Bservation of A Commonplace Phenomenon,: Theory of Vortex Sound

THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOLUME 36, NUMBER 1 JANUARY 1964
Theory of Vortex Sound*
ALLANPOWELLLL
l
Aerosonics
Laboratory,Departmentof Engineering,Universityof California, Los Angeles,California90024
(Received24 September1963)
Physicalargumentsare followedby mathematicaldevelopments to showhow aerodynamicsoundis gener-

ated as a result of the movementof vortices,or of vorticity, in an unsteadyfluid flow. Changesin circulation
or area of a vortex ring give riseto a dipolesoundfield, the former beingillustrated by oscillatingflow about
a fixedsphere,and the latter by a simplemodelfor the aeoliantone attributable to the stretchingof vortex
rings. Becausein a free flow there can be no changeof the total vortex strength (circulationtimes area),
there is no net dipolestrength,but eachmovingelementof vorticity still causesa localdipolelikeflow; each
element of moving vorticity acts with someequal and oppositemovement elsewherein the flow so that
together they form an oblique quadrupole,although the total effect must be reducible to an assemblyof
lateral quadrupoles.A cardinalresult is that the vorticity in a slightly compressible fluid can be considered
to induce the whole flow field, both the hydrodynamicpart and the acousticpart. With vorticity taken as
the commonbasis,a slightly compressible flow is comparedto the corresponding incompressible one, which
may be used in the evaluation of the sound-radiationformula. The theory is particularly well-structured
to estimatesoundfrom flowsdescribedin terms of vorticity: the soundfield is determinedfor two rectilinear
vorticesspinningaboutan axisbetweenthem, and its basisfor similarity methodsis demonstratedin applica-
tion to free shearflow and jet flow.
INTRODUCTION
problems. One aspect of special importance soon
appeared;namely, that it becamepossibleto take the
BSERVATION ofatafirst,
perhaps casually commonplace phenomenon,
sometimesleads to a broad and very fundamentalview that vorticityinduces
new line of inquiry. It is commonlyacceptedthat it is thewholeflowfield, of whichthedistantacoustic field is an
the eddyingof a flow that producessound;but while integralpart. Here then is the crux of the matter' when
watching a locomotive blow off steam soon after the fluid is compressible,
the very actionthat causesthe
becominginterestedin the subjectof aerodynamically formation of vortices, or eddies, also simultaneously
generatednoise,the author was struckby the fact that givesriseto the soundradiation.
eachtime that a particularlylarge eddy formedon the The subjectof soundgenerationby a fluid flow is a
edgeof the turbulent steamjet he hearda very definite somewhat treacherous one, particularly so far as
impulsivesound.This focussed attentionupon the idea apparentlyplausiblephysicalargumentsare concerned:
that the origin of aerodynamicsound might be at- Rigorousmathematicalsupportis essentialso that one
tributedto the process offormationof eddies,or vortices. may be sure of the ultimate effect of all the approxi-
The theory described here was developed along mationsinvolved. A hint of the compatibility between
physical lines, particular attention being paid to the presenttheory and Lighthill's is evident from the
relativelysimpleflows,sincesubsequent applicationto sourceterm of Lighthill's theory being the nonlinear
more-complexsituations then posesno fundamental onerisingfrom the momentumequation,the very term
associatedwith vorticity transferand with the transfer
of turbulent energyfrom one wavenumberto another,
* This paper includesmaterial presentedat the Philadelphia or, we can say, with eddy formation.
Meeting of the AcousticalSociety ['seeJ. Acoust. Soc. Am. 33, Part I concernsaerodynamicsound of the dipole
849(A) (1961)] and at the Cincinnati meeting ['seeJ. Acoust.
Soc. Am. 33, 1672(A) (1961)], and is a revision of "Vortex type, associatedwith changein strength of vortices.
Sound," Univ. Calif., Los Angeles,Dept. Eng. Rept. 61-70 Section1 briefly outlinesthe more important relevant
(Oct. 1961).
• Also,Consultant,DouglasAircraft Company,SantaMonica, historicalaspects,terminatingwith the classicalresultof
Calif. incompressiblehydrodynamicsthat a vortex ring
177
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178 ALAN POWELL
behaveslike a dipolesheet.This is extendedby physical be reducibleto a set of only lateral ones.It is inferred
argumentsto yield the soundradiation in a slightly that soundradiation must result in a spread of the
compressible flow, in Sec.2, while Sec.3 is devotedto a vortex motion. The theory is applied in Sec. 7 to
rigorousdevelopmentfrom the equationsof motion. determinethe soundradiation from spinningvortices,
Section4 containsapplications:the soundproducedby and in conjunctionwith the vorticity transporttheory
an oscillatingsphere,by a flowoscillatingabouta fixed of turbulent mixing is applied to shear and jet flow
sphere,and by aeoliantones,for whicha very simple to yield similarity relationshipsfor the sound-power-
model is given (the edgetonehaving been treated generation distribution and power spectra. In the
previously). concludingsection, Sec. 8, it is noted how existing
Part II concernsthe soundof free aerodynamicflows, methodsmay be usedto extendthe rangeof usefulness
which is shown to be of the quadrupoletype, by of the methodto flowsof high-convective Mach number,
physicalargumentin Sec.5 andby formaldevelopment and how, while providinga simplephysicalpicture of
in Sec. 6. The "three-sound-pressures theorem" is the generationmechanism,the method is especially
derivedfor the theory, showingthat the assemblyof suitedto estimatingthe soundfrom flowsthat can be
apparentlygenerallyobliquequadrupoles must always describedin terms of the vorticity.
Part I: SOUND FROM CHANGES IN VORTEX STRENGTH

1. FOUNDATIONS
describedby B•nardTMand by Mallock,5 whichis now
Perhapsthe most-familiareddy pattern of all is that often referred to as a K•rm•n vortex street (Wirbel-
in the wakebehinda cylinder,depictedin the schematic strasse),in recognitionof the study concerningthe
Fig. 1, while the whistling of telephonewires is a stabilityof a givenpattern of point vortices.
ø.7
very familiar sound of aerodynamicorigin. As we Rayleigh had noted that the soundof aeolian tones
shall see, a point of view closely associatedwith has its maxima perpendicularto the wind direction,s
pioneeringresearchesin aerodynamicand acoustic just as Stowelland Deming were to find later for their
theory showshow they are intimately and directly rotating rod.øHe had alsonoted that the wire neednot
connected. vibrate,•øbut if it did, then it did soperpendicularly to
The aeoliantone,i.e., the soundgeneratedby a wire the wind direction,•0 and that "it was evident all along
heldin a wind,• attractedscientific interestlongbefore that the origin of vibration was connectedwith the
the eddying flow itself did, Strouhal'sname being instability of the vortex sheetswhich tend to form on
perpetuatedasa resultof hisquantitativeobservations the two sidesof the obstacle. "•øWe nowrecognize that
of the frequency. •' Rayleigh consideredthat the non- his observations imply that the directionof the fluc-
dimensional frequency,i.e., the Strouhalnumber,could tuatingfluid forceon the wire coincides with that of the
most-intense sound.
beexpressed asa functionof onlythe Reynoldsnumber
of theflow,'Sf,asappears probable, the compressibility A cornerstone of airfoil theorywaslaid by Kutta and
of thefluidmaybeleft outofaccount, "aa viewaccepted Joukowsky n when they explainedthe origin of the
ever sincefor flowsof smallMach numberand upon aerodynamicforce F, which acts on a cylinder of
which all of the relevant aerodynamic-sound studies lengthb in the directionnormalto the windvelocityU,
have beenbased.However,it was apparentlyleft to in termsof the circulationr aboutthe cylinder
B•nard to explicitly connectStrouhal'stone with the F=parÛb, (1)
eddy pattern of the wake,4 whichhad been "clearly
where pa is the fluid density. The constancyof the
circulationaboutthe circuitsmovingwith the flowhad
beendiscussed at lengthby Kelvin1•'and this implied
4 H. Bdnard,Cornpt.Rend. 147, 970 (1908).
• A. Mallock,Proc.Roy.Soc.(London)A84,490 (1910).
6T. von K•rm•n, Nachr.Akad.Wiss.GSttingen, Math.-Phys.
K1. 5, 547 (1912).
Fro. 1. Illustration of the alternateeddy pattern behinda •T. yonK•rm6nandH. Rubach,Phys.Z. 13,49 (1912).
cylinderwith its corresponding alternatingcirculation,which is s Lord Rayleigh,Phil. Mag. 7, 161 (1879).
to be associatedwith the generationof the aeolian tone. • E. Z. Stowell
andA. F. Deming,"VortexNoisefromRotating
Rods,"Natl.Advisory Comm.Aeron. Tech.NoteNo.519(1935).
•0LordRayleigh, Phil.Mag.29,433(1915);7, 149(1879).
• E.G. Richardsonattributed the phrase "aeolian tone" to n Anaccessibleaccountofthiswork,datingfrom1902,isgiven
AthanasiusKirkner, 1620.It formerlyappliedto a wire that was inAerodynamic Theory,
W. F. Durand,editor(DurandReprinting
allowedto vibrateunderthe influenceof the aerodynamic
forces; Committee,1943), Vol. 1, Div. D by R. Giacomelliand E.
modern usage is more in referenceto wires that are constrained Pistolesi;
seealsoSelectedWorkson WingTheoryof SergiA.
from vibration.
Chaplygin, transl. by GarbellResearchFoundation(San
• V. Strouhal,Wied. Ann. Phys.5, 216 (1878). Francisco,
1956).Chaplyginwasa pupilofJoukowsky.
aLord Rayleigh, Theoryof Sound (Dover Publications,Inc., 1.o
SeeH. Lamb,Hydrodynamics (DoverPublications,
Inc.,
New York, 1945), 2nd ed. NewYork, 1945),6th ed.,Chap.2.
THEORY OF VORTEX SOUND i79
that the eddy cast off the wake must be ac-

companiedby a changeof circulationof the opposite
magnitude about the cylinder. Thus, as eddies of
alternating circulation, --21' and d-21', are cast off
from the cylinder, the circulation about the latter
alternates between +1' and --1', with a resultant
alternatingfluid forcenormal to the wind direction,in
Fro. 3. Streamlinesdue to a rectangularvortex ring of great
line with Rayleigh's observationand which would be length normal to the paperplane,left, are identical to those of a
given by Eq. (1) if the eddiesin the wake were far correspondingvortex sheet,right. Thus, the streamlinesof Fig. 2
enoughdownstream. may also be consideredto be generatedby either a small dipole
sheetor a smallvortexring at the centerof the sphericalsurface.
Rayleigh•3 and Lamb•4 had discussedthe acoustic
dipole,and had shownhow a dipolefield is generated
by the fore-and-aftdisplacementof fluid causedby the an equal but oppositeforceactingdirectlyon an other-
vibration of a rigid sphereor cylinder (see Fig. 2), wise still fluid. Though not explicitly stated, Yudin's
calculatingthe fluid forcesthat are to be associated suppositionis also the basisof the analysisof Etkin,
with the soundfield with its maxima in the plane of Korbacher,and Keefe, in which it is supposedthat the
vibration. This is of significance,obvious now, in cylindercouldbe effectivelyreplacedby fluid subjected
aeolian-tonetheory; temporarily,we leave our present to a body force so as to prevent its motion,•7 this body
line of developmentto follow the one hinging directly force then being supposedto generatesoundjust as it
on it.
would if it were free to act on a stationary acoustic
medium.
Yudin's Supposition With encouragementfrom Lighthill's theory,•s,•øa
formulation in terms of a surface-dipoledistribution
Yudin seizedupon the overt similaritiesbetweenthe
was suggested,the local-dipolestrengthbeing directly
aeoliantoneand the acousticdipole.He felt "obligedto
associatedwith the total fluid stress (i.e., including
supposethat the origin of vortex noise lies in the
variable forceactingon themediumduring the flow past viscousstress)actingon the surface.
soLater, Curle
showedhow this resultfollowsformallyfrom Lighthill's
a body."•5 He did not explicitly discussthe fluctuating
theory2•;thus, Yudin's suppositionnow has a firm and
lift force,but inferred that the pressureon the cylinder
unambiguoustheoreticalbasis.22
must be dependenton the strength(circulation)of the
eddiesin the wake. He went on to deduce, correctly,
that the soundpower would vary with the sixth power ExperimentalVerification
of the bind velocity, his dimensionalanalysis even So far as making accurate estimates of the fluid
includingthe casewhen the forceis "incoherent"along force in relation to the soundfield attributed to it, the
the length of the cylinder.Blokhintsevlater developed aeolian tone itself still presents severe difficulties,
a more sophisticatedstatementof the result,•6 making althoughPhillips found that an estimateof the normal
use of Kirchhoff's surface-integralformula, but this force, thought to be good to a factor of two or so,
treatment really also restson Yudin's supposition.We resultedin calculatedsoundpressuresas consistentas
may now state this as follows: If a relatively small, could be expectedwith measurement2a
fixed,and rigid body in a movingfluid sustainsa certain The mechanismby which the soundof edgetonesis
fluid force,then the resultantsoundradiationrelatively generatedrests on an exactly similar fundamental
far from it is the same as that which would result from
basis,but it happensto be very well suited for direct
FiG. 2. Instantaneous stream- •7B. Etkin, G. K. Korbacher, and R. T. Keefe, "Acoustic

lines of the hydrodynamicfield Radiation from a StationaryCylinder in a Fluid Stream (Aeolian
of a dipole,representedasbeing Tones)," Univ. Toronto Inst. Aerophys.Rept. No. 39 (1956);
due to the displacements seealsoJ. Acoust.Soc.Am. 29, 30 (1957). Sinceonly the point-
causedby oscillation of a rigid sourceapproximationis considered,there is no advantage in
sphere.The far sound field, in distributing the fluid force over the cylinder.
the compressible flow case,has • M. J. Lighthill, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London)A211, 564 (1952).
its maxima in the direction of •0M. J. Lighthill, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A222, 1 (1954);
the axis of oscillation. seefootnoteon p. 2.
•0Alan Powell, "Thoughtson BoundaryLayer Noise," Aeron.
Res. Council,London,Rept. 16727 (Apr. 1954).
• N. Curle, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A231, 505 (1955).
•aReference3, p. 247. • Yudin's suppositionwas plausible,but equally sowould have
•4Reference 12, p. 510. beenonethat dependson the bodybeingvibratedin the stationary
•5E. ¾. ¾udin, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz. 14, 561 (1945); transl. issuedas acousticmedium so that the force experiencedby it is the same.
"On the Vortex Soundof Rotating Rods," Natl. AdvisoryComm. Superficiallysimilar,theseplausiblereasonings lead to important
Aeron.Tech. Mem. No. 1136 (1947); presentauthor'sitalics. quantitative differencesdue to the inertia of the displacedfluid
•6D. I. Blokhintsev (1946), "Acousticsof a Nonhomogeneous not beingincludedin the latter case,resultingin a spuriousfactor
Moving Medium," (transl.) Natl. Advisory Comm. Aeron. Tech. of 3 in the sound-pressure formula.
Mem. No. 1399 (1956). •aO. M. Phillips, J. Fluid Mech. 1, 607 (1956).
180 ALAN POWELL
simultaneousmeasurementof the fluid force acting on same shapeas the vortex loop."s The parallel is illus-
the edgeand of the soundfield. Careful measurements, trated in Fig. 3; it may be provenas follows:
with discrepancies of only a few percent at low Mach The velocity u at any point x in the first situation is
numbersover an appreciablespeedrange, disclosean given by
almost-perfectdipole directionality,with the intensity
related to the fluid force accordingto the theory."4
There is no room for doubt about the validity of the
theoretical results? '5
u(x)=---- -•^dl(y)
=---- ^dl(y),
(2)
This is the casewhen the cylinder is small as com- wherer= x--y and I is measured
alongthe vortexin
paredto a wavelength.But, if the surfaceis plane,asit the directionof r. The subscriptin Vu is to remove
becomeslargethe dipoleeffectdue to pressurevanishes, ambiguityin its operationon r-•. We usea variation on
the only dipoleeffectremainingbeingthat dueto shear Kelvin'stransformation(Stoke'stheorem),introducing
stresses.,.5,20 the surfaces surroundedby the loop of r, and follow
this by the ordinary expansionof the triple-vector
Needfor an AlternativeModel product, to find that
Although Yudin's suppositionhas been thoroughly
vindicated both theoreticallyand experimentally,it rf
u(x)4•' (!)
really tellsextraordinarilylittle of the actualmechanism
by whichthe soundis produced,for the aforementioned
fluctuatingforceis clearlyof the natureof an equivalent =-- (y),
soundsource.The fluctuatingforce itself, in the real
situation, cannot possiblygenerate acousticenergy,
1
sinceit acts at a rigid surface? 'ø.•'7
The acousticenergy
can only comefrom the movingfluid itself, presumably (3)
from that part most intimately associatedwith the
eddy shedding. We, therefore, now return to our Since we may put u(x)=-Vx½ in regionsof zero
originalline of development,for this leadsto a direct vorticity,we recognize herethe velocitypotentialq•of a
connection between the fluid motion and the sound
dipolesurfacedistribution,of strengthP, and directed
that it generates. with the normal g, as stated.
If the point of observationx is far off in terms of the
Equivalence of Vortex Rings and loop size, we can ignore the variation in r over the
Dipole Sheets surfaceand write r•'x, so that Eq. (3) simplifiesto
The bridge betweenthe classicalaerodynamicand u(x) = Vx(1/4,r)D. V,(1/x), (4)
acousticaspectsis that the incompressible velocityfield
inducedby a closedvortex loop, the vortex having a providedthat the originis in the immediateneighbor-
constantcirculationr, is exactly the sameas that due hoodof the loop.In this expression, D is the strength
to a uniformdipoledistribution,of strengthF per unit of the equivalent point dipole (which is also equal to
area, over any surfacewhosesingleboundary has the y•Z,in thelimit,where y isthedistance between equal
andopposite
monopoles
of volumeflowrate1?),and
,.4Alan Powell,J. Acoust.Soc.Am. 33, 395 (1961); for details,
seeH. H. Unfried, M. S. thesisin Eng., Univ. Calif., Los Angeles
(1960).
,.5The early conceptualdoubtsexpressed in Ref. 20 are totally
resolvedby the experimentalwork of Ref. 24 and the theory of
u=rfas(y)=rs.(x)
Ref. 26 and of J. E. Ffowcs Williams, "Thoughtson the Problem
of Aerodynamic NoiseSources nearSolidBoundaries," presented This classical
resultthat the dipolestrengthis the same
at an AGARD MeetingBrussels, 1-5 April 1963[-AGARDRept. as the vortexstrength(circulationtimesarea)is a key
(to be published)I, their resurrectionby W. C. Meecham,J. to the present theory. We also note that the total
Acoust.Soc. Am. 35, 116 and 931 (1961) notwithstanding,as
explainedby Alan Powell,J. Acoust.Soc.Am. 35, 731 (1961) and momentumof the fluidM is givenby
J. E. Ffowcs Williams, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 35, 930 (1961). The
vanishingof the pressuredipolesoundfor an infinite plane is M=paD=paFs. (6)
easily seen by using the image system of the vortex motions
discussed subsequently.Williams' report estimatesthe diameter 2. DIPOLE RADIATION FROM CHANGES IN
of a flat plate at which the pressure-dipole
contributionbecomes VORTEX-RING STRENGTH
negligiblysmall; his value of 200 wavelengths is unexpectedly
large.
•6Alan Powell,J. Acoust.Soc.Am. 32, 982 (1960). The identificationof the flow inducedby a vortex
•7Alan Powell, "Theory and Experiment in Aerodynamic loop with a dipolefield is for incompressible
flow. If,
Noise, with a Critique of Research on Jet Flows and Their instead,we take the flow to be slightlycompressible,
Relationshipto Sound," SecondSymposiumon Naval Hydro-
dynamics, 1958, ACR-38, Office of Naval Research--U. S.
Departmentof the Navy, Washington,D.C. (unpublished). ,.8E.g., Ref. 12, p. 212.
THEORY OF VORTEX SOUND 181
but with almostexactlythe samevelocityfield in the In the first instance,we have

neighborhood of the source(i.e.,the vortexloop),then u (x)= (•/4•-xc2)s•d•r/dtq *, (•0)
we makethe assertion(provedin Sec.3) that in place
of Eq. (4) we havefor compressible flow for an individual vortex. If instead of discrete vortices
there is a continuousdistribution of vorticity over the
surfaceconcerned, Eq. (10) canberewrittenin the form
u(x) . (7)
4,r 4•r of an integral over vorticesof elementarystrength,
equalto the localsheartimesthe elementarylength.
Here, the time-delay operator 1' fully accountsfor In the secondinstance,taking the circulationP to be
the changesbrought about by allowingthe fluid to constant,we needan expression for dSs•/dF,whichis
have compressibility.
It is definedby easilyfound: Let eachpart of the vortex loop move
with local velocity u, so after a short time bt each
D (t) 1'-- D (t)* = D (t--•'/½a). (8) element al will cause an increase in area as=uâl.at
(seeFig. 4). Then, we have
If D(t) is sinusoidal,D(t)=Doe i"'t,then 1' reducesto
e-ilar,
Althoughthis stepmay appearboth noveland large,
it is, in fact, like a standardoneusedin acoustical-source
• Fd-•d
d(r(u^dl)•l*
u(x)=4,rxc/L
theory. It may be justifiedby noting that the stream-
lines of Fig. 2 are valid also for the point dipole in
4•rXCa
2
(rû)a.
compressible flow [-Eq. (7)• solongas the wavelength
is largeenoughas comparedto the sizeof the spherical
surface. The streamlines within the surface are the same If, instead of idealisticvortex lines in the flow, we
as if the fluid within wereincompressible,
and so they considera distributionof the vorticity/: in the fluid, the
must be the same as those due to a vortex ring at the integralnaturallyextendsoverthe wholevolumewhere
center. The motion at the surfacebeing the same, the t•is nonzero.Then, on introducingE= t•û, we have
fieldsoutsidethe surfacemust alsobe the same.so(The
exact theoryshowsthat theseprovisionsare too severe' u(x)= -- ? 'dV(y)*, (12)
the vortex loop has to be only small as comparedto 4•-•C
a• x
the wavelength.)
For simplicity,we now temporarilyrestrictattention where the prime indicatespartial differentiationwith
to the radiatedfar soundfield.The velocityperturbation respectto time. We seethat the soundradiationoccurs
because the acceleration of a vortex element in a
in it is foundimmediatelyby expandingEq. (7) out
and retainingonly the term in r-•---•x-•' direction normal to its axis causesa local fluctuating
dipolelikeflow,assuggested in Fig. 4. Thus,for example,
change in the rate of stretchingof a planering generates
u(x) = - (rs)3 , a dipolefar fieldwith the soundmaximanormalto that
4•-ca• Ot•
plane.
= * F(rs.)l* (9)
wheres•= s cos(•s).
Thus, the farfield perturbation is proportional to
d•(I's•)/dt•, i.e., to the time differentialof the rate of
changeof the vortex strength(circulationtimesarea) Fro. 4. Moving at velocity u through time at, a vortex element
as seenfrom the point of observationx; becauseof al actslike an elementaryvortex ring of strengthr,s= r (nat)^
Eq. (6), it is alsoproportionalto the time differential Added to the originalvortexring and neighboringelements,three
sidesof the elementcancel,leavingonly the elementral in the new
of the rate of changeof the fluid momentum in the position.
direction 3.
A vortex in the fluid moves with the local-fluid
The physical-implication
aspectsof Eq. (9)may be
revealedbest by first consideringthe caseof constant velocityu(y). On the otherhand, the circulationabout
area s and then of constant circulation P. a fixed cylinder can be consideredto behave like a
vortexexceptthat it is boundto the cylinder,not being
,.0This suggeststhe matching of an acousticfield at a boundary
free to drift with the flow? Thus, we speakof free and
enclosingan incompressibleflow field; see (a) Alan Powell, boundvortices,and the vortexloopjust considered may
"Mechanisms of Aerodynamic Sound Production," presented at
an AGARD meeting, Brussels,1-5 April 1963 [AGARD Rept. •0This doesnot generallymean that a bound vortex shouldbe
(to be published)•, and, for details of the method, (b) Alan consideredto be motionless,sinceits effective center is somewhat
Powell,J. Acoust.Soc.Am. 35, 1133(1963). variable within the cylinder boundary.
182 ALAN PO WE L L
be partly boundand partly free.In fact, for thereto be The exact equationof continuity,in the absenceof
any radiationof dipolecharacterfrom a vortex ring sourcesof matter, is
of givencirculationr, requiringa changeof areaof the
vortexloop,part of the vortexring must be bound. Op/Ot+v. (pu)=0,
or
Sincesoundradiationto distantpointsis causedby
changesin vortex strength, vortexsoundis a very Op/Ogq-(U' V)p-•-pV'U= 0. (18)
appropriatename for such radiation. In reality, of The exact equationof motion for an inviscidfluid,
course,line vorticesdo not occur;instead,the vorticity in the absenceof impressed forces,is
occupiesa finite volume,and it is easilyappreciated
that the foregoingargumentsmay be appliedto thin Ou/Otq-(u. V)u-t-(1/p)Vp--0, (19)
tubesof constantcirculationdrawn in the flow, their or, by virtue of Eq. (15),
sum being equivalent to some line vortex. The term
vortex sound is also meant to refer to this latter case of Ou/Ot+g+ V«u"+ (1/p)Vp= 0. (20)
distributed,finite, vorticity.
This can be put in anotherform by multiplyingEq.
(19) by • and Eq. (17) by u and adding:
Effect of Moving Surfaces
O(pu)/Ot+I7. (,ouu)+17p=0. (21)
In the foregoingsectiondealingwith changingvor-
ticity at a surface,no accountwas taken of possible The fluid may be gasor liquid. The actionthroughout
movementof the surfacenormal to itself or, from the is assumed to beisentropic,soanypressure changemust
point of view of generaltheory, of the movementsof be accompanied by a densitychangerelatedto it by the
fluid acrosssomesurfacedrawnin the flow. Assuming squareof the adiabatic soundspeed.Then, we have,
suchmovementsto be small, the effectcan be wholly for example,
represented by a surfacedistributionof monopoles, so
that the corresponding velocityperturbationfar away Vp= 17E62(p--Pa)•,
r•...,½a
217p.
(22)
is given by
Here,cais the speedof soundin the ambientatmosphere.
u(x)= u,•'dS(y)*, (13) The approximationinvolvedin Eq. (22) can be easily
4rrXCa
justifieda posterJori
if sodesired.
where u•=u.•, • being the outwards normal to the
closed surface S. Differential Equations in Terms of Pressure
If there is zero total flow of fluid out of the closed
Here, we work in termsof the pressure(or density)
surfaceS, the valueof this integralis zero.In this event,
and desireto obtain the inhomogeneous waveequation,
the dipoleapproximationmust be used:
the right-handsideof whichis to be interpretedas the
sourcestrength,just as Rayleigh did in his pioneering
u(x)= - yxu,,"dS(y)*, (14) analysisof soundscatteringand as Lighthill did in the
4rrXCa2 caseof aerodynamic-noise generation.Write the wave
operatoractingon the left-handside,and with the help
the dipolestrengthbeingmadeup of equalandopposite of Eq. (22) use the continuity equation, (17), to
monopoleelementsdistributed on S.3• transform the other side:
In the next section, these formulas are derived
rigorouslyfrom the equationsof motion. Following 172p_(1/Ca2)O2p/Ot2=V' 17pq-
V.O(pu)/Ot. (23)
this, in Sec.4, are applicationsof Eqs. (9), (11), and
(13), to which somereadersmay wish to proceed Expandthe last term and useEq. (20) to obtain
directly. [2"p= - 17-(pg+ 17«pl/t2-ut•p/0t-«l/t2Vp).(24)
3. FORMAL DEVELOPMENT
With a view to simplification,comparethe ordersof
Basic Equations magnitude of the various sourceterms, all of which
are subject to the single divergence operator. The
First, note two very usefulvector identities: density variations can be taken to be due to kinetic
(u. v)u- (V,,u),,u. compression only, so they are of order pa•(?',where•
is the Mach number,typically u/ca. The sourceterms
V^ (Vû)= 17(V.u)-- 172u. (16) then bear the ratios
All the mathematicaldevelopments

are basedon the 1:1: $•Jll;
2:•Jll;
2,
fundamental relationshipsconcerningcontinuity of
matter, motion,and soundspeed. where$ is the Strouhalnumber,typicallywL/u (L being
a typical length in the flow). Then, providedat least
E.g., seeRef. 29(b), Eqs. (28) and (29). one of the first two terms doesnot degeneratein the
final form of the solution,the last two terms can be

safelydroppedfor low-speedflowshaving $•lrQ<<land
•s<<l. The equationnowis in the form that we desire'
--•/,go+,goo
[-O(pu)/at+ vP-]•(l*lr)dS (y)
[2sp= _ V. (p•+ V«puS). (25)
Solution with Surfaces Present

-+-/• p•.V•(l*/r)dV(y)
o
The differentialequationis being interpretedas the

inhomogeneous wave equation,for which the terms on
(27)
--[-/•
V«puS' V•(I*/r)dV
o (y).
the right-hand side are prescribed;they then give the
strength of the si•nplesourcedistribution throughout By using the divergencetheorem, the last integral
alone becomes
the flow. They producethe particular integral to which
the complementaryfunctionmust be added,so that we
have
V'/•p (l*/r)']dV(y)
0
=--
p(x)4r 0•V' (pe+V«pu•)• dV (y)
--/v
«pu•Vy'
V•(l*/r)dV
o (y)
-+--- (VP)n dS(y)
4•r 0 -•-
'--/So+Soo
•p L_ (l*/x)']•dS (y)
'j;oP[V,(1')]
-[---
4•r -•- /S(y).(26)
+/v'-"•"•'(l*/r)dV(y (28)
o
The volume integrationrangesover all spacewhere the

integrand is not negligible.However, the contribution Note that the surface S00 between the flow and the
of the secondterm in the integrandis shownlater to be surroundingstationary acousticmedium can be chosen
negligible,so the volume must simply contain all the so that the acousticalrelationshipO(pu)/Ot•paOu/Ot
vorticity. The closedsurfaceSo lies entirely within the =- Vp applies;then, the termsinvolvingg, «pus and
flow and is the only surface that we have to consider V«pus on that surfaceare all negligible.The general
here,assincethe surfaceS2,providingclosureof V0 may solution,therefore,is
be placedat infinity and so contributesnothing, on the
usual basis that it can be taken beyond any point to
which any disturbanceshave propagated.The surface
S00,introducedshortly, separatesthe volume V0 from
the surroundingacousticmedium.
We now use the divergencetheorem to remove the
divergenceoperator in the volume integral. Thus, we
have
v[-V.
o(pg
+V«pu•')-]
(l*/r)dV
(y)
(29)
=/vV'[-(p•
+-su2X
o (1,/r)
]d
V(y) v•p )
The pressureperturbationis thus attributable to the

--/v(P•'-•-V«PU2)
'VY(i*/r)dV
(y)'
o
sum of four parts'
(1) A volumedistributionof dipoles,whosestrength

=/s (Pg-kV«PUS)'•(l*/r)dV(y)
o+ Soo
is proportionalto the vorticity motiong, as the physical
argument suggested,
(2) A volumedistributionof nondirectionalsources,
-½/v(Pg+V«puS)'
vx(l*/r)dV(y)'
o
of monopoleof strengthper unit volume proportional
to (1/caS)(Os/OF)«ous (whichcouldbe expressed as the
a•.A surfaceonly partly immersedin the flow may be treated by sum of three mutually perpendicular longitudinal
the method of Ref. 26. quadrupoles
of strengths 2).
.•pau
184 ALAN POWELL
(3) A surfacedistributionof dipolesover the solid Strouhalnumbermust be small enough.In the general
surfacein the flow, the strengthbeing proportionalto case,the methodsof hydrodynamicsmay be used to
the local Bernoullipressure(Bernoulli's"constant"). evaluatethe surfaceintegralfor any chosenflow model.
(4) A monopole(simplesource)distributionover The last term (30c), showshow the total flow across
that same surface due to its motion normal to itself. the boundary--i.e., the movement of the boundary
itself if it is impervious--generatessoundlike a mono-
pole in this approximationof long wavelength.If there
Farfield Approximation
is no net flow, the dipoleapproximation--namely,Eq.
With the origin placed somewherein V0, the condi- (14)--must be used;while if the surfaceis impervious
tion $•<<1 enablesthe most simple farfield approxi- and fixed, then un--0 and the term then vanishes.
mations to be made. The secondterm is of one higher Thoughof very differentform, the resultis consistent
order in •2; than is the first, and, sincewe are taking with Lighthill's theory in which the dipole sound is
•<<1, it is considerednegligible. Also, the relative expressed in termsof the stresses(which can often be
error incurred by taking the density to be constant well enoughrepresented by the pressure)at the surface,
is only of relative order•V'; this we do. Consequently, which,of course,in turn have to be determinedfor any
we may write, for the far field, given flow. The equivalencemay be shownby using
the equationof motion in the form Eq. (20), substi-
tuting for g in the precedingresult, and followingby
Ot o•dV(y)*
p(x)=4,rxc• (30a) using the divergencetheorem and observingthat the
total force applied to the fluid by the solid surfaces
must equal the rate of change of total momentum.
I 0•s(P-+-«Pau2)g•dS(y)*
4•-xc. Ot o (30b) The volume integral vanishes, and the remaining
surfaceintegralis then equal to the total forcereacted
by the solid surface. Thus, the experimental data
mentionedin Sec. 1 supportthe presenttheory just as
o.0fsundS(y)*.
(30c)
4•-x Ot o
well as they supportLighthill's theory.
4. INSTANCES OF DIPOLE RADIATION

The first term concernsthe motion of vorticity in the
volumeof the flow, the second,as we shallsee,concerns
Oscillating Sphere
vorticity at the boundariesof the flow.
With regard to the integrandof the secondterm, we Although the presentconceptshave been developed
find from Eq. (20) that with special reference to aerodynamicallygenerated
sound, we choose to illustrate how time-varying
vorticity at a boundary can be consideredto induce
p-+-«p,u
•=--p,
f (Ou/Ot-3-g).dy
(31)
sound,via the term (30b) or its moresimpleform, Eq.
(10), by applicationto the problemof the oscillating
in the incompressible approximation.The line integral rigid sphere,the classictreatmentof whichhasalready
lies on the surfaceSo, and both t• and u at the surface been mentioned in Sec. 1. Moving surfaces being
are parallelto it, sothat 2.dy=0. Hence,here involved, this problem consequentlydraws also upon
Eq. (14), the dipoleapproximation
to the term (29c).
The first term (29a), is zero here becausethe field has
p-+-
«p,u•
-pa
(d/dt)
f u.dy. (32)Let therigidsphereof radiusa (Fig.2) vibratesinus-
nonzerovorticity only at the surfaceof the sphere.
oidallywith smallamplitudeat velocityU= U0ei•t;the

Now, u is the magnitude of the total rate of shear at velocity componentof the surfacenormalto itself is Un
the rigid surface;we can thereforesay that this dipole -U cos(g/•).It is easyto showthattheincompressi-
distribution (30b), arises becauseof the changing bility condition requires that there be a velocity
distributionof vorticity at the surface.It is the generali- tangential to thesurfaceofmagnitude Us=«U sin(gO)
zationof Eq. (10). relative to the undisturbedfluid and lying in the local
The integrandof this secondterm is proportionalto plane of the surfaceand the axis of vibration U.
what may be called the local Bernoulli pressure The action of the spheremay be representedby a
(p-+-«p,u•')at thesurface.Forsteadyflow,theBernoulli vortex sheet,associatedwith the shearvelocity U8 at
pressureis constant,so the term obviouslythen is zero. the surface, together with a source distribution as-
It follows that under some circumstances the first term sociatedwith the normal velocity U• at the surface,
alone may be an acceptableapproximationif the flow both beingreckonedrelativeto a stationarycontrolsur-
varies slowly enough.i.e., quasisteadyfor which the faceSo.The formermay be picturedas beingmadeup
Bernoullipressureis unvarying.In other words,the of infinitesimal vortexringsof area ,ra sin
ß (nU)
AA and of
circulation
Usad(•). Equation(10)maybeput into gratingover a large sphere'
the appropriateform and the integrationcarriedout'
p_- 27r.4
( V b2/A4)•J]•c4
( U12-11-
Uv.2.-]l-
U82). (39)
- S cos(• O0)dr* Here, Vb is the volumeof the sphericalbody; the three

4rXCa2 dF velocity componentsmay not be all in phase. This
result is evidently easily generalizedfor nonsinusoidal
= •a•oo
•U
cos
(•0o)
fo
• 8XCa•
sina(• 0o)d(• [7o)*, time variations, and is valid for conveeredflows that
may be consideredto be "hydrodynamic,"by which is
mea•n_t that the velocity field may he oqtirnntodjust
(33) as if the soundspeedwere infinite, which requiresthat
6XCa2 •-- Uo/½a<<l and Yr•c<<l.
aa
The sound power is evidently proportional to the
There being no net flow acrossthe boundary, Eq. fourth power of the convectionvelocity and to the
(14) is the choicerather than Eq. (13). Putting y• secondpower of the amplitudeof the velocity fluctua-
=a cos(•O0) cos(•O0), wefindthecontribution tion. If these two independentvariables are taken to
be proportionalto eachother, as would be the casefor
:•a•oo•U
cos½0o)
fo
•
2XCa2
cosS (•/•o) sin(•0o)d(•0o)* dynamicallysimilarflows,then we find that the sound
intensityand powervary as the sixth powerof the flow
velocity and the secondpower of the volume of the
body. The sameis true for all small, nonlifting bodies,
(34) in the absenceof appreciableviscouseffects, except
3XCa2
that the value of the constantwould changesomewhat
On adding the two contributionstogether,we find from the abovevalue for the sphere.A point of interest
the farfield velocity perturbation' here is that the basic convected flow may have a
"frozen" pattern, in which caseit producesno sound
:M%• U ? 2•r2:•aa
U? whatsoever,even of quadrupoletype, until interaction
u(x) ..... , (35) with the fixed body occurs.
2XCa• XX•
where X=2•rCa/Wis the acousticwavelength, which Aeolian Tones

agreeswith the result of Rayleigh and Lamb.
A very simplemodel to elucidatethe generationof
Sphere in Oscillating Flow aeolian tones by the stretching of a vortex ring is
possibleif we assumethat flowconditions at the cylinder
There is the related casewhen the rigid sphereis can be taken to be two-dimensional.The steady flow
fixed,but the irrotational/lowingfluid in its immediate about a circular cylinder can be representedby a line
localityhasa smalloscillatoryvelocity-U=- U0ei•t. doublet placed along the cylinder axis so that the
In this case,the shear velocity at the surfaceis U, streamlinesof the mean/low then follow the prescribed
- (•)U sin(/•U0)sincethe flow componentU sin(•U0) circularboundaryshape(seeFig. 5). Now, the instan-
due to the mean flow has to be included. Hence, by taneousimage systemin the cylinder for a singlefree
takingadvantageof Eq. (34), we find that the farfield vortex -21' in the flow is a vortex of the samestrength
perturbationattributable to the changingvorticity is and oppositesign at the inversepoint of the circle,•4
given by togetherwith one also of the samestrength but of the
u (x)= -- (•a%•'U?/2xc•'). (36) samesignat the center (so as to maintain zero circu-
lation about the cylinder). But here, the latter is
If it is supposedthat the velocityfluctuationsarise cancelledbecausewe haveto imposecirculationopposite
due to a spatially periodic "hydrodynamic"flow of to that of the cast-off vortex in order to prevent a
wavelengthA being swept past the sphereat a con- changeof circulation around large circuits embracing
vectivevelocityU,, thenwe canwrite w= 2•rU•/A, and both the cylinder and the cast-off vortex. Then, any
of the streamlines(which are circular for rectilinear
u(x)= -- (2•r•':•a3•lZ•'U?/xA•'), (37)
•aH. Lamb, The Dynamical Theory of Sound (Dover Publi-
where•,= U,/c,• is the convectiveMach number.The cations,Inc., New York, 1960), p. 247, points out that in the
soundintensityat the distantpoint x then is corresponding soundscatteringproblem,where9E,= Ca/Ca-1, the
flow about the sphere is like incompressibleflow to order of
(g6//X2 A4 )•JI•c
I (X)-- 2W4paCa 4
U02 cos2(•r0), (38) accuracy 2•ra/X<<l; but the discrepancyinvolved is to be as-
sociated with monopole radiation, more efficient than dipole
radiation by just the order (2•ra/X)-x.
The soundpowerP is easilyfoundby resolving
U0into a4E.g., L. M. Milne-Thomson, Theoretical Hydrodynamics
three mutually perpendicularcomponentsand inte- (The Macmillan Co., New York, 1957), 3rd ed., p. 349.
186 ALAN POWELL
vortices) of Fig. 3 may be taken to represent the

cylinder.
The effect of adding the vortex pair of Fig. 3 to the
undisturbedflow of Fig. 5 is shownin Fig. 6. Here, the
displacementeffect, attributed to the motion of the
spherein Fig. 2, becomesevidentby the downwards
inclination of the streamlines behind the cylinder--
downwash,in aerodynamicterminology.Corresponding Fro. 6. Instantaneous streamlines when a vortex and its image
streamlinesare identifiedin Fig. 3 and 6 (in the latter (see Fig. 3) are added to the pattern of Fig. 5. Note how the
caseF = 0.81Ua). streamlinesgoingfrom left to right are displacedby the downwash
on the downstreamside of the cylinder, correspondingto the
A model, corresponding to Fig. 1, is now easily set displacementeffect illustrated in Fig. 2, while the greater flow
up. Eachvortexformsa loopwith its image,the starting velocity over the cylinder than below its results in an upward
force on it.
pair beingof half-strengthsothat the circulationabout,
and the lift force on, the cylinder oscillate between
equalpositiveandnegativevalues•seeFig. 7(a)•. An
Aeolian Tone--Similarity Analysis
alternativemethodof joining the ringsup is shownin
Fig. 7(b) (the methodof joiningis immaterial). The major characteristicsof aeoliantonescan now
Since the requiredvortex motionsare readily esti- be inferred. A dipolelikeradiation directednormal to
matedin this simplesituationby the standardmethods the stream direction is to be expected,its frequency
of hydrodynamics,the sound output is calculated being that at which the vorticesare shedfrom either
straightforwardlyand so is not presentedhere. The side.Further, the inclinationof the vortex loopsto the
most simple approximationis found by considering wind directionindicatesthe presenceof dipoleradiation
the actiondueto just the vortexnearestto the cylinder, with the maxima in the wind direction, at a frequency
(29a), in which casethe answercan be written down corresponding to the sheddingof eachvortex, i.e., at
with the helpof Eq. (11). the secondharmonic frequency.
An alternativeto usingthe imagevortexis to usethe The result,Eq. (11), enablesa similarityanalysisto
vortex sheet at a solid-cylinderboundary, where the be easilymade. Making the plausibleassumptionthat
total rate of shearequalsthe localvelocity,thusmaking at reasonablyhigh Reynoldsnumbersthe dependent
useof the secondterm of the generalresult, (29b). The variables of interest are in the first approximation
sheet of variable but determinate strength may be independent of Reynolds number,wecantakeu(y)• U,
imagined to consistof indefinitely many elementary I'• Ud and O/Ot•w• U/d. Then, we find for the sound
vortices,eachoneof whichis loopedto a corresponding power P
element elsewhere.
Naturally, the more elaboratethe model, the closer
it can approachreality, and a detailedstudy of the P'•'•(u2(x))paCa•2' (40)
• paU3d21jl'•
3(b?d)2.
motion of the vorticity about the cylinder, including
the principaleffectsof viscosity,wouldnot only throw
light on the importantcasting-offprocessand the wake This showsthe sixth-powerdependence on wind speed
formation, but at the same time would directly yield first inferredby Yudin. It is independentof the cylinder
the corresponding soundradiation.35 diameterd (solongas the effectof Reynoldsnumberis
unimportant),but doesinvolveits lengthb (whichis
supposed short as comparedto a wavelengthso that
the radiation field does not need to be considered two-
dimensional).
Since the Strouhal number $•wd/U
at low Mach
numbersis dependentonly on the Reynoldsnumber,
as also are what we have assumedto be proportionali-
ties, Eq. (40) is made completeby adding a factor
Fro. 5. Steady-flow streamlines about a circular cylinder,
that is an unknown but slowly varying function of
determinedby the superpositionof a uniform flow from left to Reynolds number. For simplicity of the physical
right, and a dipole (doublet) of unvaryingstrength. picture, this two-dimensional model was chosen'the
a5Vortex motion about a cylinderis examinedby J. H. Gerrard, basic theory naturally applies to the general case,
"The Calculation of the Fluctuating Lift on a Circular Cylinder when at higher Reynolds numbers randomnessof
and Its Application to the Determination of Aeolian Tone phasealongthe cylindermust be taken into account.
Intensity,"presented at an AGARD meeting,Brussels, 1-5 April
1963, [AGARD Rept. (to be published)-].The presenttheory Then, it is better to replacethe b•' in Eq. (40) by the
indicates how knowledgeof the vortex motion yields the sound productof b and the appropriately definedcorrelation
output directlyrather than via estimationof the pressureat the
cylinderboundaryto give the forcefor usein Lighthill'stheory. length L.
Edgetone the edgetone:(a) dipoletypesoundradiationand (b)

a local flow, which at low speedsis "hydrodynamic"
The plane jet of the edgetone,usuallybut not at all
and which, in flowingabout the edge,disturbsthe jet
necessarilylaminar, is unstable and periodic wavy as it leavesthe orificenearby, so completingthe feed-
disturbancesin it are amplified as they are swept back loop. It has already been shownelsewherehow
towardsthe fixed wedge (edge!).The interactionof the present generalizedapproach simultaneouslyac-
the resultant vortex motion of the stream with the counts for these two characteristics in terms of the
wedgegivesrise to two important effectscharacterizing vortex motion at the wedge.36
Part II: SOUND FROM THE MOVEMENT OF VORTICITY IN A FREE FLOW
We next considerhow the soundgeneratedby free But there can be no changeof momentumin a free
flowscan be consideredto originatesolelyin the motion flow, for no forcecan be applied to it; so
of vorticity. The resultsare general,but it is convenient
to base the present discussionon the motion resulting
from a disturbanceof a thin, plane shear layer, the
initially uniform velocity on the upper side being
(42)
d-«U, with -«U on the lower, so that the total shear
and, hence,there is zero dipole sound.The lack of
U is given by the integral of /• taken acrossthe un-
momentumchangemeansthat a movementof vorticity
disturbedshearlayer (seeFig. 8). In the comparatively in somedirectionat oneplacemust be accompanied by
early stages of the vortex formation, the highly un-
an oppositemovementelsewhere(as suggested in Fig.
stable shearlayer takes a shapelike that of Fig. 8, the
8). These both generatedipole sound,but the instan-
wave being supposedto have an effective length b
taneous total strengthis zero:They degenerateto make
normal to the paper and the shearlayer remainingplane
elsewhere.
up a quadrupole, given by the sum of the dipole
contributions,but now taking into accountthe fact
5. OPPOSING MOVEMENTS OF VORTICITY: that the soundarriving at a given instant at a distant
QUADRUPOLE RADIATION point must leave the constituentdipolesat slightly
differenttimes.This time differenceis 2yx/Ca,as Fig. 9
In the aeolian-tone case, the sound resulted from makesevident,so the two contributionsto the velocity
the net changeof area of vortex rings. Such rings may fluctuationat point x missbeingexactlyout of phase
be imagined here; part of one is indicated in Fig. 8, by the amount
its circulationbeing/SF--i'bA, the small area/SA being
chosenso that the circulation (3Fis constant along the
lengthof the vortex element.The loopmay be imagined
to run to infinity in the plane of the shear layer, the = (7a a '
remainder of the loop being completedat an infinite
distance away. No matter how the ring be supposed This showshow dipole-generating
elementsin differing
closed,only that part of it in motion normal to itself partsof the flowmay be combinedto form an oblique
causesa local dipoleeffect,just as for the aeoliantone, quadrupolewith the axesin the directionsof y and
with a consequentrate of changeof momentum: g.a*On consideringthe wholeflow, we then have, for
d(5M)/dt= pabFûdl-- papaV. (41)

The vorticity being free, it moveswith the local fluid
shearlayer, two elementsof
velocityu; the volume• V is simplybA timesthe desired vorticityeach actinglikedi-
distance along the elementary vortex ring. Then, Eq. polesto forma quadrupole.•..
FIG.
8.
Disturbance
of
a•-x --
œ8A-'••
•
•0 u
(12) ostensibly applies directly in the present
circumstance.
30Alan Powell, J. Acoust.Soc.Am. 34, 163 (1962).

a7The notion that the sound radiation may be attributed to
Fi(•.
7.
Twomethods
of
forming vortex rings in the
aeolian-tone situation. The
startingvortex (not shown)
is taken to be half the
oblique quadrupolesmade up of opposingdipolesin different
parts of the flow was suggested by Alan Powell, Ph.D. thesis,
Univ. Southampton(1953). The opposingdipole elementswere
suggestedto be due to the momentum fluctuations associated
with fluid elementsbeing acceleratedso as to attain the local
velocity in a shearlayer, having been carried acrossthe shear
strength
of
the
subsequent
layer by a larger-scaleeddy motion. However, later rigorous
ones,
and,
when
very
far
downstream, has its image
at the centerof the cylinder.
analysisI-Alan Powell, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 33, 1798 (1961),
Eq. (5)-] showedthis plausibleand dimensionallycorrectpicture
to be incomplete;now,we seethat it is the vorticity that must be
so used.
188 ALAN POWELL
,.•••
YY •,..,•TO
DISTANT strengthin free flows' the theoremis derived in Sec. 6
directly in terms of the presentvortex theory of aero-
POINT
x. Fro. 9. Resolution of y and g
in the direction of the distant dynamic noise. This means that all the longitudinal
observationpoint x. components in a tensorexpansionmust cancelout when
Y,• L" a free flow as a whole is considered.
A simple physical reasoningfor this is as follows'
the velocityperturbationin the farfieldapproximation, The lateral quadrupolemay be lookedupon as being
due to distortionsof fluid elementsfrom meanspherical
shapesto ellipsoidalones, with no changeof volume.
-
gafvo' o,,d
u(x)=4•rxca T,
yxcx v (y)*, (44) On the otherhand,an initially sphericalshapedistorting
in longitudinalquadrupolefashion would undergono
where •:"= (de/dte)•cos(ES)and the repeatedsuffix movement at the equator (the plane of symmetry)
is not to be summed. Taking the time retardation while the polesmove inwards,or outwards,in unison.
operatoroutsidethe integraland usingits mean value Hence, here there is a changein volume necessitating
is permissibleso long as the wavelengthsof interest a compression or expansionof the fluid. Thus, a given
considerablyexceedthe maximumeffectivevalue of y pressure fluctuation over somepart of the boundary
involved. of the elementresultsin far larger distortionsof the
lateral type than of the longitudinal,becausein the
Resolutionof Quadrupoles latter case additional and comparitively large com-
pressire forces as well as inertia forces have to be
Notice that any obliquequadrupole,as givenin Eq. balanced.Sincea given amplitude of oscillationof the
(43), has its directionalminima normal to the axesof sphericalabout its mean positionresultsin about the
the constituentdipolesand normalto the line joining samesoundoutput in both the lateral and the longi-
them (seeFig. 10). It is alsoindicatedtherehowsucha tudinal modes,it must be expectedthat lateral quad-
quadrupolemay be resolvedinto the sum of lateral rupole radiation will be predominant.Now this must
and longitudinalquadrupoles. Sincethe vectorconnect- be especiallyso at low Mach numbers.In fact, in the
ing the dipoles,and also the dipolesthemselves,can limit of incompressible flow •= 0, the net longitudinal-
be resolvedinto components alongany set of axes,it quadrupolestrengthat any point is completelyruled
follows that an oblique quadrupolemay always be out becauseof the incompressibilitycondition. But
resolvableinto an assemblyof lateral and longitudinal the lateral quadrupole field remains unimpaired as
quadrupoles.Thus, we write •--•0: the incompressible flow field is the hydro-
yx= y cos(•0g)-- Y cos(•0•)cos(•g)= yi cos(•g), (45) dynamic part of a lateral quadrupole field. Thus, at
speedslow enough for the fluctuating flow to be
where the repeatedi (and the j shortly) is to be approximatedto by an incompressible one--and this is
summed,and similarly for •. Then, the integral of not asrestrictiveasit may seem--thelateralquadrupole
Eq. (44) can be rewrittenfor resolutioninto a set of is the basicform of the soundgenerator.
six lateral quadrupoles
6. FORMAL DEVELOPMENT
i•jdV*
cos(•)
cos(•);
i•j;i,j=1,2,3,(46a)Differential Equation in Terms of Velocity
Here, we chooseto work in termsof velocity instead
and a set of three longitudinalones
of pressure,since we desire to examinethe velocity
in the flow itself as well as the farfieldperturbations.
dV*
cos•'(•);
i=1,2,3. (46b) From Eqs. (18) and (19), it is easyto showthat
vv. u- (
It is to be noted that the resolutionof a singlelateral = - vE v.+ (
quadrupoleinto components alongnew axesgenerally
yieldssetsof bothlateral and longitudinalquadrupoles. + (1/ca•')(O/Ot)E(u
ßV)u+(1/p)V(c•;o)-]. (47)
Hence, the presenceof longitudinalquadrupoles,in
tensorcomponentform, doesnot in itself necessarily //
/
indicate the presenceof a nonzerototal longitudinal
strength.
Nature of Quadrupole
of Aerodynamic
Sound
In fact, the "three-sound-pressures
theorem"aSshows Fro. 10. An obliquequadrupoleresolvedinto lateral and longi-
that there can be no net longitudinal quadrupole tudinal ones,oneaxisbeingparallelto the constituentdipoleaxis.
Further resolutionmay be made by resolving the dipoles into
a8Alan Powell,J. Acoust.Soc.Am. 34, 902 (1962). components.
After usingthe identity of Eq. (16) and rearranging, can be present. We need the solution in forms more
we find that convenientfor both near and far points, the former for
discussingsome details of the flow, sharpeningthe
- v^ (o/at)(u. v)u-
distinction between incompressibleand slightly com-
+ O/OrE (c2/cff-- 1)V (lnp)-] pressibleflows,and the latter for estimatingthe sound
-•-O/Ot•(p--pa)/p'V(CVCa2)3. (48) radiation.
We interpret this exact equation sø as the wave Hydrodynamic Velocity Field
equationon the postulatethat the right-hand side can
be specified.We therefore may simplify the latter, The term "hydrodynamicfield" wasoriginallyintro-
provideddue care is taken. The five sourceterms there duce& to indicatethat part of a compressible fluid flow
have the following respective orders of relative that wouldbe hardly affectedif the fluid wereimagined
magnitude: to be incompressible instead; we are now able to see
somethingof how this hydrodynamicfield compares
with the incompressible one having the samevorticity.
With the two conditions•<<1 and $•<<1, the last It shouldbe noted that it is the vorticity that can be
two terms can be safelydropped.However, it may be best taken as the conunonelement in the two flows;
that in the solutionthe contribution stemmingfrom a this is becauseit can be specifiedwithout any reference
given term turns out to be approximatelyzero; this to the compressibilityof the medium.
does,in fact, occurin the solutionin its farfieldapproxi- First, we review very briefly the relevant properties
mation, in which we have a prime interest.To the first of the incompressible flow. The governingequation
nonzeroapproximations,we have instead we obtaindirectlyfrom the vectoridentity of Eq. (16)
with V.u=0'
$2•Yl•a:$•Jl• a: $5g4: $•J1D:
v" = - v ^ (. (51)
It is clearly safe to drop thoselast two terms if
but the secondterm must be retained. (This provision Its solution is
couldproveto be too severewhenthe magnitudeof the
coefficientsis determined.)
u(x)=• V^•" dV(y), (52)
In the third term of Eq. (48), we can replaceVp by 4•r o
Vp/c,•, and then --Vp/p, by du/dt. Then, with the
secondterm expressed in a differentway with the help to which Eq. (50) readily reduces.It may be put into
of Eq. (15), we have a more convenient form by use of the appropriate
D" = -- V^•q- (1/cff)O2/Ot vector expansion,
+ ( 1/c,•) V[ (d/dt+O/Ot)«u•']. (49)
General Velocity Field 1 ø•^

Vv(!)dV
(y)
1 (!)dV(y)q___fv
. (53)
The solutionto the foregoingequationwe can write
down straightaway' The first term vanishes,for by the divergencetheorem
it canbe expressedasa surfaceintegralwhoseintegrand
=-- is proportionalto •, which is by definitionzero at all
u(x)4• oV ^•(l*/r)dV(y) pointson the boundingsurfaceSo.Then, we have
1fv0•
4•'c,•
--(l*/r)dV(y)
o Ot
=--
u(x)• 0•^• dV(y), (54)
V q- whichreducesto Eq. (2) for a linevortex.

(l*/r)dV (y). (50)
4•'c•
• o • tit/ _! This form showshowan elementof vorticity •fiV may
be consideredto induce a velocity of magnitude
There is no complementaryfunction here, and the •'•V/(4•-F) at right anglesto both the directionof the
constant of integration has been omitted, for this vorticity vector and the radius vector from it. Here
would give a mean motion. is the well-knownanalogythat if • representselectric
This solutionappliesto all points having vorticity, current,then u wouldrepresentthe magneticfield.
aswell as to distantpointswhereonly acousticaleffects In contrastto this last result, the first term of the
80A rather similar equationresultsfor pu in place of u on the 40Alan Powell, "The Problem of Structural Failure due to
left-handside. Jet Noise,"Aeron.Res.Council(London)Rept. 1754(1955).
190 ALAN POWELL
compressible
result,Eq. (50), becomes lossof energyof the flow will becomeapparent.The
kinetic energyT of an incompressible
flow is givenby
T ....
Pafft•(y)
8r t:(t)0 [y-zl
dV(y)dV(z). (58)
If the kinetic energyis to decrease,then it followsfrom

thisexpression that the appropriatelyaverageddistance
(55) betweenelementsof vorticity must increase.Hence,we
This first term might give rise to the idea that the may say that the conversionof kinetic flow energy to
induced velocity simply lags behind the inducing an acousticform resultsin a spreadingout of the basic
vorticity by the transit time r/Ca; but the secondterm sound-generatingfluid motion.
largely cancelsthe effect when the distancer is small as
Far Field
compared with the wavelength. To show this, we
expand both integrands in Taylor series about the Here, we discusssomepropertiesof the far field of a
unretardedtime;they become slightly compressibleflow. This is in extreme contrast
r to the hydrodynamicfield,for thereis no counterpart
t•*= t•------[- ßßß, (56) to the far field in incompressible flow. In this far field,
considerablemathematicalsimplificationsare to be
made, stemmingfrom the fact that variations in the
and
radiusvectorr, whenit occursin the denominator,are
alwaysof much lesssignificancethan are the differences
....... (S7) in time delay due to variationsin the distancer.
We considerthe solutionin the form of Eq. (50);
the leadingintegralis first dealt with, and in a modified
The term arisingfrom the secondmemberof Eq. (56) form it is combinedwith the secondintegral. The
cancelswith that from the first memberof Eq. (57). result vanishes when the time retardation is taken
Thus, for relatively small distances,this single term outside the integral; so the next approximationis
of the compressible result is the sameas the complete estimated. It then remains to show that the contribution
incompressiblesolution, apart from a disparity of from the two membersin the last integralof the solution
second,and not first, order. In terms of characteristic is negligiblein comparison to that approximation.
physical variables, the relative magnitude of the As a preliminary, note that taking the curl of the
(vector)difference is at mostof order•2 (togetherwith equationof motion,Eq. (20), yields,for compressible
higher powers if appropriate). This feature of the flOW,
compressiblesolution that has been singled out is
associatedwith the fact that the phasevelocity in the ot•/ot+ v ,, •= - v ,, [-( •/p) Vp-]
immediateneighborhoodof a dipoleis greater than the ^
ordinary plane-wave-propagation speed.Thus, while in
'•"(l/pagCag)•7p ^ Vp:0. (59)
the compressibleflow, one may still think of the
vorticity inducing a velocity, it must be remembered We take the leadingterm of the solutionEq. (50), in
that it is really curl t• and not t• that undergoesa simple the form of Eq. (55), but the memberwith r-2 in the
retardation, and there are also the two succeeding denominatorcan be safely discardedfor considerations
integralsof Eq. (50), both of which are of order •2, of the far field. Taking the r-1 outside the integral,
relative to the first.
It follows from this observation that the movement
whereit may be replacedby x-1, we havein the present
circumstance
of vorticity in the slightly compressiblecase must
differ slightly from that in the incompressibleone.
Now the kinetic energy in the incompressibleflow
dependson the positionof the vorticity at any instant, 4•rx 1f•(V
^()*d= i fv Oil*
V(y)
o 4•'XCa o
•^-- dV(y)
and the kinetic energyremainsconstant.Hence, in the

compressiblecase, the loss of energy by acoustic ...... ^ (V^•)*dV(y),
radiation must be traceable to the difference in the 4•'XCa o
vortex locationsrelative to what they would have in
the incompressiblecase. In principle, therefore, one by virtue of Eq. (59). This may be rewrittenin the form
couldestimatethe rate of decreaseof energyof the flow,
and this would equal the radiated soundpower,which - -^ V^ (E*)dV (y)- ^ V•(i*) ÊdV (y).
we later estimate directly. We can also see how this 47rXCa o 4•rXCa o
The first volume integral vanishes,for it is equal to a The requiredexpression

for the velocityperturbation
surfaceintegral with an integrand that is zero on the in the far field therefore consistsof a singleterm'
surfaceconcerned;so,
u(x)= - y•"dV(y)*. (65)
(V^ i•)*dV (y)• - ^ :•^• dr(y). 4•'XCa
a o
4•-x o 4•'xca•' o Ot
(60) The integralhere doesnot vanishwhen the vector •
We make useof the vector identity is calculatedfrom the incompressible flow having the
samevorticity, using Eq. (54), the error introduced
a= •a•-• ^ (• ^ a) (61)
being no greater than of relative order YlV',as has
to combinethis last result with the secondintegral in already been established.This is, therefore,the result
the solution,Eq. (50), so that togetherthey equal we seek: It is just the sameas that obtainedvia the
physicalargument,Eq. (44). It showsthat the sound
radiation is directly attributable to a volume distri-
- •x'* dV(y). (62) bution of oblique quadrupoles.
4•'XCa
2 o
The time-delay operator may be taken outside the Sound Intensity and Power
integral; it then correspondsexactly to the solution The soundintensityat the point x is given by
already found for the distant dipole-pressure
field, Eq.
(30), whenthe surfaceintegralsare discarded. I(x)--paCa(it•(X)),
But this would not be at all suitable for the final
result,for, as discussed
in Sec.6, the total instantaneous
dipolestrengthvanishes.This canbe seenby integrating
the momentumequation over the whole flow region,
Paa// yxZx(
16wsX•Ca ?x"
(Y)?•,"
(z))d
V(y)dV
(z).
0
(66)
for, in the absenceof forces applied to a bounding
surface,there canbe no changeof the total momentum. In the specialbut important caseof a large volume
of isotropic,homogeneous turbulence,the correlation
Quadrupole
Approximation
.fortheFar Field of •" may be assumed to dependon[y-z[ • in order
to yield an approximate but very simple result by
Clearly, we need more accurate approximation to integrationby parts (somewhattediously)4•:
Eq. (62) and this can be obtainedby expressingthe
integrand in a Taylor series in terms of the time
retardation relative to that at y=0. We have in this
farfield case Pa
•__
]/tO
iV•yx
1 2
I(x)--167r2X2Ca,(•:f'(O)•xl! (y))dl/(y).
0 (67)
2'(y; t-Ix-yl/½a)-E'*+(y•/ca)E"*+..., (63) The integral is convenientlyexpressedin terms of a
correlation volume V'
wherenowt*---t-x/ca. Whensubstituted
into Eq. (62),
the term stemming from the first member vanishes,
as we know, and the secondone is •=fr«y•"
•"(0)
•"(y))d
0 V(y)/•l•(u•y))(i•) (68)
• fv "dV
-
4*rXCa• o
yx• (y; . (64)
where1• is a lengthto be associated with the weighted
valueof yx, (u•'(y)),and (/:•')are meansquarevaluesin
The last integral of the solution,Eq. (50), is negli- the flow, and wc is any convenient characteristic
gible. The surface integral thrown up by using the frequency of the flow. In terms of this correlation
divergencetheoremuponit vanishes,and the remaining volume, which is particularly useful as a basis for
part is similarity methods,
I (x): pa(l•2)(•'2)lm2COc4Vo•/16•rx2ca
5. (69)
• [d2{
2•-xcaOLdtU
vo
«u2dV(y) For this isotropiccase,the soundpower generated
per unit volumeis readily found'
Now, the only mechanismpresentthat could account
for a changeof the total kinetic energy in a free in- •//Vo--pa(lt2)(•'2)lm2cOc4•/47CCa
5. (70)
viscid flow is the productionof acousticenergy itself' The same form holds true when the turbulence is not
The contribution from this term is of the same func-
isotropic;then •d' is bestexpressed
in termsof ofthog-
tional order as is (64), but it is factored by a very
smallcoefficient(actually of order•'•). For this reason, 4•Adjustment of the constantl.• could absorbthe proportional
the term is safelydropped. error incurred.
192 ALAN POWELL
onal components,and the conventionalintegration to infinity. Hence,we can write

over a large spherecarried out. For flows in which a
correlationvolumeis not appropriate,this procedure
may be carriedout directlyon Eq. (66). We alsonote
that the precedingexpressions could be rewritten for
oo«u•dV(y)=fvo
y.•.x/V(y).
(73)
the powerspectraldensitywith only minorchanges of But the kinetic energyof an incompressible flow is
notation.
constant.Therefore,it immediatelyfollowsthat
p(a)+p(b)+p(c)=O. (74)
Nature of the Equivalent Point Quadrupoles
We show here that the sound radiation It is obviousthat no longitudinalquadrupolealonecan
of a free
flow, in the approximationof Eq. (65), satisfiesthe satisfy this requirement; only lateral quadrupoles
"three-sound-pressures theorem"a8;this means that satisfy it. Thus, we may say that the basic sound
the volumedistributionof obliquequadrupoles must generatorsof a free flow (for •g<<l, and $•g<<l) must
be reducibleto a systemof point lateral quadrupoles, be quadrupolesof the lateral type. If a method of
all locatedat the samereferencepoint, which, to the resolution yields longitudinal ones, then their total
presentand usual order of accuracy,may be placed instantaneous strengthmust be zero,so that they may
at any convenientpositionwithin the flow volume V0. be reducibleto lateral ones.asAn exampleof this is to
We considerthe soundpressurep(x)=p,•c,•u(x)at be found in the followingconsiderations of spinning
three points,a, b, and c, locatedone on eachof any vortices; another in the soundgeneration by isotropic
set of three mutually perpendicularaxes and equi- turbulence, where Proudman found only lateral
distant from the origin at the referencepoint within quadrupoles, despite the presence
of energydissipation?
V0, so that a=b-c= x. The instantaneoussum of the
soundpressures
at thesethreepointsthen is 7. INSTANCES OF QUADRUPOLE RADIATION
Sound Radiation from Two Spinning Vortices

p(a)-l-p(b)-l-p(c)= -•
1 fuy•"dV(y)*,
4•rxca
a o With Eq. (65) at our disposal,we may estimatethe
sound radiation from any low-speedflow for which
only the vorticity is known, for from the vorticity the
1 fu.•"d
4•rXCa
a
y
o
V(y)*. (71) velocity at any desiredpoint may be calculated.
As a simpleexampleof interestin itself, we find the
soundgeneratedby the two spinningvortices shown
We next show that the volume integral is equal to
in Fig. 11. The vorticesare straight,parallel,and long
the kinetic energy of the flow. We start with the
as comparedto their distance2y apart, and they have
identityof Eq. (15), and rewriteit in the form
equal circulationF. They thereforespinaroundan axis
v. (uu)- u(v. u)-:e. midway between them with the induced velocity
u(y)=F/(4•-y), the whole flow field rotating at the
The scalarproductof this with the positionvectory is angularrate co=F/(4•rf), while •= r•'/(4•ry). Each of
the same as the vectorsy, u, and • is of constantmagnitude, and
rotatesat the rate co.Thus, taking the time derivative
V. («u•'y)--«u•'(V
ßy)= V. [u(y. u)-]--u•'--y.•, of any one of these vectors amounts to multiplying
it by coand turningit throughan angle•r/2.
having recognizedthat V-u=0 for an incompressible
fluid. SinceV. y= 3, this last equationbecomes Choosea set of mutually perpendicularaxes i so
that axes1 and 2 are in the planeof y and • and axis3
V' («u2y)= V' [u(y'u)-]+«u•'-y ß•. lies betweenthe vortices; (21) and (22) are then the
angles between the first two axes and the point of
On taking the volume integral of this over-all space, observation.Then, taking l/X=rl/(2rc,,f)<<l so that
and using the divergencetheoremagain, we find that differencesin time retardation can be neglected,
22l d2
fs • 2_ u-]dS(y)
00 fv(«u2--Y'E)dV(y)'
['•u y• u•y.
(72) u(x)- =
0 471'XC
a3 dt•Y•
cos•(.02)
*,
The surfaceintegral may be set equal to zero if the 221 d •
distant velocity decreases fast enoughwith distance.A
simplesourceflow hasu---y-•, a dipoleflow hasu---y-3
4•'xc,•
a•t•y•
cos•(•)i)
cos•(2i).
(75)
and a quadrupoleflow has u•.y -4. Here, we are con- Observingthat we can put cos(•01)=cosc0t and cos(•)2)
cernedwith a quadrupoleflow, so the integral falls to
zerovery rapidly, like y-S, asthe surfaceS00is expanded 42I. Proudman,Proc. Roy. Soc. (London)A214, 119 (1952).
=sincot,the last expression

becomes
25ly• d2
u(x) ..... ['cos(•l) coswt+cos(•2)sino•t-],
4arxcaa dF FIG.
12.
Instantaneous
streamlines in the
two spinningrectilinear
=•['2
7rXCa3
cos(51)cos(52)sin2cot
+cos2(51)cos2cot-cos"(52)
cos2cot-].(76)
hydrodynamic
field
of
vortices with the corre-
sponding
characteristics
directional
far acoustic field.
of the
This shows how the rotating quadrupole may be

representedby the sum of a fixed lateral one, and two
fixed longitudinalonesof oppositesign.
The two longitudinalquadrupolesare equivalent to
a lateral one whose axes 1' and 2' bisect the axes 1 and 2 the intensity paCa(U•'(X))
integrated over a sphere
centered on the sources. We therefore have to deal with
of the longitudinalones,aaso the alternative result in
termsof two fixedlateral quadrupolesis the surfaceintegralsof the followingproducts'
4al •?-1-a n•'q- a •.•?'q- 4a 1•.an- 4a 1•.a•.•.-- 2aua •.•..
25co•yœl
u(x) =--•['cos(51) cos(52)sin2cot
71'XC
a3 Now, the value of the surfaceintegralsof an•' and a•.2 •'
are each4•rx•'/5,of al•?'and aua•.•.are each4rx•'/15, and
q-cos(51') cos(52') cos2cot-].(77) of al•.au and al•.a•.•.
are each zero (as considerations of
At a fixedobservationpoint, the soundperturbation signs in the quadrants soon show). Thus, the sound
powerP is given by
passesthroughtwo maximaand two zerosduringeach
rotation of the vortices; this is the characteristicto be
associatedwith a lateral quadrupole of constant P ......
15•r c•a 15•rc•5\4•ry/
l2. 16p•,co4y2œ•l
(78)• 16p•(I' ••
strength,but whichrotatesat the rate co;i.e., it rotates
with the vortex field (seeFig. 12). The rotating lateral
quadrupolehas a farfield directionalitythat resembles Since I'/4•ry is the vortex velocity, here we see the
a doughnutwith no holein the middle,threadedon the eighth-powerlaw for the soundpower generatedby an
axis about which the vorticesspin. unsteadyfree flow.
Now, the hydrodynamicfield of a lateral quadrupole
undergoesradial vibrations like those of a sphere Similarity Methods
undergoingellipsoidaldistortions;in this case, the We have seenhow soundis generatedby the move-
distortionrotatesin its major plane.The instantaneous ment of vorticity, or rather by its moment becauseof
streamlinesof the two spinningvorticesare shownin the distancefactor yx. This means that in a turbulent
Fig. 12 also, and, of course,the whole streamline flow, where eddiesof all sizesare present,the largest
pattern rotates at the rate co. Thus, the rotating eddiesare most weighted by this factor, so that the
noncircular streamlinesare to be directly associated larger eddiestransportingvorticity are to be expected
with the hydrodynamic(incompressible) field of the to account for most of the sound. It is these eddies which
rotating quadrupole2 ø figure in the mixing-length theories of shear-flow
turbulenceat high Reynolds numbers: the vorticity-
Sound Power
transport theory is the natural choicehere,4aso that
For the purposeof estimatingthe soundpower,Eq. l,• of Eq. (68) may be takenproportionalto the mixing
(76) is mostconvenient,as the componentquadrupoles length.
there are orthogonalto each other. Let the terms Now, the vorticity-transporttheory providesa very
within the bracket be written 2a12, an and -a•.•., satisfactorybasisfor estimatingthe manner of spread
respectively.The soundpoweris then proportionalto of free flows.Necessaryto the theory are the assump-
tions that the mixing length is proportional to the
I' [i thicknessof the shear layer, that the mean-square
turbulent velocity is proportional to the total rate of
Fro. 11. Notation for two rectilinear
shear squared,and that the mean-squarevorticity is
vortices. The observationpoint does proportionalto the squareof the mean vorticity. The
not in generallie in the plane of the way in which the mixing length varies acrossa given
figure.
4aE.g., S. Goldstein, editor, Modern Developments
in Fluid
Dynamics (Oxford University Press, London, 1938), Vol. 1,
Chap. 5.
194 ALAN POWELL
crosssectionis immaterial,as it is necessary

only that by an intermediateregion that does not follow any
it vary in like manner acrossall sections.We need onlysimple similarity laws.
the additional plausible assumptionsthat typical Within nearly five jet diametersof the exit there is
frequenciesare proportional to the mean velocity an annular shear flow, spreading linearly inwards
dividedby the width, i.e., are proportionalto the meanand outwards, the velocity in the core being un-
vorticity,44and that the dimensionof the correlation diminished.The velocityprofilesare nearly similarand
volumeis proportionalto the mixing length. Eqs. (79) and (80) apply, the mean width b of the
Therefore, we have good grounds for anticipating shearlayer nowbeingproportionalto the jet diameterd.
that a similarity method so based will yield useful In the other regionof similarity, alsotreated success-
information about the sound radiation from free flows fully by the vorticity-transportmethod, the diameter
at large Reynolds numbers. Similarly analyseshave of the turbulentflowvariesdirectlywith z, sodV•,z"dz,
been given beforefor the intensity of soundgeneration and the central velocity falls inversely with z, so
along a jet45-48and for the power spectrum of jet (u'.)•, (Ud/z)'.is assumed. Then, we find that
noise45.48;we show how the present theory yields
consistent results. 4ø dP/dz•, paUSdca-5(z/d) -7 (81)
and that
Shear Flow dP/dw•, paU•d•6a-SCo
'.. (82)
The vorticity-transport theory correctly predicts While it is very difficult to measurethe sound-power
that a plane turbulent shear flow, separatinga region productionper unit length of a jet, it is relatively easy
of uniformvelocity U from still fluid, increases
linearly to determine the spectral density of the total sound
in thicknesswith the distancez from the point of its power. The co-'.and w'. are in good agreement with
inception.Then, we have (u")•, U", (•'")•, U"/z", lm•,z, experimentalfindings.
wc•,U/z, V•,lma•,z• and for a slicedz of the layer of An empiricalcombinationof theseis
breadth b, we have dV•,bzdz. Then, from Eq. (70)
we find dP/dw= (4/,r)(P/t-0max)/E
((.0/O)max)"{-
((.0/O)max)--l']
2 (83)
(where wn•x refers to the spectralmaximum). This
dP/bdg,-•,paS8/6?, (79)
gives a spectrum shape undistinguishablefrom that
showinghow the soundpower generatedper unit area given by Cole et al.•øfor air jets, jet engines,and rockets
of a shearlayer dependson the total shear,but not on and from other reliable measurementsfor jet engines.*•
the thicknessof the shearlayer. It shouldbe noted, however, that the groundsfor the
The power spectral density of the sound power estimateof the co-"part are firmer than that for the co'.
follows: part, becauseof the possibilityof the proviso being
compromisedby other parts of the jet and because
(80) the assumedsimilarity is not fully establisheduntil
,•.,paUOb6a-•Co
-'.. quite far downstream,so far as the turbulent fluctua-
tions are concerned;thus, for example, a casemay be
A necessaryprovisowith sucha spectrumestimationis made for modifyingthe co'.to w.•8
the obviousone that the steepness of the total spectrum Finally, although thesesimilarity spectraagree well
must not be lessthan that of the individual slices,each with experimentalfindingsof jet noise,it is not to be
slicenaturally producingits own spectrum,the shape overlooked that no Mach number effect has been
of whichis immaterial exceptas just stated. incorporated,whereasthe highly directionalcharacter
of jet noisemakesit fully evident that suchan effectis
Jet Flow most certainly present. The effect of Mach number
and the justification for its omissionwith regard to
A fully turbulent jet may be convenientlydivided
the spectrumof the total noisepower are discussed in
into two parts, eachof which has similarity, separated the next section.
44The rather preferableassumptionthat the frequencydepends 8. CONVECTIVE AND REFRACTIVE EFFECTS

on the fluctuating velocity and the mixing length reducesto the
same thing here.
45Alan Powell, "Similarity Considerationsof Noise Production In general,we may say that the value of $•Ir6,being
from Turbulent Jets, Both Static and Moving," Douglas Aircraft a measure of the extent of the flow field in terms of
Co., Inc., Rept. SM-23246 (1958); seealso J. Acoust. Soc. Am. wavelength, governsthe relative importanceof con-
31, 812 (1959).
46H. S. Ribner, J. Acoust.Soc.Am. 30, 576 (1958). vection-biasingeffectsand of refractive effectsacross
47G. M. Lilley, "On the Noise from Air Jets," Aeron. Res.
Council(London)Rept. 20376 (1958). 50j. N. Cole, H. E. von Gierke, D. T. Kyrazis, K. M. Eldred,
48M. J. Lighthill, J. Am. Inst. Aeron.Astronaut.1, 1507(1963). and A. J. Humphrey, "Noise Radiation from Fourteen Types
4•The boundary layer and wake considered on the basis of of Rockets in the 1000 to 130 000 lbs. Thrust Range," WADC
Lighthill's theory [Alan Powell, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 31, 1649 Tech. Rept. 57-354, (1957).
(1959)• may alsobe analyzedby the presentmethod. 5•Unpublishedwork by DouglasAircraft Co., Inc.
velocitygradients,while the value of • largelycontrols As the speed increasesfor any given frequency, the
the magnitudeof sucheffects. position moves downstreamto a thicker shear layer,
The jet of propulsive devices remains the most but the rate of shear increasesproportionally, so that
important source of aerodynamic sound, and the the total effect"sensed"by the source,beingdependent
mechanismof jet flow at moderate or high Mach upon some fraction of a wavelength,is roughly con-
numbers is radically different to, say, that of the stant.56This is relevant to why the U 8 relationshipis
spinningvortices.This is becausein the jet the fluc- followed so closely, and why the directional pattern
tuating flow may be sweptalong at quite high speeds, shows little dependenceon the convective Mach
yet itselfbe little differentfrom that of very low speeds. number, even for jet-engine•ffluxes, whereasthe direct
Hence,in the jet situationthe effectsof convectionand application of Lighthill's method and its extension
refraction may be usefully studied as distinct phe- indicatesa noticeableincreasebeyond the U 8 relation-
nomena,the basicsourcemechanismbeingunaffected; ship, accompaniedby a more pronounceddirectional
attention is now restricted to such flows. pattern.•2
For wavelengthslarge enough as comparedto the
thicknessof the shear layer, the sourcemay be con- CONCLUSION
sidered to be simply moving through the still

The vortex theory of aerodynamic-soundgeneration
atmosphere.For low convectiveMach number, Light-
provides a simple but fundamentally sound physical
hill's method of using a moving frame of referenceis
picturebasedon the classicdipolelikeactionof elements
appropriate, •8.•ø,48
while, for higher convectionspeeds,
Williams showed how the time-retardation effects must
of vorticity, the opposingaction of elementsin a free
flow continuingto form quadrupoleelements.
be retained in Lighthill's approach.5•' Alternatively,
Ribner has shown how retention of fixed coordinates in
The theory has the rigorousmathematical support
necessaryto any theory of aerodynamicnoisebecause
conjunctionwith the convectionreflectedin the form
of the source correlation function 53 leads to the results
of the subtlety of the approximationsinvolved and it
is consistentwith Lighthill's well-establishedtheory. At
consistentwith Lighthill's and Williams' up to super-
low speeds,similarity methods yield a sound-power
sonic convection speeds.The most important result
output proportional to the sixth power of the flow
is that the U s relationshipof lower speedsgives way
to U 3.
velocity, as applicationsto aeoliantonesand oscillatory
flow about a fixed object illustrated, while an eighth-
On the other hand, when the wavelengthis short as
power law comesfrom the quadrupole-typesound of
comparedto the distancefrom the convectedsource
free flows. The latter is illustrated by the spinning-
to the ambient fluid, the dominant effect is one of
vortex problem and by turbulent shear and jet flows.
refraction, with relatively little bias to causereduced
Existing methodsmay be used to extend the range of
soundpowerin the upstreamhemisphereand increased
applicabilityof the method to higherspeedsthan those
power in the downstream one.•a *• This effect is
assumedin the formal development.The extremeease
especiallyevident in the direction propertiesof jet
by which one may calculate the sound field of a flow
noise,the level far away on the jet axis beingvery low
expressedin terms of a simple vortex motion was
due to its refraction away from the axis by the jet
shear.
illustrated in the case of the spinningvortices: one
needsonly the motion of the vorticity itself rather than
For wavelengths of moderate length--not far
information throughout the much more extensive
different from those of the spectralpeak of jet-engine
noise--both convective and refractive effects are
velocity or pressurefields.Hence, any computationof
the motion of an incompressiblefluid in terms of
present.It has been pointed out how the soundof a
inductionby vorticity automaticallyproducesthe data
particular part of the over-all spectrum emanates
necessaryto estimate the soundoutput from a similar
mainly from some particular downstreamposition in
flow with a relatively largesoundspeed.•7
the jet, the locationbeing dependenton the jet speed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
52j. E. FfowcsWilliams, Phil Trans. Roy. Soc.(London)A255,
469 (1963).
5aH. S. Ribner, "Aerodynamic Soundfrom Fluid Dilatations," Partial support has been received from the U.S.
Univ. Toronto Inst. Aerophys. Rept. 86 (1962). The method of Officeof Naval Research,under contract.
treating the effectsof convectionis independentof the difficulties
inherent in the supposedsourcemechanism.
54Alan Powell,Aircraft Eng. 26, 2 (1954). ,7 Sincethe soundoutput formula involves doubletime deriva-
55Alan Powell, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London) B67, 313 (1954). tive, small stepsin an iterative processwould be desirableif a
50Alan Powell,J. Acoust.Soc.Am. 32, 1609 (1960). close estimate is desired.

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THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOLUME 36, NUMBER 1 JANUARY 1964

Theory of Vortex Sound*

Physicalargumentsare followedby mathematicaldevelopments to showhow aerodynamicsoundis gener-

Part I: SOUND FROM CHANGES IN VORTEX STRENGTH

that the eddy cast off the wake must be ac-

FiG. 2. Instantaneous stream- •7B. Etkin, G. K. Korbacher, and R. T. Keefe, "Acoustic

but with almostexactlythe samevelocityfield in the In the first instance,we have

All the mathematicaldevelopments

final form of the solution,the last two terms can be

[2sp= _ V. (p•+ V«puS). (25)

Solution with Surfaces Present

The differentialequationis being interpretedas the

The volume integrationrangesover all spacewhere the

The pressureperturbationis thus attributable to the

(1) A volumedistributionof dipoles,whosestrength

4. INSTANCES OF DIPOLE RADIATION

oidallywith smallamplitudeat velocityU= U0ei•t;the

- S cos(• O0)dr* Here, Vb is the volumeof the sphericalbody; the three

where X=2•rCa/Wis the acousticwavelength, which Aeolian Tones

vortices) of Fig. 3 may be taken to represent the

Edgetone the edgetone:(a) dipoletypesoundradiationand (b)

Part II: SOUND FROM THE MOVEMENT OF VORTICITY IN A FREE FLOW

d(5M)/dt= pabF^udl-- papaV. (41)

30Alan Powell, J. Acoust.Soc.Am. 34, 163 (1962).

General Velocity Field 1 ø•^

V q- whichreducesto Eq. (2) for a linevortex.

If the kinetic energyis to decrease,then it followsfrom

and the kinetic energyremainsconstant.Hence, in the

The first volume integral vanishes,for it is equal to a The requiredexpression

onal components,and the conventionalintegration to infinity. Hence,we can write

Sound Radiation from Two Spinning Vortices

=sincot,the last expression

This shows how the rotating quadrupole may be

crosssectionis immaterial,as it is necessary

44The rather preferableassumptionthat the frequencydepends 8. CONVECTIVE AND REFRACTIVE EFFECTS

sidered to be simply moving through the still

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