concave steel discs of 400
to 600 mm diameter mounted on long gang bolts. The discs are spaced at a distance of 150 to 250
mm by means of spacers. Each disc is provided with a scraper to remove soil sticking to the disc.
Cut-away or notched discs are provided in the front gang to cut the crop residues in the field. Disc
angle of the discs in a disc harrow is less than 25º.
 The angle between gang bolt and the direction of travel is called gang angle. Width of operation by
the disc harrow is changed by altering the gang angle. The center line of the implement is offset to
the center line of the tractor and therefore it is called offset disc harrow. Two gangs are provided
one behind the other. The discs in the front gang and rear gang face opposite direction. The offset
disc harrow is suitable for tilling orchards.
  

LEVELLER

 Levelling of agricultural land is necessary for

o Effective application of irrigation water.
o Reducing water logging and
o Controlling soil erosion.
 Tractor drawn leveller is also known as blade terracer. The leveling board is attached to the three
point linkage of the tractor and controlled by the tractor hydraulic system. Land levelling is
essential when areas under forests are converted to farm lands.
 The leveller is used in ploughed fields to collect top soil from high spots and to dump the soil in
depressions. It is used in irrigated fields for precision levelling. Crawler tractor or chain type
tractor fitted with leveling board at the front is known as bulldozer or simply dozer.

RIDGER

 The ridger is useful in forming ridges and furrows in garden land to facilitate sowing of seeds.
Ridger is also known as ridge plough or double mould board plough. The ridger has a wedge
shaped share and two mould boards fitted to the share.
 Distance between the mould boards can be adjusted at the back according to the size of furrow
desired in the field. Ridger is also used for earthing up operation in row crops like sugarcane.
Distance between ridger bottoms can also be altered according to the crop row spacing.
 BUND FORMER

 It makes bunds by gathering the top soil Bunds are formed in the field to prevent water run – off
and to reduce soil erosion. Two bund forming boards are fitted to a frame.
 Distance between the bund forming boards is more at the front than at the back. Size of bund
former is specified by the maximum horizontal distance between the two bund forming boards at
the rear end. If two bund formers are used side by side, an irrigation channel is formed. Bund
former is
 also used to form field boundaries . In dry land, bunds are formed across the slope to conserve
soil moisture. In some bund formers the size of the bund is adjustable.

MELUR PLOUGH

 It is used for shallow ploughing. The cast iron shares made in Melur, near Madurai in Tamil
Nadu. It is also known as Bose plough. In some areas double Melur plough bottoms are used.
Except the share, all other components viz., frame, beam and handle are made of wood.
 It is an alternative to the country plough. When the share happens to encounter root stumps or
roots, the share will break. The broken share can be easily replaced.
 CHISEL PLOUGH

 The chisel plough cuts a furrow of an average depth of 300 mm with an average draft of 110-130
kg. The chisel plough is operated at a spacing of 300 to 450 mm.
 It helps to conserve the soil moisture and 16 per cent yield is increased. The tyne is 30 mm thick
and 700 mm wide. It is used to break hard pan once in three years. It needs a pair of heavy sized
bullocks. It will not pulvarise soil. It improves air permeability of the soil.

BASIN LISTER

 It is a soil conservation equipment especially useful in dry farming areas receiving meagre
rainfall. The equipment has one to three plough bottoms with ground wheels.
 The plough bottoms are lifted often during operation by the cam arrangement and by this furrows
are formed in the field intermittently. The precipitated water is retained in the furrows, thus
reducing the top soil erosion and conserving moisture.
 Several versions of basis listers are now available in India such as tractor drawn and power tiller
drawn basin listers. An offset disc harrow drawn by tractor can be converted to a basin lister by
shifting the center of rotation of the dics to one side. Seeds are sown in between the staggered
pits. 

PUDDLER

 Puddler is a wetland implement used for the preparation of paddy fields in standing water of 50
to 100 mm depth after ploughing. It breaks the clods and churns the soil to a homogeneous
mixture.
 The purpose of puddling is to minimise water leaching, to destroy weeds by burying and
decomposing them and to facilitate transplanting of paddy seedlings by making the soil softer.
 High yielding varieties of paddy respond well to good quality puddling. The puddlers are operated
by bullock, power tiller or tractors. Some of the bullock drawn puddlers available in India are
 Open blade puddler
 Straight blade puddler
  Helical blade puddler

GREEN MANURE TRAMPLER

 This implement is used to trample and press the green manure crops the paddy field.
 There are two types of tramplers viz.,
o Slat type and
o Disc type
 In slat type trampler long radical slats of flats are fitted to a central axle through supporting discs.
 In disc type trampler, flat discs are fitted to a central axle with intermediate spacing.

SOWING EQUIPMENT

 Sowing refers to placing seeds into the soil in accepted pattern under optimum soil moisture and
at optimum row to row and plant to plant spacing. To get high yield, the right amount of seed
should be placed at the right time at a predetermined depth and spacing in the soil.
 The operational requirement of a sowing equipment are as follows:
o Provision to change the seed rate.
o Placing of seeds at an appropriate depth and their covering with soil layer.
o Seeds should not be exposed to injury by the seeding devices.
o Operating efficiency of the seed drill should not be dependent on field undulations and
travel speed (6-15 km/h).

METHODS OF SOWING THE SEEDS

 The methods of sowing seeds include broadcasting, dibbling, drilling, hill dropping, planting,
check row planting and transplanting.
 Broadcasting
o It is the process of scattering of seeds at random on the prepared seed bed. It is usually
done with manual labour, seed rates are generally higher in this method. After the seeds
are broadcast they are covered by planking.
 Dibbling
o It is the method of placing the seeds into the holes made on prepared seed bed at
predetermined depth and at fixed spacing. The seeds are then covered by physically
manipulating the soil. For dibbling, dibber is used in kitchen gardens and vegetable plots.
This method is not suitable for small seeds.
 Drilling
o It consists of dropping seeds along with rows of furrows in a continuous steam and
covering them. Seeding behind the country plough is a manual seed drilling process.
Mechanical seed drilling machines are called seed drills.
 Hill dropping
o Seeds are dropped in the furrows as in the case of drilling. But in one hill move than one
seed is dropped with fixed spacing between hills.
 Planting
o Individual seeds are dropped with a fixed seed to seed spacing.
 Check row planting
o In this method spacing between rows is equal to the spacing between seeds. This
facilitates weeding and interculturing operations in both the directions.
 Transplanting
o Seeds are broadcast in prepared nursery bed. The grown up seedlings are plucked from
the nursery field and transplanted in the main field. It is suitable for paddy,
vegetables and flower crops. Transplanting requires less seed rate.
o Seedlings can be selected before transplanting and hence uniform crop stand can be
obtained. Weeds are buried at the time of puddling. Plant protection measures can be
effectively done in the nursery field.

HAND OPERATED SEED BROADCASTING DEVICE

 The main disadvantage of broadcasting by hand is the non-uniformity of distribution. This causes
uneven crop growth which results in poor yield.
 The hand operated broadcasting device consists of a plastic hopper with agitator, a rotating disc
made of aluminium sheet with projections and a handle. By rotating the handle the disc is made
to rotate at a speed of 500 rev/min.
 The hand operated broadcasting device spreads the seeds 50 per cent more uniformity with
respect to hand broadcasting. The device is hung infront of the operator. The material is spread,
over a width of 3.5 to 10 metre. The unit weighs only 3.6 kg and costs about Rs.1500/-.
 The seed rate can be varied by changing the opening area at the hopper bottom. The device is
capable of covering one hectare per hour.

SEED DRILL

 The typical functions of a seed drill are:

o It holds and carries the seeds.
o Opens furrow to a uniform depth.
o Meters the seeds at a predetermined seed rate.
o Drops seeds into the opened furrows and
o Covers the seeds and compacts the soil around them.
 Country seed drill
o The simple seed drill otherwise known as ‘Gurru’ has a wooden bowl with holes at the
bottom Seed tubes are inserted in the holes. T
o he other end of seed tubes are connected to the country plough bottom like furrow
openers. Uniformity of seed distribution in this drill depends mainly on the skill of the
operator dropping the seeds in the bowl.
 o A three bottom gorru can cover one hectare in a day.
 Seed Planter
o Seed planters are meant for sowing the seeds in rows with specific seed to seed spacings.
All the components of a seed planter are the same as in the case of seed drill except the
seed metering device.
o The seed planters are suitable for till dropping, planting and check row planting. A seed
planter has a seed hopper for each row.

INTERCULTURE EQUIPMENT

 Interculturing is described as breaking the upper surface of the soil, uprooting the weeds, aerating
the soil, thereby promoting the activities of soil microorganisms and making a good mulch so that
the soil moisture is conserved. Control of weeds has always been one of the greatest time and
labour consuming operations in the production of crops.
 In India Rs. 4200 million is being lost every year due to the competitive weeds in the produce of
major agricultural crops (Natarajan,1987). In an average the cost of weeding comes to Rs. 945/ha,
out of the total cost of cultivation of Rs. 3000/ha for agricultural crops.

WEEDERS

 There are several types of weeders available in India.

o Paddy weeder
o Dryland weeder
o Cono weeder
o Power weeder

Manual Power
weeder weeder

Dryland weeder

 It has a long handle, a roller with star shaped projections and a scraper blade at the rear. The
weeder is suitable for weeding in groundnut, vegetable and similar crops.The weeder is capable of
 weeding 0.05 hectare in a day of 8 hours. The rear blade cuts the roots of the weeds and leaves
behind a soil mulch.
 The weeder is operated by one person. For best results, the operator has to give push – pull
movements to the handle and walk behind in the field. Dry land weeder is used for removing
weeds in between line sown crops in rainfed and garden lands.
 It is suitable for removing shallow rooted weeds in the lands not too thickly infested with weeds.
The weeding blade can be adjusted to the desired angle and depth. The operator need not kneel
not bend down while weeding. He does weeding operation in standing position.

MINI POWER TILLER FOR WEEDING AND INTERCULTURE

 Weed control is one of the most expensive operations in Indian crop production. Majority of
Indian farmers use hand-hoe for weeding which requires 40 – 60 manual labourers for one
hectare.
 An engine operated mini power-tiller has been developed for weeding and interculture in between
rows of crops such as maize, tapioca, cotton, pulses, sugarcane and grape.
 Two types of weeding tools viz.,
o Sweep blade and
o Rotary blades have been developed as attachments to the mini power – tiller.

ROW - CROP CULTIVATORS

 The main reason for row-crop cultivation is to promote plant growth by eradicating weeds.
Additional functions in irrigated areas are to prepare the land for the application of irrigation
water and to improve water penetration.
 In certain crops, preparation of the field for harvesting operation is an important consideration.

GUNTAKA

 Guntaka is an improved type of blade harrow.

 Junior hoe is a bullock drawn cultivator.
 The spacing between the tynes is adjustable.

PLANT PROTECTION EQUIPMENT

 On an average, 20 % of the total cost of cultivation goes to plant production activities for
majority of the food crop production.
 In India, the total annual losses in crop production has been estimated to be in the order of
Rs. 60,000 million.
 The percentage contribution of pests in the above loss is as follows:

Weeds 33%
Diseases 26%
Insects 20%
Rodents 8%
Birds 2%

 Fodder crops do not generally report pest infestation in the Country. However, pests and
diseases in could be noticed in the case of fodder seed production and storage. This would
make spraying and dusting necessary at times.
 Different types of sprayers and dusters are used for spraying insecticides, pesticides,
fungicides and herbicides. Control of these pests is accomplished by chemical and non-
chemical means.
 Combinations of these is known as Integrated Pest Management(IPM). IPM strives for pest
control using biological, chemical and physical means that are effective, economical and
environmentally friendly.

TYPES OF SPRAYERS

 Hand atomizer
 Compression sprayer
 Bucket sprayer
 Rocker sprayer
 Lever operated backpack sprayer or knapsack sprayer
 Power knapsack sprayer or mist blower cum duster
 Tree sprayer
 Tractor mounted boom sprayer
 Air craft sprayer

HAND ATOMIZER AND COMPRESSION SPRAYER

 Hand atomizer
o This is the smallest type of manually operated sprayer used in kitchen gardens. In this
sprayer air is compressed by means of a hand pump.
o The compressed air is allowed to pass over the end of a tube. The other end of the tube is
dipped into the spray liquid kept inside a tank. The outgoing air sucks the spray liquid
from the tank through the tube and blows out off the nozzle.
 Compression sprayer
o An air pump is mounted on the top of an air tight tank which is filled with spray liquid
upto ¾ level.
o The air pump builds up pressure in the space above the liquid. When the nozzle is
opened, spray liquid is forced out through the nozzle opening by the compressed air.
o Frequent pumping has to be done to maintain pressure inside the tank. Pressure is
developed by pumping air into the tank and the spray is forced out under pressure.
Frequent pumping is to be done to maintain pressure.

BUCKET SPRAYER AND ROCKER SPRAYER

 Bucket sprayer
o It consists of a pump kept into a bucket containing spray solution. The pump delivers the
spray liquid through a spray lance. It consists of a single or double acting pump which is
placed in a bucket containing spray solution. It is light and easily handled and develops
sufficient pressure to spray small gardens and low trees.
 Rocker sprayer
o It consists of a plunger pump, spherical air pressure chamber, handle, spray lance and
hose . Air chamber helps to have uniform spray. The lance has nozzle and cut off value. By
using the sprayer using two persons, 1.5 ha can be sprayed in a day. This is a high volume
sprayer i.e., it sprays more than 400 litre/ha.
o The suction hose and delivery hose are fitted to the pump barrel. Spray gun is connected
to the outlet opening of the pump through a plastic hose. This sprayer needs two
operators, one to operate or rock the handle and another to hold the lance and spray. It is
suitable for spraying on medium height trees like mango.
 KNAPSACK SPRAYERS

 Lever operated backpack sprayer or knapsack sprayer

o The sprayer is taken on the back of the operator. It consists of a spray tank of 10 litre
capacity, pump, handle, air chamber fitted inside the tank, delivery line and nozzle. The
operator operates the handle by left hand and sprays by right hand. The spray application
rate by the sprayer is 225 l/ha.
o It is provided with a pump and a large air chamber mounted in a tank. The handle of the
pump extending under the arm of the operator makes it possible to pump with one hand
and spray with the other hand.
o It is useful for spraying small trees, shrubs and row crops. A uniform pressure can be
maintained by keeping the pump in operation. One man can spray 0.4 ha in a day.

 Power knapsack sprayer or mist blower cum duster

o Power knapsack sprayer or mist blower cum duster is the most commonly used sprayer in
India. It consists of an engine, petrol tank, spray tank, carburetor, spark plug, blower,
spray boom, cut off valve, throttle and frame. The engine used is 1.2 to 1.7 hp petrol
engine.
 o The engine rotates at a maximum speed of 6000 rev/min. The engine drives the blower.
The spray liquid is made to drop from the end of a spray tube. The blower blows air at a
speed of 500 km/h. This blast of air breaks the spray liquid into spray droplets. The spray
tank is of 10 L capacity.
o Power sprayer comes under low volume spraying (150 l/ha spray application rate). Power
knapsack sprayer is available per tank basis on custom hiring.

TREE SPRAYER AND TRACTOR MOUNTED BOOM SPRAYER

 Tree sprayer
o Engine operated portable sprayers are used for spraying tree crops. The sprayer is carried
by four labourers. A blower is attached to the engine.
o The blast of air carries upwards the spray liquid up to 9 m height.
 Tractor mounted boom sprayer
o A tractor mounted boom sprayer consists of pump, tank, agitator, pressure regulator,
boom, nozzles, pressure gauge, filters.
o The spray tanks are mounted on the side or front of the tractor.
 AIR CRAFT SPRAYER

Air craft spraying is meant for larger farms. Areal spraying is affected by wind. Atomising devices use one
or more of the following principles to break the liquid into droplets.

 Pressure or hydraulic atomization, which depends on liquid pressure to supply the atomizing
energy.
 Pneumatic or gas atomisation in which the liquid is broken up by a high velocity air stream.
 Centrifugal atomisation in which the liquid is fed under low pressure at the centre of a high speed
rotating disc or cup. The liquid is broken up by centrifugal force as the liquid leave the periphery
of the disc or cup.

TYPES OF SPRAYING

 Based on the spray application rate there are three types of spraying

o High volume spraying: More than 150 l/ha of spray liquid is applied. This technique is
biologically effective but economically expensive, time as well labour consuming. With
high volume spraying the drops are larger, complete coverage of crop canopy is achieved,
excessive run off occur and less danger of damage from spray drifting to the neighbouring
crops. Insecticides, fungicides and herbicides are sprayed by this technique. Lever
operated knapsack sprayer and tractor mounted boom sprayer come under this category.
o Low volume (LV) spraying: Spray volume ranges from 10 to 150 l/ha. Sprayers designed
for low volume work is relatively light and cheap, require less amount of water, have high
rate of work and low labour cost. Insecticides and fungicides are sprayed by this method.
Motorised knapsack sprayer and aircraft sprayer are low volume sprayers.
o Ultra low volume (ULV) spraying: Less than 10 l/ha is applied. The chemical is undiluted
or in more concentrated form.