A Textbook of Physics wnicede oY) = Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Textbook Board, PeshawarMeasurement = 16 Jn My | Wh Ss Mliyy & ly After studying this unit the students will be able to @ describe the scope of Physics in science, technology and society. and supplementary units for various measurements. © state SI base units, derived } | ! Se ee @ state the conventions for indicating units as set outin the units, | © explainwhy all measurements contain some uncertainty. | @ distinguish between systematicerrorsincludingzero errors) and random errors. } @ identify that least count or resolution of a measuring instrument is the smallest increment measurable byit, i @ differentiate between precision and accuracy. } @ assess the uncertainty in a derived quantity by simple addition of actual, fractional or percentage uncertainties. } © quote answers with correct scientific notation, number of significant figures and unitsin allnumerical and practical work. } @ checkthe homogeneity of physical equations by usingdimensionalityandbase units, ® derive formulaeinsimple cases using dimensions. }a 1.1 PHYSICS AND ITS SCOPE Physics is the branch of science that involves the study of the physical world in specific and physical universe in general: energy, matter, and how they are related. In physics modeling of the natural world is made with theory, and is usually expressed quantitatively with mathematical description. Even if we do not study PHYSICS as a subject we depend on it for nearly everything. From walking to drivinga car, from cooking to using a gadget, from cuttinga tree to building a new house everything involves physics. Even as we read this sentence, physics is at work. Physicists investigate the motions of electrons and rockets, the energy in sound waves and electric circuits, the structure of the proton and that of the universe. Physics is also called ‘the fundamental science’ because the subject of study of all branches of natural science like chemistry, astronomy, geology, and biology are constrained by laws of physics. We can say ‘All other natural sciences stem from physics. Chemistry is essentially applied physics and biology is applied chemistry’. For technologies to develop physics is essential. Physics generates fundamental knowledge needed for the future technological advances that will continue to drive the economic engines of the world. So many pivotal discoveries of the 20th century - including the laser, television, radio, computer technology plus internet, DNAand nuclear weapons are all credited to advancement in physics. Physics contributes to the technological infrastructure and provides trained personnel needed to take advantage of scientific advances and discoveries. It is important for improvement in health, telecommunication, transport and design of our future. Nearly all consumer goods we use at home have been developed from research in physics. 1.2 SYSTEM INTERNATIONAL (SI) The International System of Units (abbreviated SI from systeme internationale , the French version of the name) is a scientific method of expressing the magnitudes or quantities of important natural phenomena. Science require that quantities must be defined and measured. Things that cannot be measured like beauty, love, hate, are all not science.om a On the other hand quantities like length, time, density, temperature, electric fluxes can be measured therefore they are called physical quantities. Acomplete set of units for all physical quantities is called system of units. However to form a system we does not need to define every quantity. We take only a few quantities (called base quantities) and base units to agree on accessible and invariable standards for measurement such that all other quantities and units are expressed in terms of those quantities. In earlier times scientists around the world were using different systems of units for their liking. Three such systems, the MKS, the CGS and the FPS (or British) system were in use extensively till recently. In 1960 an international committee agreed on a single system for whole world, the system's official name is the Syst’ eme International, or SI, meaning International System. We can use other systems and its units (Fahrenheit, pounds, and miles) for our convenience but in science we must always use SI. ‘A. Base Units: In SI SEVEN physical quantities chosen arbitrarily as base and their corresponding units are defined and standardized and are called base units as shown in table 1.1. The definition of each base unit of the SI is carefully drawn up so that it is unique and provides a sound theoretical basis upon which the most accurate and reproducible measurements can be made. ACR RENE) cee UML ND) Coker SCA Length x, re.t.c |meter m Mass m kilogram Kg Time, duration t second s Electric current 1 ampere A Thermodynamic temperature T kelvin Amount of substance n mole mot Luminous intensity \ candela cdom wa B. Derived Units: A quantity and its unit obtained and developed from base quantities and their respective units without giving any consideration to the directional properties are called derived quantities and its units. Units for all other physical quantities can be derived from the seven base units, table 1.2, list of few derived quantities. BUR Pree Da Ret ag SI Coherent Derived Unit Area A square meter m Volume v cubic meter m Speed, velocity v meter per second ms" Acceleration a meter per second squared | ms” The number of derived quantities of interest in science and technology has no limit. Alarge number of other derived units can also be formed by combining base units according to the algebraic relations of the corresponding quantities. C. Supplementary units: Pure geometrical units (radian and the steradian) were classified by the System International (SI) as supplementary units. But this designation was abrogated in 20"" CGPM (french words Conférence générale des poids et mesures abbreviated from General Conference on Weights and Measures) in 1995 and the units were grouped as derived units. These two units radian and steradian are discussed in this topic. |. Radian: The most natural way to measure the angle @ is not in degrees, but in radians. One radian (1 rad) is the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an ‘arc witha length equal to the radius of the circle. The number of radians, in general is given by the arc length divided by radius of the circle. / Arclength s Number of radians (q)=———Arctensth_$ 9)" Radius of same circle ~ r Relation radian measurement and degree measurement: In one complete rotation there are 360°om a Number of degrees inonerevolution = 360” —_—__#— Rl IRE Internal diameter d, + Ad, = (101.41 + 0.05) mm | Meu External diameter d, + Ad, = (102.79 + 0.05) mm || “ickness of Pipe S$ $A To find the thickness of the pipe we would subtract the internal diameter from the external diameter however we will add its fractional uncertainties as d=d, ~d,+(Ad, + Ad,) Putting values d = (102.79-101.41)mm(0.05+0.05)mm d =(1.3820.10)mm Be careful not to subtract uncertainties when subtracting measurements uncertainty ALWAYS gets worse as more measurements are combined. Since the difference in the radius is required for the thickness ‘t’ therefore both the diameter and the uncertainty must be divided by 2 (as the percentage uncertainty remains the same), Hence 1.38 _ 0.10 2mm 2 2 t = (0.69% 0.05)mm OSL a pd WALL WIDTH Aphysicist calculated the wall width of half brick thickness (the brick is laid in a flat position, lengthwise called stretcher position), as (13.6 + 0.1)cm. And one brick thickness (the brick is placed in flat position, lengthwise orthogonal to wall, called header position), as (23.6 + 0.1) cm. Calculate the difference in width of walls with uncertainity init. (10.0+0.2) cmEa eT) ed AREA OF ROOM The length and width of a rectangular room are measured to be [= (Ll) = (3.955 £ 0.005) m and w = (w+ Aw)=( 3.050 + 0.005) m. Calculate the area A= (A: AA) of the room and its uncertainty. => length { = (4.050 + 0.005) m -955 + 0.005) m E>___$$_$_____—_—_—_—_____——_ For the product percentage uncertainties are added. The length ‘l’ and width ‘w’ in percentage uncertainties are 0.005m 4.050 m 0.005 m 2.955 m Since the area of a rectangle is the product of length and width A=low or — A=(4.050m20.12%)x(2.955m-+ 0.17%) In multiplication the percentage uncertainties are added A= (4.050mx2.995m)+(0.12%+0.17%) or A=12.20m?+0.29% ‘to convert it back to fractional uncertainty, we have 0.29 2 A= (12.20 —— «12.2 (12.202 555 *12.20)m or [ A=(12.20+0.035)m? Assignment 1.3 Paras The voltage ‘V (V + AV)’is measured as 7.3V*0.1 Vand current ‘I = Al) is measured as 2.73 A + 0.05 A. Calculate the resistance ‘R’ by using Ohm’s Law asR=VII. (2.7 £0.08) Ra width w = l= *100%=4.050 m+ 0.12% }.050ms- and w=2.955m+ 100% = 2.955 m+0.17%om seth) ees BALL DROP Aball drops from rest from an unknown height ‘h’. The time ‘t’ it takes for the ball to hit the ground is measured to be (t + At) = (1.3 + 0.2). The height is related to this time by the equation h = % gt? (where g = 9.81m/s?). Assume that the value for ‘g’ carries no uncertainty and calculate the height ‘h’ ‘including its uncertainty. PS) time t (t + At) = (1.3 £0.2)s height ‘h” acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ = 9.81m/s? <9—$ A For the power percentage uncertainties is multiplied with power. The percentage uncertainty in time ‘t’ is Ah) belase: 1.3 Since the Height ‘h’ is given by sgt? Putting values 4x9. ms?x(1.35 15.4%)? For the power percentage uncertainties is multiplied with power, therefore h= 49.81 ms? «1.698? 4£2%15.4% or h=8.30m @30.8% to convert it back to fractional uncertainty, we have 30.8 h= (8.304 ——x8. (8.302 100 « 8.30)m. or h=(8.32.6)m PSU a eed VOLUME OF SPHERE The radius of sphere ‘r’ is measured with vernier callipers as (rAr)= (2.25 +0.01)cm, Calculate the volume of sphere. _(47.740.6) cm’a) 1.7 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES \A significant figure is one that is reliably known. In any measurement the ‘accurately known digits and the first doubtful digit are collectively called significant figures. in many cases the uncertainty of a number is not stated explicitly. instead, the uncertainty is indicated by the number of meaningful digits, or significant figures, in the measured value. There are some rules that must be followed while dealing with significant figures. General Rules 1. NON ZERO digits are always significant. That is all the digits from 1 to 9 are significant, e.g the number of significant figures in 47.872 is 5. 2. ZERO in between two significant digits is always significant, e.g the number of significant figures in 301.5006 is 7. 3. ZEROs to the left of significant figures are not significant, e.g the number of significant figures in 0.000538 is 3. 4, ZEROs to the right of the significant figure may or may not be significant. In decimal fractions zero to the right of a decimal fraction are significant, e.g in 5.200 there are 4 significant figures. However if the number is an integer, number of significant figures depends upon the least count of the measuring instrument, e.g in number 500,000 we may have 1, Zor even 6 significant figures. 5. In scientific notation or standard form the figures other than power of ten are significant, e.g in number 2.1000 x 10%, there are 5 significant figures. Significant Figures in Calculation: When we use a calculator to analyze problems or measurements, we may be able to save time because the calculator can compute faster. However, the calculator does not keep track of significant figures. (a) Addition and Subtraction: When two or more quantities are added or subtracted, the result is as precise as the least precise of the quantities. After adding or subtracting, round the result by keeping only as many decimal places as are in the figure containing least decimal places of the quantities that were added or subtracted.om ol For example, 44.56005 + 0.0698 + 1103.2 = 1147.82985. We do not want to write all of those digits in the answer. Rounding to the nearest tenth of the figure, the sum is written = 1147.8. (b) Multiplication and Division: When quantities are multiplied or divided, the result has the same number of significant figures as the quantity with the smallest number of significant figures. For example, a calculator gives 45.26 x 2.41 = 109.0766. Since the answer should have only three significant figures, we round the answer to 45,262.41 = 109. Inscientific notation, we write 1.09 x 10°. Inaseries of calculations, rounding to the correct number of significant figures should be done only at the end, not at each step. Rounding at each step would increase the chance that roundoff error could snowball and have an adverse effect on the accuracy of the final answer. It's a good idea to keep at least two extra significant figures in calculations, then round at the end. isc} SIGNIFICANT FIGURES CALCULATION Calculate the answers to the appropriate number of significant figures. (a) 0.35 - 0.1 (b) 32.567 + 135.0 + 1.4567 (c) 420.03 + 299.270 + 99.068 (d) 14x8 (e) (2400)(3.45)(16.21) (f) 32,09 +1.2-17.035 19.8 | SOLUT\ON {a) Calculating 0,35 “0.4 0.25 Not worrying about significant figures, the result of 0.35 -0.1=0.25.‘Unit 7 (Ga) But, according to the rules of significant figures, the result should have the same number of decimal places as the input with the fewest number of decimal places. The result of our calculation should be rounded to the tenths place—so, 0.35-0.1=0.2. or 0.35 - 0.1 = 0.2 (b) Calculating 32,567 135.0 + 1.4567 “169.0237 But, since according to the rules of significant figures, the result should be rounded to the lowest number of decimal places as in the input given numbers. The result of our calculation should be rounded to one decimal place. So or — | 32.567 +135.0 +1.4567 = 169.0 {c) Calculating 499.93 299.270 + 99.068 818.368 But, since according to the rules of significant figures, the result should be rounded to the lowest number of decimal places as in the input given numbers. The result of our calculation should be rounded to two decimal place. Therefore or | 420.03 + 299.270 + 99.068 = 818.37 >——@ieea (d) Calculating 14 <8 112‘Unit 7 GQ However, according to the rules of significant figures, the result should have the same number of significant figures as the quantity with the smallest number of significant figures. In this case the number 14 has two significant digits and number 8 has one significant digit. Therefore, the result of our calculation should be rounded to only one significant digit. Therefore or 148 =100 = 1x10" (e) Calculating 2400 3.45 © 16.21 © 134,218.8 However, according to the rules of significant figures for multiplication, the result should have the same number of significant figures as the quantity with the smallest number of significant figures. In this case the number 2400 has two significant digits, number 3.45 has three significant digits and number 16.21 has four significant digits. Therefore, the result of our calculation should be rounded to two significant digits. Hence or | (2400)(3.45)(16.21) (f) Calculating 32.09 +1.2 33.29 Although the answer should have one decimal place, but we will keep both and proceed. 33.29 -17.035, 76.255 Again the answer should have one decimal place, but we will keep all digits. 16.255 79.8 7 0°820959596‘Unit 7 @) However, according to the rules of significant figures for division, the result should have the same number of significant figures as the quantity with the smallest number of significant figures. In this case the number 16.255 has five significant digits and number 19.8 has three significant digits. Therefore, the result of our calculation should be rounded to three significant digits. Hence or eT 5 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES CALCULATION Calculate the answers to the appropriate number of significant figures. (a) 0.31 +0.1 (b) 658.0 + 23.5478 + 1345.29 (0) 8x7 (d) 0.9935 10.48 x 13.4 (2) 5.5/1.4 (f) 73.2+18,72x6.1 3.4 (a) 0.4 , (b)2026.8, ( c) 60 (d) 140 or 1.40x10", (e) 5.0 & (f) 55 1.8 PRECISION AND ACCURACY When a value is measured, two parameters precision and accuracy affect the quality of the measurement. Therefore it is important to clearly distinguish between them. Precision: In measurements the term precision describes the degree of exactness with which a measurement is made and stated (that is, the position of the last significant digit). So significant figures help keep track of imprecision. For ‘example the precision of the measurement 293,000 km is 1000 km. (The position of the last significant digit is in the thousands place).Similarly the precision of the measurement 0.0210 s is 0.0001 s. (The position of the last significant digit is in the ten thousandths place). Precision depends on the instrument and technique used to make the measurement. Generally, the device that has the finest division on its scale produces the most precise measurement. It is important to record the precision of your measurements so that other people can understand and interpret your results. Precision therefore refers to closeness of the set of measurements of the same quantity made in the same way. Accuracy: In measurement the accuracy describes the closeness of a measured value to the actual value of the measured quantity. The accuracy of a measurement depends upon the number of | significant digits. The greater the number of significant digits given in a measurement, the better is the accuracy, and vice versa. For example the accuracy of the measurement 0.025 cm is indicated by two significant digits. Table 1.4: PRECISION AND ACCURACY 2642 m 1m 4 2050 m 10m 3 34,000 km_ 1000 km 2 203.05 kg 0.01 kg 5 0.000285 kg 0.000001 kg 3 75N 1N 2 4.050 ss 0.001 us 4 100.050 km 0.001 km 6 Accuracy shows how well the results of a measured value agree with the actual value (that is the accepted value as measured by competent experimenters). As it is difficult to know the actual (true) value; it is only predicted theoretically, and then is accepted based on the results of repeated experiments.on a) For example, the accepted value of acceleration due to gravity is 9.80 m/s", Consider a dart game with bulls-eye at the center as shown in the Figure 1.3. © If the darts land close to the bulls-eye and close together, there is both accuracy and precision as in Figure 1.3(a). © If all of the darts land very close together, but far from the bulls-eye, there is precision, but not accuracy as in Figure 1.3 (b). © If the darts are spread around the bulls-eye there is mathematical accuracy because the average of the darts isin the bulls-eye asin Figure 1.3(c ). © If the darts are neither close to the bulls-eye, nor close to each other, there is neither accuracy, nor precision as in Figure 1.3 (d). (a) both (b) precise (c) accurate (d) neither accurate but not but not accurate and precise accurate precise nor precise 1.9 DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES Dimensions describes the physical nature of quantity. Each basic measurable physical quantity is represented by specific symbol and written within square bracket is called dimension of physical quantity. By convention physical quantities are organized in a system of dimensions. Each of the seven base quantities used in the SI is regarded as having its own dimension, which is symbolically represented by a single sans serif roman capital letter.Br CR Perea Pre The symbols used for the base quantities, and the symbols used to denote their dimension, are given in table 1.5. All other quantities are derived quantities, which may be written in terms of the base quantities by the equations of physics. The dimensions of the derived quantities are the product of the dimensions of the base quantities of which the quantity is derived. For example area is defined as (length length) is dimensionally [L? DIMENSIONS Length (] Mass [M] Time, duration (Tt) Electric current m Thermodynamic temperature | [0] Amount of substance IN] Luminous intensity fa The dimensions of any derived quantity is written as product of powers of the dimensions of the base quantities. In general the dimension of any quantity Q is written in the form of a dimensional product, dimQ=LIM'T ONS where the exponents a, 8, y, 8, €, ¢, and n, which are called the dimensional exponents. In this type of representation, the magnitudes are not considered. Thus, a change in velocity, initial velocity, average velocity, final velocity, and speed are all equivalent. Table 1.5 shows some derived dimensions. Bel CPO ao ae eh PANT (e Ny Velocity wry Area w) ‘Acceleration wry Volume w Force (Mtr) Pressure mT) Work or Energy | (ML'T"] Period m Power [MLT] Frequency wl‘Unit 7 ji Ge) 1.9.1 Some Terms Used With Dimensions: There are few terms that are used in dimensional analysis, which are A. Dimensional variables: The physical quantities which have the dimensions of variable magnitude are called Dimensional variables. (e. g force, energy, acceleration etc.) B. Dimensional constants: The physical quantities which have the dimensions but are constant in magnitude are called Dimensional constants. (e. g speed of light, planck’s constant, gravitational constant etc.) C. Dimension-less variables: The physical quantities which have no dimensions but changing magnitude are called dimension-less variables. (e. 3 plane angle, solid angle, strain etc.) D. Dimension-less constants: The physical quantities which have no dimensions but having constant magnitude are called dimension-less constants. (e. g pure numbers, the number metc.) 1.9.2 Dimensional Formula: The expression which shows how and which of the base quantities represent the dimensions of a physical quantity is called the dimensional formula of the given physical quantity. For example, the dimensional formula of the volume is [M” L’ T"], and that of speed or velocity is [M* LT’). Similarly, [M* L T’]is the dimensional formula of acceleration. 1.9.3 Dimensional Equation: An equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its dimensional formula is called the dimensional equation of the physical quantity. Thus, the dimensional equations are the equations, which represent the dimensions of a physical quantity in terms of the base quantities. For example, the dimensional equations of volume [V], speed [v], force [F] and mass density [p] may be expressed as (= (LT), (= (MET), [F)= (MET), [p]= [MET] The dimensional equation can be obtained from the equation representing the relations between the physical quantities. 1.9.4 Advantages of Dimensional Analysis: Using the methods of dimensions called dimensional analysis, we can check the correctness of the equation and also its derivation. A. Checking the correctness of a physical equation: In order to show the rightness of the physical equation we have to show that the dimensions on both sides of the equation are same, without any regard to the form of the formula.‘Unit 7 Gy This is called principle of the dimensional homogeneity of a physical equation, (see example 1.6) Limitation: Even if a physical relation is dimensionally correct, it doesn't prove that the relation is physically correct. Thus, a dimensionally correct equation need not be actually an exact (correct) equation, but a dimensionally wrong (incorrect) or inconsistent equation must be wrong. . Deriving a possible formula: Dimensional analysis can be used to derive a possible formula, but the success of this method depends upon the correct guessing of various factors on which the physical quantity depends. (see example 1.7) Limitation: Dimensional analysis is very useful in deducing relations among the interdependent physical quantities. However, dimensionless constants cannot be obtained by this method. The method of dimensions can only test the dimensional validity, but not the exact relationship between physical quantities in any equation. It does not distinguish between the physical quantities having same dimensions. scl DIMENSIONAL FORMULA FOR DRAG FORCE Using the dimension analysis to find the correct relation mv? mv’ (a) F=" or (by) F= r r Dimensions of force ‘F’=[MIL'T"] , Dimensions of mass ‘m’ = [M'] Dimensions of velocity ‘v’=[L'T'] & Dimensions of radius ‘r’ = [L'] RU) Correct relation for force ‘F'=? —__________ For the equation to be correct the principle of dimensional homogeneity of physical equation suggest that the dimensions on the left hand side of the equation must be equal to the dimensions on the right hand side. (a) Dimensions on the right hand side (R.H.S) of the equation R.H.S = [MLT?] —(@)a) Whereas the dimensions on the left hand side (L.H.S) of the equation me] vi or LH LH.S=[M'[22]T?] LH.S=[M'LT?] —@) from Equation 1 and 2 it is clear that dim []R.H.S — dim (]L.H.S mv? my" is not a dimensionally correct relation r F (b) Dimensions on the right hand side (R.H.S) of the equation R.H.S = [MUT?] —@) Whereas the dimensions on the left hand side (L.H.S) of the equation MUTT IM ET] TF LHS LH.S=[M 21077] L.H.S=[M'L'T?] —@) from Equation 3 and 4 it is clear that dim [] R.H.S = dim (]L.H.S L.H.S: z hence | F = isa dimensionally correct relation r Pea) FORMULA FOR TIME PERIOD Show that the equations (a) v,=v,+at — (b) s =vt+at? 2 are dimensionally correct.on a) STR Bee IMENSIONAL FORMULA FOR DRAG FORCE When a solid sphere moves through a liquid, the liquid opposes the motion witha force F. The magnitude of F depends on the coefficient of viscosity n (having dimensions n = [M'L'T']) of the liquid, the radius r of the sphere and the speed v of the sphere. Assuming that F is proportional to different powers of these quantities, guess a formula for F using the method of dimensions. =~ ———_ Dimensions of coefficient of viscosity ‘n’ = [M'L'T'] REQUIRED Possible formula for Dimensions of radius ‘r’ = [L'] rag fore (Fem Dimensions of velocity ‘v’ = [L'T"] Dimensions of force ‘F’ = [M'L'T’] xa—_$$£——____________, Let the drag force depends upon coefficient of viscosity ‘n’, radius ‘r’and velocity ‘v’ by the following equation Fvner'y! or Fy =kh*r*v! 9) Where k is constant of proportionality, now putting appropriate dimensions IMUT2] = Ewe PEP UTE (MPLLP ET]? = (MP ELY TT 2 Comparing the powers of similar physical quantities For M For T For Ll tay = (MP my =m" wy uy" a=1 -a+b+c=1 asa=tandc=1 “14 b41= batom i) putting values of a, b and c in equation 1 we get F, =kh'r'v? Fy =khrv Dimension analysis does not give information about the value of constant, however from experiment we know that this constant is 61. or F, = 6phrv 7 FORMULA FOR TIME PERIOD Pes uns Find an expression for the time period ‘7’ of a simple pendulum. The time period ‘T’ may depend upon (i) mass ‘m’ of the bob of the pendulum, (fi) length “U of pendulum, (iii) acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ at the place where the yendulum is suspended. : " T=2n Physics: The study of the physical word in specific and physical universe in general. aura System International (SI): System of units is adopted specifically by the science community for measurement of physical quantities. The SI units consists of seven fundamental units from which all the units for other physical quantities developed called derived units. Least count or resolution: The smallest increment measurable by measuring instrument. Error: The doubt that exists about the result of any measurement. Uncertainty: The quantification or magnitude of error or doubt in measurement. Precision: The degree of exactness with which a measurement is made and stated. PEELE Accuracy: The closeness of a measured value to the actual value of the measured quantity. Significant figures: In any measurement the number of accurately known digits and first doubtful digit. Dimension: Expressing a physical quantity in terms of base physical quantities (by using special symbols). Dimensions of a physical quantity help tounderstand its relation with base physical quantities.oi) EXERCISE yi Choose the best possible answer 3 eo What is the radian measure between the arms of watch at 5:00 pm? MA. tradian B.2radian C. 3radian_—_D. 4 radian We v- {i A. 0.01745 radian B. 1 radian C. 3.14 radian D. 2m radian [3] @ The metric prefix for 0.000001 is fe] Ahecto = B. micro. C. deca D. nano Di) @ Which of the following is the CORRECT way of writing units? 4 A.71Newton B.12mps C.8Kg —_—D. 43 kgm? fa] @ Astudent measures a distance several times. The readings lie Fa] between 49.8 cm and 50.2 cm. This measurement is best recorded as A.(49840.2)cm. —B. (49.8 + 0.4) cm, 2) C. (50.0 + 0.2) em. D.( 50.0 + 0.4 Jem Fa] @ The percent uncertainty in the measurement of{ 3.76 + 0.25) m is By AK iB. 6.6% C. 25% D. 376% ul @ The temperatures of two bodies measured by a thermometer are (yt, = (200.5) °C andt, = (50 + 0.5) °C. The temperature difference Rand the error therein is 2 A. (30+0.0)°C ——B. (30 + 0.5) °C C. 30 +1) °C D. (30 + 1.5) °C © (5.0m + 4.0%) x (3.05 + 3.3%) = A. 15.0 ms # 13.2% B. 15.0 ms # 7.3% C. 15.0 ms + 0.7% D. 15.0 ms + 15.38 © (2.0m 2.0%) = A. 8.0 m? = 1.0% B. 8.0m? £ 2.0% C. 8.0 m? + 5.0% D. 8.0 m? + 6.0%om a @ The number of significant figures in measurement of 0.00708600 cm are A3 B.4 C6 0.9 ® How many significant figures does 1.362 + 25.2 have? A2 B.3 as D.8 @ Compute the result to correct number of significant digits 4.513m+27.3m= A.29m B. 28.8m C.28.81m —_D. 28.813 m @® If 7.635 and 4.81 are two significant numbers. Their multiplication in significant digits is: A, 36.72435B. 36.724 C. 36.72 D. 36.7 @® The precision of the measurement 385,000 km is A.10km — B.100km —C. 1000 km D. 1000000 km ©® [MU'T’] are dimension of A. strain B. refractive index C. magnification _D. All of these @ The dimensions of torque are A.[MLT] 8. (M'L’T] C. [MT] D. [ML'T}} Loe) elt at eel Sle) Give a short response to the following questions @ Foran answer to be complete, the units need to be specified. Why? @ Whatare the advantages of using International System of Units (SI)? © How many radians account for circumference of a circle? How many steradians account for circumference of a sphere? © Whatis least count error? How can least count error be reduced? © Why including more digits in answers, does not make it more accurate? e What determines the precision of ameasurement? @ | two quantities have different dimensions, is it possible to multiply and/or divide. Can we add and/or subtract them?‘Unit 7 Gy © The human pulse and the swing of a pendulum are possible time units. Whyare they not often used? © tran equation is dimensionally correct, is that equation a right equation? COMPREHENSIVE QUESTIONS Give extended response to the following questions @ Define Physics? Explain the scope and importance of physics in science, technology and society? What is system of units? In SI what is meant by base, derived and supplementary units? ‘What conventions are used in SI to indicate units? What are errors? Differentiate between systematic and random errors? What is uncertainty in measurement? explain the propagation of uncertainty in addition, subtraction, multiplication and division? What are significant figures? What are the rules for determining significant figures in the final result after addition, subtraction, multiplication and division? @ Differentiate between precision and accuracy in the measurement. What is meant by dimensions of physical quantities? What are limitations and applications of dimensional analysis? NUMERICAL QUESTIONS @ Acircutar pizza into 3 equal parts, one piece of pizza is taken out. Estimate the degree measure of the single piece of pizza and convert the measure into radians. What is the radian measure of the angle of the remaining part of pizza? (4Frad=4.19rad& 27 rad-?.09rad) @ The length of a pendulum is (1.5 + 0.01) m and the acceleration due to gravity is taken into account as (9.8 « 0.1) ms”. Calculate the time period of the pendulum with uncertainty in (2.5 20.8%) © Determine the area of a rectangular sheet with length (1 Al) = (1.50.2 0.02) mand width (wz Aw) = (0.20 0.01) m. Calculate the area (As AA). (0.30m', £0.02m’)‘Unit 7 Gy © Calculate the answer up to appropriate numbers of significant digits (a) 246.24 + 238.278 +98.3 (b) 1.4% 2,639+ 117.25 (¢) (2.66 x 10°) - (1.03 x 10°) (d) (112 x 0.456) / (3.2.x 120) (e) 168.999 (f) 1023 + 8.5489 (a) 582.8 , (b) 120.9, (c) 2.56 x 10° » (d) 0.13 , (e) 2000 & (f) 1032 © Calculate the answer up to appropriate numbers of significant digits (a) The ratio of mass of proton ‘m,’ to the mass of electron ‘m,’ m, 1.67 107g m, 9.1096 x10"kg (b) The ratio of charge on electron “q,’ tomass of electron ‘m,’ de 1.6% 10°C m, 9.1096 x 10 "kg (a)1.83 = 10° & (b)1.8 x 10" C/kg @ Find the dimensions of (a) planck’s constant ‘h’ from formula E = hf Where Eis the energy and fis frequency. mm, (b) gravitational constant ‘G’ fromthe formula F = G72 a Where ‘F’ is force, ‘m,’ and ‘m,’ are masses of objects and ‘r’ is the distance between centers of objects. (a)[M'UT J& (b)[M'LT’] @ Showthat (@) KE = Smv? and (b) PE, = mgh are dimensionally correct.[Zu Ru Rae ad represent a vector into two perpendicular components. determine the sum of vectors 1g perpendicular components. describe scalar product of two vectors in term of angle between them, describe vector product of two vectors in term of angle between them. state the method to determine the direction of vector product of two vectors. define the torque as vector product rx F list applications of torque or moment due to a force. state first condition of equilibrium, state second condition of equilibrium. solve two dimensional problems involving forces (statics) using 1st and 2nd conditions equilibrium.EERE vectors ano equueRunt Vectors were developed in the late nineteenth century as mathematical tools for studying physics. In the following century, vectors became an essential tool for anyone using mathematics or physics. In order to navigate, pilots need to know what effect a crosswind will have on the direction in which they intend to fly. In order to build bridges, engineers need to know what load a particular design will support. There and many other technological examples have made vectors an integral part to study physics. 2.1 VECTORS Avector is a mathematical quantity having both magnitude and direction. Some quantities (such as weight, velocity, or friction) require both a magnitude (or size) and a direction for a complete description and are called vectors. Vectors, have both magnitude and direction and obey the rules of vector algebra. Unlike scalars they cannot be added, subtracted and multiplied by using ordinary algebra. Representation of vectors: Vectors can be represented in two ways. ‘A, Symbolic representation: Symbolically a vector is represented by a bold face letter either capital or small. (e.g F, f). Vector can also be represented by a simple face letter with an arrow over or below it. In this book we will represent vectors by letter with an arrow over it. For example A © ord To indicate only the magnitude of vector, the quantity may be printed in italics or the mathematicians’ absolute-value sign may be used. For example A|”|B|*|C| or |D| 8, Graphical Representation: Graphically a vector is represented by an arrow, the length of the arrow gives the magnitude (under certain scale) and the arrow head points the direction of the vector. The starting point of the vector is called tail of the vector and the en Vector ee ending point is called head of the lea vector as shown in the figure. ll