To Medical Physics

UMM AL QURA UNIVERSITY
PREPARATORY YEAR
INTRODUCTION
TO MEDICAL
PHYSICS
SYLLABUS
Original textbook
"Physics" edited by Joseph W. KANE and Morton M. STERNHEIM.
Third Edition. JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. ISBN: 0-471-63845-5
CHAPTER TITLE WEEK Modifications

1 Motion on a straight line 2+3
2 Motion in two dimensions 4
3 Newton’s law of motion 5
4 Statics 6
6 Work and energy 7
13 Mechanics of nonviscous fluids 8+10
14 Viscous fluids 11
24 Mirrors, lenses and optical systems 12+13
30 Nuclear Physics 14
31 Ionizing Radiation 15
INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL PHYSICS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 2

What is medical physics?
Medical physics is the application of physics to medicine.

All areas of physics can be applied to medicine
(Mechanics, electromagnetism, thermodynamics,
nuclear physics, optics, fluids,…..)
Medical physics is mainly involved in the development of
new instrumentation and technology used for diagnosis
and also for treatments.
The human body is a very complex system. Concepts of
modeling in physics can by applied to simulate different
activities of the human body systems:
For example the modeling of the blood flow in the study
of the body’s circulatory system.

The human body is made up of different systems working together to keep the body
in health. We can use analogies with physics to simulate the function of these
systems and to understand the connections between them.

Application to medical diagnosis
Different techniques of diagnosis and medical instruments are based on physical principles
such as, the measurement of the body temperature, the measurement of the blood
pressure, the eye pressure , the heart pulse,…
Medical imaging ( X-rays radiology, Magnetic Resonance Imaging MRI, ultra-sound scan,… ) is
a very useful descipline of medical diagnosis.
The figures shows an old and a new instrument for breathing diagnosis

Medical instruments
Blood pressure measurement
Sphygmomanometer Digital wrist tensiometer
Body temperature measurement
Medical mercury thermometer Infrared era thermometer

Medical instruments
Otoscope
An otoscope is a medical device
typically having a light and a set of
lenses, used for the visual
examination of the eardrum and
the canal of the outer ear.

Medical Imaging
Magnetic Resonance Imaging MRI
MRI uses the property of the nuclear magnetic resonance NMR to image the nuclei of atoms
inside the body, specially the hydrogen atom H since the body tissues contain lots of water. MRI is
used for pathologic diagnosis such as lesions in the brain
MRI device MRI Image

X-Ray Imaging
An X-ray is a painless medical test that helps
physicians diagnose. Radiography involves exposing
a part of the body to a small dose of ionizing
radiation to produce images inside of the body. X-
rays are the oldest and most frequently used form
of medical imaging.
Fluoroscopy
One of the most important benefits of this
procedure is that it allows the doctor to view the
body’s inner systems while they are actually
functioning. For example, a doctor can watch a
patient’s stomach as it digests food, allowing the
doctor to obtain valuable diagnostic information.

M e d i c a l s u rge r y
Laser surgery (photocoagulation)
Retinal detachment occurs when part of it is lifted from its normal position in the back of the eyeball.
During photocoagulation your surgeon directs a laser beam through a contact lens or
ophthalmoscope designed for this procedure. The laser makes burns around the retinal tear, and
the scarring that results usually "welds" the retina to the underlying tissue.

Endoscopy
Endoscopic surgery uses scopes going through small incisions or natural body openings in order to
diagnose and treat disease. Another popular term is minimally invasive surgery (MIS), which
emphasizes that diagnosis and treatments can be done with reduced body cavity invasion.
An endoscope is a long, thin and flexible tube

Diagnosis of stomach by Upper- endoscopy
which has a light and a video camera.

Prosthesis
Prosthesis is the replacement of a missing or a defect parts of the body by an other made
artificially and assuming the same function as the missing part.
Cartilage prosthesis of the knee

Hearing Aid
Artificial Leg

Artificial devices to replace vital organs continues to be a human dream for thousands of people
around the world who are waiting for a heart or a kidney grief.
Total artificial heart

Human heart

Chapter 1
MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE

COURSE TOPICS:
 1.1 Measurements, Standards and Units

 1.2 Displacements; Average Velocity
 1.3 Instantaneous Velocity
 1.4 Acceleration
 1.5 Finding the Motion of an Object
 1.6 The Acceleration of Gravity and Falling
Objects
Examples to be explained and solved:

1.2; 1.4; 1.14; 1.16 and 1.20
Homework Problems: 1.3- 1.16 and 1.50
CHAPTER 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 15

I nt ro d u c t i o n
The objective of this chapter is to learn how to describe the motion of an object on a straight line.
The description of motion is treated from a kinematics point of view, then the causes of motion
(Forces) are note considered and the object in motion is treated as a point particle.
In this case the motion can be described with the following three quantities:
 The position as function of time 𝑥(𝑡)
 The velocity 𝑣 𝑡
 The acceleration 𝑎 𝑡
We define, also the basic quantities ( length, mass and time) playing a role in mechanics (science
of motion) and their standards.
1 . 1 M e a s u re m e nt s sta n d a rd s a n d u n i t s
Physical quantities are classified into fundamental quantities such as mass, length, time and
derived quantities such as velocity, acceleration, force, energy….

International system British system C.G.S System
Physical quantity unit symbol unit symbol unit symbol
Foot 𝑓𝑡 centimeter 𝑐𝑚
Length Meter 𝑚
1𝑓𝑡 = 0.3048 𝑚 1𝑐𝑚 = 10−2 𝑚
Pound 𝑙𝑏 gram 𝑔
Mass kilogram 𝑘𝑔
1𝑙𝑏 = 0.4536 𝑘𝑔 1𝑔 = 0.001 𝑘𝑔
Time second 𝑠 Second 𝑠 second s
The international system is also known as the metric system or the M.K.S.A system. In the
medical area some units are more used than those of the S.I units, such as the use of calorie
as unit for energy than the Joule (1 𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 4.2 𝐽) , the millimeter of mercury for the pressure
than the Pascal (1𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 = 133.32 𝑃𝑎) or the liter for the volume than the meter cube.

The sc i e n t i f i c n o t a t i o n
A number is said to be in scientific notation when it is written as a number between 1 and 10,
times a power of 10. for example 521 can be written as 5.21 × 102 , or a small number like
0.000000521 can be written as 5.21 × 10−7 . The advantage of this notation is its compactness, it
also facilitates numerical calculations.
When a number is written with the powers of 10, we can use the following prefixes
Prefix symbol
Multiples Prefix symbol Sub-multiples
10 deca da 0.1 10−1 deci d
100 102 hecto h 0.01 10−2 centi c
1000 103 kilo k 0.001 10−3 milli m
1000 000 106 Mega M 0.000001 10−6 micro 𝜇
1000 000 000 109 Giga G 0.000 000 001 10−9 nano n
1000 000 000 000 1012 Tera T 0.000 000 000 001 10−12 pico p

Conversion of units
To convert quantities from a unit system to another, we can use the following systematic
method:
Suppose we want to convert a length 𝐿 = 1.75 𝑚 into foot . The conversion factor between
the two units is given by: 1𝑓𝑡 = 0.3048 𝑚
To convert from meter to foot we have to follow these steps:
1- Multiply the quantity to convert by one:
𝐿 = 1.75𝑚 × 1
2- Rearrange the conversion factor in quotient equal to 𝟏 that allows the elimination of
the unit from which we want to convert :
1𝑓𝑡
1𝑓𝑡 = 0.3048 𝑚 ⇒ =1
0.3048𝑚
3- Replace this form in the first step:

1𝑓𝑡
𝐿 = 1.75𝑚 × 1 = 1.75𝑚 × = 5.74 𝑓𝑡
0.3048 𝑚
Example 1.1: Convert 100 𝑓𝑡 into meters.

0.3048𝑚
100 𝑓𝑡 = 100 𝑓𝑡 × 1 = 100 𝑓𝑡 × ( ) = 30.48 𝑚
1𝑓𝑡

Example 1.2:
Convert the velocity of 24 𝑚Τ𝑠 into 𝑘𝑚Τℎ.
We have 1 𝑘𝑚 = 103 𝑚 and 1 ℎ = 3600 𝑠
𝑚
Then 24 𝑚Τ𝑠 = 24 × 1 × 1 { 1 is written twice because we have two units to convert}
𝑠
𝑚 1𝑘𝑚 3600𝑠 24×3600 𝑘𝑚

24 𝑚Τ𝑠 = 24 × × = = 86.4 𝑘𝑚Τℎ
𝑠 103 𝑚 1ℎ 103 ℎ
Example 1.3: The skin is the largest organ in the human body; for a human adult the average area of
the skin surface is about 1.8 𝑚2 , how much squared foot is this area?
Solution: 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 1𝑓𝑡 = 0.3048 𝑚 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 1𝑓𝑡 2 = (0.3048)2 𝑚2
2 2
1𝑓𝑡 2
𝐴 = 1.8 𝑚 = 1.8 𝑚 × 2 2
= 19𝑓𝑡 2
0.3048 𝑚
Example 1.4: an ampoule contains a solution of drug of 300𝜇𝑔/5𝑚𝑙, convert this dose into 𝑔/𝑙.
300 𝜇𝑔 300×10−6 𝑔
Solution: 5𝑚𝑙
=
5×10−3 𝑙
= 0.06𝑔/𝑙

1 . 2 D i s p l a c e m e n t - Av e r a g e v e l o c i t y
To describe the motion of an object we should first set up a coordinate system to locate the position.
A coordinate system is made up of an origin, a positive direction and a unit of length.
Displacement: is the change in the position:
∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
Example:
In the figure above if the object moves from 𝑥1 𝑡𝑜 𝑥2 then its displacement is :
∆𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 7 𝑚 − 4𝑚 = 3 𝑚.
The displacement from 𝑥2 𝑡𝑜 𝑥3 is: ∆𝑥 = 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 = −5𝑚 − 7 𝑚 = −12 𝑚.
The displacement can be positive or negative; it is negative if the motion is in the negative
direction

Average velocity: the average velocity is the displacement over an elapsed time ∆𝑡:
∆𝒙 𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊
ഥ=
𝒗 =
∆𝒕 𝒕𝒇 − 𝒕𝒊
Example: a car is at 𝑥1 = 600 𝑚 when 𝑡1 = 5 𝑠 and at 𝑥2 = 500 𝑚 when 𝑡2 = 15𝑠 its average
∆𝑥 𝑥2 −𝑥1 500 −600 𝑚
velocity is: 𝑣ҧ = = = = −10 𝑚/𝑠
∆𝑡 𝑡2 −𝑡1 (15−5) 𝑠
1.3 Instantaneous velocity

The average velocity doesn’t give a description about the rate of change of the position at each
instant. We need often to know the velocity of an object at each second, referred to as
instantaneous velocity:
Instantaneous velocity: The instantaneous velocity is determined by computing the average
velocity for an extremely short time interval:
∆𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒗 = lim =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Mathematically this expression is the first derivative of 𝑥 with respect to the time

Example:
the motion of an object is given by the equation : 𝑥 𝑡 = 2 + 3𝑡 − 2𝑡 2 . Where
𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 and 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.
(a) Find the velocity of the object at 𝑡 = 5 𝑠.
(b) What is its average velocity between the two instants 𝑡1 = 3𝑠 and 𝑡2 = 5𝑠?
Answer:
𝑑𝑥
(a) 𝑣 = = 3 − 4𝑡; then at the instant 𝑡 = 5𝑠 𝑣 = 3 − 4 × 5 = −17 𝑚/𝑠
𝑑𝑡
(b) At 𝑡1 = 3𝑠 : 𝑥1 = 2 + 3 × 3 − 2 × 32 = −7 𝑚
At 𝑡2 = 5𝑠 ∶ 𝑥2 = 2 + 3 × 5 − 2 × 52 = −33𝑚
Then the average velocity is:
(−33 + 7)𝑚
𝑣ҧ = = −13𝑚/𝑠
5−3 𝑠

1 . 4 A c c e l e rat i o n
Like position, velocity can change with time. The rate at which velocity changes is the acceleration
. Again we can discuss the average and the instantaneous acceleration.
The Average acceleration is the change of velocity over an interval of time ∆𝑡:
∆𝒗
ഥ=
𝒂
∆𝒕
The Instantaneous acceleration is the rate change of velocity over an extremely short time
interval.
∆𝒗 𝒅𝒕
𝒂 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Example: the motion of an object is given by the equation : 𝑥 𝑡 = 27𝑡 − 4𝑡 2 . 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 and
𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑. (a) Find the acceleration of the object at 𝑡 = 5 𝑠.
Answer:
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑
(a) 𝑎= = = 27 − 8𝑡 = −8m/𝑠 2 ; the motion is with constant acceleration.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
A negative acceleration means that velocity is decreasing with time.

1.5 Finding the motion of an object
• If the initial position and velocity are known, their later values can then be found from the
acceleration.
• When the acceleration is constant, we can find the equations of motion. In this case the average
and the instantaneous accelerations are equal and the following equations are obtained:
1 Relating the final velocity to the initial

Average velocity 𝑣ҧ = 𝑣 + 𝑣𝑜 (1)
2 velocity
Relating the final velocity to the initial
Velocity equation ∆𝑣 = 𝑎∆ 𝑡 (2) velocity and the acceleration
1 Relating the final position to the initial
∆𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜 ∆𝑡 + 2 𝑎∆𝑡 2 (3)
Equation of motion position, the initial velocity and the
acceleration
Relating the final velocity to the initial
𝑣2 2
− 𝑣𝑜 = 2𝑎∆𝑥 (4) velocity, the acceleration and the position
change
Note that if the initial position 𝑥𝑜 and velocity 𝑣𝑜 are taken at the initial time 𝑡𝑜 = 0, then ∆𝑡 = 𝑡
− 𝑡𝑜 will be simply 𝑡, equations (2) , (3) and (4) are written as follows: 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 + 𝑎 𝑡 (2’),
1
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 + 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 (3’) and 𝑣 2 − 𝑣𝑜 2 = 2𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 (4’)
2

Example 1.16 P 14:
A car, initially at rest at a traffic light, accelerates at 2 𝑚/𝑠 2 when the light turns green. After 4
seconds what are its velocity and position?
Solution:
Since we know the acceleration 𝑎, the elapsed time 𝑡, and the initial velocity 𝑣0 = 0, we can use
Equations (2) and (3) to find the velocity and the displacement.
Thus,𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎 × 𝑡 = 0 + 2𝑚. 𝑠 −2 × 4𝑠 = 8 𝑚𝑠 −1
1 1
And  𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡2 = 0 + 2 × 2𝑚. 𝑠 −2 × 4𝑠 2 = 16 𝑚
After 4s the car has reached a velocity of 8m.s-1 and is 16m far from the light.
Note that we could also have found 𝑥 from Eq. (4) using our result for 𝑣
Exercise: Resolve example 1.16 with an initial velocity 𝑣0 = 3𝑚𝑠 −1 .

1.6 Free falling objects
Falling objects undergo an acceleration, which we attribute to gravity, the gravitational attraction
of the earth.
If gravity is the only factor affecting the motion of an object falling near the earth’s surface, and air
resistance is either absent or negligibly small. So long as the object’s distance from the surface of
the earth is small compared to the earth’s radius, it is found that:
1- The gravitational acceleration is the same for all falling objects, no matter what their size or
composition or mass.
2- The gravitational acceleration is constant. It does not change as the object falls.
•An object initially thrown upward has also the gravity acceleration . Its velocity steadily
decreases in magnitude until it becomes zero at the highest point reached.
• Free falling problems can be solved using the equations of motion in a straight line (which is on
the vertical direction) with a constant acceleration equal to 9.80 𝑚. 𝑠 −2 .

The equations of Free falling objects can be summarized in the following table:
Upward positive axis Downward positive axis
1
Δ𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜 ∆𝑡 + 2 (−9.80)∆𝑡 2 1
∆𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜 ∆𝑡 + (9.80)∆𝑡 2
2
𝑣 = 𝑣0 − 9.80 ∆𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 9.80 ∆𝑡
𝑣2 2
− 𝑣𝑜 = 2(−9.80)∆𝑦
𝑣 2 − 𝑣𝑜 2 = 2(9.80)∆𝑦
Example 1.20 P 17: A ball is dropped from 84 m above the ground. when does the ball strike the
ground? (b) what is its velocity and its speed when it strikes the ground?
1
a)Let choose the positive axis is upward, ∆𝑥 = 𝑔∆𝑡 2 (the initial velocity is zero) then
2
2(−84𝑚)
∆𝑡 = = 4.14𝑠
−9.80𝑚𝑠 −2
b) 𝑣 = 𝑔∆𝑡 = −9.80 𝑚𝑠 −2 × 4.14𝑠 = −40.6 𝑚𝑠 −1 then the ball hits the ground with a speed of
40.6 𝑚𝑠 −1

Chapter 2
MOTION IN TWO DIMEN SIONS
COURSE TOPICS:
 An introduction to vectors
 The velocity in two dimensions
 The acceleration in two dimensions
2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4 and 2.6
Homework Problems: 2.13, 2.15, 2.19 and 2.21
CHAPTER 2: MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 29

2 . 1 A n i nt ro d u c t i o n to ve c to rs
Physical quantities can be classified as scalars or vectors. A scalar quantity is simple number (with
unit) such as mass, distance, speed,…but a vector quantity is defined with both a magnitude
(which is a number with unit) and a direction; such as force, displacement, velocity,….
For example, to describe where the

school is located versus your home, it is
not sufficient to give the distance
between them. We have to give the
distance and the direction.
Along this chapter we will see how to describe motion in two dimensions using vectors. That’s why
it’s first important to know what is a vector and how to add, subtract and multiply vectors.

The components of a vector
Definition of vector: A vector is defined with a magnitude and a direction. The
magnitude is given by the length of the vector and the direction by a positive angle
(Fig. 2.2 a)
Figure 2.2: Components of vector
A vector 𝐴Ԧ is resolved in (𝑥, 𝑦) plane into two components (Fig. 2.2 b) : 𝐴𝑥 is the component
on the 𝑥 axis and 𝐴𝑦 is the component on the 𝑦 axis, where:
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃

If the vector is defined in the (𝑥, 𝑦) plane by its components 𝐴𝑥 and 𝐴𝑦 , then the
magnitude and the direction of the vector are:
𝐴𝑦
𝐴= 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 and 𝜃 = tan−1 +𝐶
𝐴𝑥
𝐶 is a correction of the angle which depend on the quadrant where the vector is located
𝐶 =0 if the vector is in the first quadrant

𝐶 = 180° the vector is in the second quadrant
𝐶 = 180° the vector is in the third quadrant
𝐶 = 360° the vector is in the fourth quadrant

Example 2.1 page 30:
A person walks 1 𝑘𝑚 due east. If the person then walks a second kilometer, what is the final distance
from the starting point if the second kilometer is walked :
(a) due east; (b) due west; (c) due south?
We will call the first displacement 𝐴Ԧ and the second 𝐵 .
Solution
We construct the sum 𝑪 = 𝑨 + 𝑩 for the
three cases (See Figure below).
(a) Since 𝑨 and 𝑩 are in the same direction,
𝐶 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 2𝐴 = 2 𝑘𝑚.
The vector 𝑪 is directed due east.
(b) Here, the vectors are opposite,
so 𝐶 = 𝐴 – 𝐵 = 0.
(c) From the Pythagorean theorem:
𝐶2 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 = 2 𝐴2,
so 𝐶 = 2 A = 2 𝑘𝑚
𝑪 points toward the southeast (Fig.2.3)

Find the components of the vectors 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵 in Fig.2.7, if 𝐴 = 2 and 𝐵 = 3.
Solution:
𝐴𝑥 and 𝐴𝑦 are positive:
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴 cos  = 2 cos 30° = 2(0.866) = 1.73
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃 = 2 sin 30° = 2 (0.500) = 1.00
From Fig.2.7b, 𝐵𝑥 is positive and 𝐵𝑦 is negative:
cos 45° = sin 45° = 0.707,
𝐵𝑥 = 3 cos 45° = 3 (0.707) = 2.12
𝐵𝑦 = −3 sin 45° = −3 (0.707) = −2.12

Adding and subtracting vectors
Adding vectors using components:
1. Find the components of each vector to be added
2. Add the 𝑥 − and 𝑦 −components separately
3. Find the resultant vector.
𝑪=𝑨+𝑩=𝑩+𝑨

Subtracting vectors:
The negative of a vector is a vector of the same magnitude pointing in the
opposite direction. Here 𝑫 = 𝑨 − 𝑩
𝑫 = 𝑨 + −𝑩 = 𝑩 − 𝑨

𝐴Ԧ = 2𝑥ො + 𝑦,
ො 𝐵 = 4𝑥ො + 7𝑦ො
(a) Find the components of 𝐶Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵
(b) Find the magnitude of 𝐶Ԧ and its angle𝜃 with respect to the positive
𝑥 axis
Solution:
a) Using the equation 𝐶Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 𝑥ො + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑦ො
We can write 𝐶Ԧ = 2 + 4 𝑥ො + 1 + 7 𝑦ො = 6𝑥ො + 8𝑦ො
Thus 𝐶𝑥 = 6, and 𝐶𝑦 = 8.
(b) From the Pythagorean theorem: 𝐶 2 = 𝐶𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 = 62 + 82 = 100
Then 𝐶 = 𝐶𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 = 100 = 10
From Fig. 2.9, we see that the angle 𝜃 satisfies:
𝐶𝑦 8
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = = = 1.33
𝐶𝑥 6
Then 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 1.33 = 53.1°
CHAPTER 2: MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016

Multiplying vector by scalar
Multiplying a vector by 3 increases its magnitude by a factor of 3, but does not change its
direction.
𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑥ො + 𝐴𝑦 𝑦ො
3𝐴Ԧ = 3𝐴𝑥 𝑥ො + 3𝐴𝑦 𝑦ො
−3𝐴Ԧ = −3𝐴𝑥 𝑥ො − 3𝐴𝑦 𝑦ො

T h e ve l o c i t y i n t wo d i m e n s i o n s
 In two dimensions, position, velocity, and acceleration are presented by vectors: motion in a
plane.
 A problem involving motion in a plane is a pair of one-dimensional motion problems.
If the displacement in a time interval ∆t is denoted by the vector ∆𝒔, then the average velocity of the
ഥ= ∆𝒔
object is parallel to ∆𝒔 and is given by: 𝒗
∆𝒕
where ∆𝑠Ԧ = ∆𝑥 𝑥ො + ∆𝑦 𝑦ො , then ഥ = ∆𝒙 𝒙

𝒗
∆𝒚
ෝ+ 𝒚 ෝ
∆𝒕 ∆𝒕

Example :
An ambulance travels from the hospital 10 𝑘𝑚 due south in 7 𝑚𝑖𝑛, and then
5 𝑘𝑚 due east in 3 𝑚𝑖𝑛. Find (a) the final position of the ambulance, (b) its
average velocity
Solution
(a) ∆𝑆 = 5 𝑘𝑚 𝑥ො − 10 𝑘𝑚 𝑦ො
(b) ∆𝑡 = 7𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 3𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 10 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.167 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
then:
∆𝑆 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 5 𝑘𝑚 10 𝑘𝑚
𝑣Ԧ = = 𝑥ො + 𝑦ො = 𝑥ො − 𝑦ො = 30 𝑘𝑚Τℎ 𝑥ො − 60 𝑘𝑚Τℎ 𝑦ො
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 0.167ℎ 0.167ℎ

A car travels halfway around an oval racetrack at a constant speed of 30 𝑚𝑠 −1 (Fig. 2.11).
(a) What are its instantaneous velocities at points 1 and 2?
(b) It takes 40 s to go from 1 to 2, and these points are 300 𝑚 apart. What is the average
velocity of the car during this time interval?
Solution:
a) The instantaneous velocity is tangent to the path of
the car, and its magnitude is equal to the speed. Thus,
at point 1 the velocity is directed in the +𝑦 direction
and 𝑣1 = 30 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑦ො . Similarly, at point 2 the velocity is
long the – 𝑦 direction, and 𝑣2 = −30 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑦ො
(b) The average velocity is the displacement divided by

the elapsed time. The displacement is entirely along the
x direction, so ∆𝑆Ԧ = 300 𝑚 𝑥ො .
∆𝑆Ԧ 300 𝑚
Since ∆t = 40 s, 𝑣Ԧҧ = = 𝑥ො = 7.5 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑥ො
∆𝑡 40 𝑠
The average velocity during this time interval is directed
along the +𝑥 axis. Its magnitude is less than the speed
of 30 𝑚𝑠 −1 because the car does not travel in a
straight line. Figure 2.11

T h e a c c e l e rat i o n i n t wo d i m e n s i o n s
The average acceleration is defined by :
∆𝑣 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
𝑎Ԧ = = = 𝑎𝑥 𝑥ො + 𝑎𝑦 𝑦ො
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
In Exercise 2.4 the velocity of the car changed from 𝑣1 = 30 𝑚 s−1 𝑦ො
to 𝑣2 = −30 𝑚 s−1 𝑦ො in 40 s.
What was the average acceleration of the car in that time interval?
Solution :
The average acceleration is defined as the velocity change divided by
elapsed time:
𝑣2 −𝑣1 −30 𝑚 𝑠 −1 𝑦−30
ො 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑦ො
𝑎Ԧ = = = −1.5 𝑚 𝑠 −2 𝑦ො
∆𝑡 40
Thus the average acceleration during the time the car goes from point 1
to point 2 is directed in the – 𝑦 direction, or downward in Fig. (2.11b)

This exercise illustrates two important points:
1- If the velocity is constant, the acceleration is zero , since 𝒂 is the rate of change of the
velocity.
However, when the speed is constant, the acceleration may or may not be zero. If an
object moves at a constant speed along a curved path, its velocity is changing direction,
and it is accelerating. We feel the effects of this acceleration when a car turns quickly.
The acceleration is zero only when the speed and direction of motion are both constants.
2- The directions of the velocity and acceleration at any instant can be related in many
ways.
The magnitude and direction of 𝒂 are determined by how 𝒗 is changing.
When a car moves along a straight road, the acceleration is parallel to the velocity if 𝑣 is
increasing and opposite if 𝑣 is decreasing.
When the motion is along a curved path, the acceleration is at some angle to the velocity.

Chapter 3
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

COURSE TOPICS:
 3.1 Force and weight

 3.2- Density
 3.3- Newton’s 1st law
 3.4- Equilibrium
 3.5- Newton’s 3rd law
 3.6- Newton’s 2nd law
 3.8- Some Examples of Newton’s Laws
 3.12- Friction
3.1, 3.2, 3.6, 3.9 and 3.17
Homework Problems: 3.17, 3.49 and 3.54
CHAPTER 3: NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 45

Introduction
 Having learned how to describe motion, we can now turn to the more fundamental question
of what causes motion. In a previous chapters the motion of an object was described without
considering the causes of motion (Forces) and the object in motion was considered like a
point particle without mass. In this chapter we introduce the concepts of mass and force.
 Although there are many kinds of forces in nature, their effects are described accurately by
three general laws, first stated by Isaac Newton.
 Even though twentieth century advances have shown that Newton’s laws are inadequate at
the atomic scale and at velocities comparable to the speed of light (3x108 m/s). But these
laws are fully adequate for must applications in different fields such as astronomy,
biomechanics, geology and engineering.

3.1 Force weight and gravitational mass
 A force is a vector quantity, it represents the ability to produce motion or to cause an object
to change its state of motion.
Two kinds of forces can be distinguished: field forces and contact forces
A field force is a force that acts through an empty space ( gravitational force, electric force,
magnetic force,…)
A contact force acts through a contact point or surface ( pushing or pulling, friction force, tension
on a string, reaction force,…)
If more than one force act on an object, the net force or resultant is the sum of the individual
forces: 𝐹Ԧ𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3 + ⋯ . = σ 𝐹Ԧ
 The weight is the magnitude of the gravitational force exerted by the earth on an object of
mass 𝑚: 𝑤 = 𝑚 × 𝑔
Where 𝑔 is the of gravity acceleration.

 The mass can be thought of as a quantity of matter. But from a mechanical point of view it
can be seen as resistance to the motion. This resistance is also named INERTIA which is a
measure of how is difficult to move or to change the state of motion of an object.
But an object submitted to the gravitational force has the gravitational mass which is equal to
its weight divided by the gravity acceleration: 𝑚 = 𝑊/𝑔
For Example, a man who weighs 1000 𝑁 on the earth has a gravitational mass:
𝑚 = 𝑤 /𝑔 = 1000 𝑁 / 9.80 𝑚 𝑠 −2 = 102 𝑘𝑔
The same man on the moon has the weight :
𝑤 = 𝑚 × 𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛 = 102𝑘𝑔 × 1.62 𝑚Τ𝑠 2 = 165𝑁
In everyday usage, mass is sometimes referred to as "weight", the units of which may be pound
or kilograms

3.2 Density
The density of an object is an intrinsic property of a material, microscopically related to the
atomic arrangement. At the macroscopic scale, the density is defined as the ratio of mass to the
𝒎
volume: 𝝆 = (its unit in 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3 )
𝑽
Two different objects of the same size, made up from different materials, have different masses
because they don’t have the same density.
Example 3.1 P 50: A cylindrical rod of aluminum has a

radius 𝑅 = 1.2 𝑐𝑚 and a length L = 2𝑚. What is its
mass?
Solution: The density of aluminum is 𝜌
= 2700 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3 .
The volume of a cylinder is 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑅 2 𝐿.
Then its mas is :
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌𝜋𝑅 2 𝐿 = (2700 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3 ) × 𝜋 × (1.2 × 10−2 𝑚)2
× 2𝑚 = 2.44 𝑘𝑔

3 . 3 N e w t o n ’s f i r s t l a w
 Newton’s first law states that:

Every object continues in a state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is
compelled to change that state by forces acting upon it.
 An equivalent statement of the first law is that if there is no force on an object, or if there
is no net force when two or more forces act on the object, then:
(1) an object at rest remains at rest, and
(2) an object in motion continues to move with constant velocity.
Newton’s first law as stated does not hold true for someone who is accelerating.
𝒗 = 𝟎 𝒊𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒕

𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝟎 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 ቐ 𝒐𝒓
𝒗 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝒊𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)

3.4 Equilibrium
 Newton’s first law tells us that the state of an object remains unchanged whenever the net
force on the object is zero (even though two or more forces act upon it). In this case the object
is said to be in equilibrium.
 The first law applies to objects in uniform motion as well as to objects at rest.
There are three types of equilibrium: unstable, stable, and neutral
1- Unstable equilibrium: a small displacement leads to an

unbalanced force that further increase the displacement from the
equilibrium location (ball in position A).
2- Stable equilibrium: a small displacement leads to an
unbalanced force that tends to restore the object to the
equilibrium location (ball in position B).
3- Neutral equilibrium: it is in equilibrium at any location near C.
CHAPTER 3: NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016

3 . 5 N e w t o n ’s t h i r d l a w
If one object exerts a force F on a second, then the second object exerts an equal but
opposite force -F on the first.
For example: suppose you are at rest in a swimming pool. If you push a wall with your legs, the
wall exert a force that propels you further into the pool. The reaction force the wall exerts on
you is opposite in direction to the action force you exert on the pool.
Example 3. 2 P 52:
A woman has a mass of 60 𝑘𝑔. She is standing on a floor and remains at
rest. Find the normal force exerted on her by the floor.
Solution:
The woman is in equilibrium , then the net force on the woman must be
zero 𝑤 + 𝐹Ԧ𝑁 = 0. The normal force is the force exerted by the floor on
the woman. This force must have the same magnitude as her weight,
which acts downward. Symbolically:
𝑤 + 𝐹Ԧ𝑁 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑊 = −𝐹Ԧ𝑁
𝑚
Its magnitude is 𝐹𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 = 60𝑘𝑔 × 9,80 = 588𝑁
𝑠2
Note that the gravitational force and the normal force are not an action
and a reaction forces because they are applied on the same object.

3 . 5 N e w t o n ’s s e c o n d l a w
The second law states that:
Whenever there is a net force acting on an object , this object will undergoes an
acceleration in the same direction as the force.
The acceleration is proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to the mass.
Thus, we can relate the net force 𝐹 and the acceleration a by Newton’s second law:
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
The proportionality constant m is the inertial mass of the object.
Note that if the net force is equal zero, then, the acceleration is also zero, which means that
the velocity is constant or zero. The second law is consistent with the first law
Example 3. 6 P55: A child pushes a sled across a frozen pond with a horizontal force of 20 𝑁.
Assume friction is negligible.
a) If the sled accelerates at 0.5 𝑚𝑠 −2 , what is its mass?
b) Another child with a mass of 60 𝑘𝑔 sits on the sled. What acceleration, the same force
produces now?

Solution of 3. 6 P55:
a) The gravitational force and the normal force cancel each other. Thus the net force
exerted on the sled is a horizontal force with a magnitude of 𝐹 = 20𝑁
𝐹 20 𝑁
According to the second law: 𝑚 = = = 40 𝑘𝑔
𝑎 0.5 𝑚𝑠 −2
b) The total mass of the sled becomes:

𝑚 = 40 𝑘𝑔 + 60𝑘𝑔 = 100 𝑘𝑔
Then the acceleration is:
𝐹 20 𝑁
𝑎= = = 0.2 𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑚 100 𝑘𝑔

3.12 Friction
Friction is a force that always acts to resist the motion of one object on another.
Frictional forces are very important, since they make it possible for us to walk, use
wheeled vehicles,….
Frictional forces can exist between solid surfaces or between fluids (viscous forces).
Viscous forces are quite small compared to the friction between solid surfaces. Thus the
use of lubricating liquid such as oil, which clings to the surface of metals, greatly reduces
friction.
When we walk or run, we are not conscious of

any friction in our knees or other leg joints. These
joints, really, are lubricated by synovial fluid,
which is squeezed through the cartilage lining the
joints when they move. This lubricant tends to be
absorbed when the joint is stationary, increasing
the friction and making it easier to maintain a
fixed position.

Static friction
We distinguish two types of friction:
 Static friction, between two surfaces at rest.
 Kinetic friction, between two surfaces one moves against the other.
Static friction
We consider a block at rest on a horizontal surface (Fig. 3.19 ).
Since the block is at rest Fig. 3.19 a, the first law requires that the net force on the block be zero.
The vertical forces are the weight 𝒘 and the normal force 𝑵, so we must have : 𝑁 = 𝑤.

If there is no force applied in the horizontal direction and the block remains at rest (Fig 3.19 b),
the frictional force must be zero, according to the first law.
If we apply a small horizontal force 𝑇 to the rights and if the block remains at rest (Fig. 3.19 c),
the friction force 𝑓𝑠 can no longer be zero, since the first law requires that the net force on the
block be zero, then a frictional force opposite to the applied force must be appeared ( 𝑓𝑠 = −𝑇)
If 𝑇 is gradually increased 𝑓𝑠 increases also. Eventually when 𝑇 become large enough, the block
begins to slide.
The static friction force attains a maximum value called the maximum static friction 𝒇𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒙
Experimentally it is found that 𝑓𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 has the following properties:
1- 𝑓𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 is independent of the contact area.
2- For a given pair of surfaces 𝑓𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 is proportional to the normal force 𝑵:
𝑓𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁

𝝁𝒔 is the coefficient of static friction and 𝑵 is the magnitude of the normal force.
The coefficient of static friction s depends on:
 The nature of the two surfaces in contact
 Their cleanliness and smoothness
 The amount of moisture present
For metal on metal: s is between 0.3 and 1. When lubricating oils are used s is about 0.1. For
Teflon on metals, 𝑠 ≅ 0.04

Kinetic friction
 The force necessary to keep an object sliding at constant velocity is smaller than that
required to start it moving.
Thus the sliding or kinetic friction 𝑓𝑘 is less than 𝑓𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
 The kinetic friction is independent of the contact area, it satisfies:
𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁
 Here k is the coefficient of kinetic friction and is determined by nature of the two
surfaces.
 k is nearly independent of the velocity (since fk  𝑓𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 then k  s)

Example 3.17 p 149:
A 50 − 𝑁 block is on a flat, horizontal surface. (a) If a horizontal force 𝑇 = 20 𝑁 is
applied and the block remains at rest ; what is the frictional force? (b) the block
starts to slide when 𝑇 is increased to 40 𝑁. What is 𝜇𝑠 ? ( c) the block continues to
move at constant velocity if 𝑇 is reduced to 32 𝑁. What is 𝜇𝑘 ?
Solution:
a) Since the block remains at rest 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑇 = 20 𝑁
𝑓𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 40 𝑁
b) 𝑓𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 40 𝑁 = 𝜇𝑠 𝐹𝑁 then 𝜇𝑠 =
𝐹𝑁
=
50 𝑁
= 0.8
c) When the block is moving at constant velocity with 𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝐹𝑁

𝑓𝑘 32 𝑁
Then 𝜇𝑘 = = = 0.64
𝐹𝑁 50 𝑁

Chapter 4
STATICS
 4.1 Torque
 4.2 Equilibrium of rigid bodies
 4.3 The center of gravity
 4.4 Stability and balance
 4.5 Levers and mechanical advantage
4.1, 4.3, 4.4, 4.6, 4.8, and 4.10
Homework Problems:
4.11, 4.18, 4.41, 4.45 and 4.55
CHAPTER 4: STATICS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 61

Statics is the study of the forces acting on an object (rigid body ) that is in equilibrium and at rest.
The importance of Statics is to:
 Find the forces acting on various parts of engineering structures, such as bridges or buildings, or
of biological structures, such as jaws, limbs, or backbones.
 Understand the force multiplication or mechanical advantage obtained with simple machines,
such as the many levers found in the human body.
At the end of this chapter the student will be able to calculate the torque, the center of gravity of a
rigid body, evaluate the mechanical advantage of a mechanical system and to apply these concepts
to biological systems.

4 . 1 To rq u e
In figure 4.1 a child applies equal but opposite forces 𝑭𝟏 and
𝑭𝟐 to opposite sides of a freely rotating seat. The seat will
begin to rotate, hence, it is not in equilibrium even though the
net force is zero, 𝐹Ԧ1 + 𝐹Ԧ2 = 0. The rotation of the seat is due
to the Torque.
Torque is the ability of a force to cause rotation
Suppose we need to unscrew a large nut that rusted into place. To maximize the torque, we use
the longest wrench available and exert as large a force as possible and pull at right angle. The
torque is proportional to the magnitude of the force, to the distance from the axis of rotation and
the direction of the force and to the angle between them.

If a rigid body is able to rotate about a point P, and a force 𝐹Ԧ is applied on this rigid body, then
the magnitude of the torque about the point P is:
𝝉 = 𝒓 𝑭 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
r is the distance from the pivot P to the point where the force acts on the object and 𝜃 is the
angle from the direction of 𝒓 to the direction of 𝐹Ԧ .
The SI unit of torque is the Newton meter (N m)
Example 4.1: A mechanic holds a wrench 0.3 𝑚 from the center of a nut. How large is the
torque applied to the nut if he pulls at right angles to the wrench with a force of 200 𝑁?
Solution:
Since he exerts the force at right angles to the wrench, the angle 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 90°, and sin 𝜃 = 1 ,
Thus the torque is:
𝜏 = 𝑟 𝐹 sin𝜃 = 0.3 𝑚 × 200 𝑁 × 1 = 60 𝑁. 𝑚

Finding the magnitude of a torque using the lever arm:
 1 Draw a line parallel to the force through the force’s point of application;
this line (dashed in the figure) is called the force’s line of action.
 2 Draw a line from the rotation axis to the line of action. This line must be
perpendicular to both the axis and the line of action. The distance from the axis
to the line of action along this perpendicular line is the lever arm (r⊥).
 3 The magnitude of the torque is the magnitude of the force times the lever arm:
𝜏 = 𝑟⊥ . 𝐹 𝑜𝑟 𝜏 = 𝑟. 𝐹⊥
Where 𝑟⊥ = 𝑟 sin𝜃 and 𝐹⊥ = 𝐹 sin𝜃

The cross product
The vector product or cross product of two vectors 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵 is a

vector 𝐶Ԧ which is written as :
𝑪=𝑨×𝑩
The magnitude of the vector 𝐶Ԧ is: 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃
The direction of the vector 𝐶Ԧ is perpendicular to the plane
containing 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵 such that 𝐶Ԧ is specified by the right-hand rule;
By curling the fingers of the right hand from vector 𝑨 to vector 𝑩,
the thumb points in the direction of 𝑪.
Example 4.2 The vectors in the figure are all in the plane of the page. Find
the magnitude and direction of :
(a) 𝑨 × 𝑨
(b) 𝑨 × 𝑩
c) 𝑨 × 𝑪.

Solution:
a) 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴. 𝐴. sin 0° = 0
The cross product of any parallel vectors is zero
(b) The magnitude of 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵 is:
𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵 = 𝐴. 𝐵. sin 90° = 4 × 5 × 1 = 20
We rotate our right palm from 𝐴Ԧ toward 𝐵. Our right thumb then points out of the page.
(c) The magnitude of 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐶Ԧ is:
𝐴Ԧ × 𝐶Ԧ = 𝐴. 𝐶. sin 30° = 4 × 5 × 0.5 = 10
Now when we rotate our right palm through 30° from 𝐴Ԧ toward 𝐶Ԧ , our thumb points into the
page.

Couples
A Couple is the total torque of a pair of forces with equal
magnitudes but opposite directions acting along different lines of
action.
 Couples do not exert a net force on an object even though they
do exert a net torque.
 The net torque is independent of the choice of the point from
which distances are measured.
Example 4.3 : Two forces with equal magnitudes but

opposite directions act on an object with different lines of
action (Fig 4.8). Find the net torque on the object resulting
from these forces.
Solution: The torque resulting from the force at 𝑥1 is
𝜏1 = 𝑥1𝐹. The torque about P resulting from the force at
𝑥2 is 𝜏2 = ‐ 𝑥2𝐹. (The minus sign indicates a clockwise
torque). The net torque is: 𝜏 = 𝜏1 + 𝜏2 = 𝑥1𝐹 ‐ 𝑥2𝐹
Then τ= 𝑥1 ‐ 𝑥2 𝐹 = −𝒍 𝑭
The net torque is independent of the choice of the point

from which distances are measured.

4 . 2 Eq u i l i b r i u m o f r i g i d b o d y
Two conditions for a rigid body to be in static equilibrium:
 1. Translational equilibrium: The net force on the rigid body must be zero: σ 𝑭 = 𝟎
 2. Rotational equilibrium : The net torque on the rigid body about any point must be zero:
σ𝝉 = 𝟎
Example 4.4 Two children of weights 𝑤1 and 𝑤2 are balanced on a board pivoted about its
center.
 (a) What is the ratio of their distances 𝑥2/𝑥1 from the pivot?
 (b) If 𝑤1 = 200 𝑁, 𝑤2 = 400 𝑁 and 𝑥1 = 1 𝑚, what is 𝑥2?
(For simplicity, we assume the board to be weightless; this will not affect the result.)
Solution :
a)The force 𝑵 exerted by the support must balance the weights
of the two children so that the net force is zero:
𝑁 = 𝑤1 + 𝑤2
The torques resulting from the weights (about P) are:
𝜏1 = 𝑥1 𝑤1 and 𝜏2 = − 𝑥2 𝑤2
Rotational equilibrium: 𝜏 = 𝜏1 + 𝜏2 = 0
𝑥2 𝑤1
𝑥1 𝑤1 − 𝑥2 𝑤2 = 0 or =
𝑥1 𝑤2
𝑤1 200 𝑁
(b) 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 = 1𝑚 × = 0.5 𝑚
𝑤2 400 𝑁

Application to muscles and joints
The techniques for calculating forces and torques on bodies in equilibrium can be readily
applied to the human body. This is of great use in studying the forces on muscles, bones and
joints.
Generally a muscle is attached, via tendons, to

two different bones . The points of attachment
are called insertions. The two bones are flexibly
connected at a joint, such as those at the elbow,
knee and ankle. A muscle exerts a pull when its
fiber contract under stimulation by a nerve, but
it cannot exert a push.

Example 4.6 A model for the forearm in the position
shown in the figure is a pivoted bar supported by a cable.
The weight 𝒘 of the forearm is 12 𝑁 and can be treated
as concentrated at the point shown. Find the tension
𝑇 exerted by the biceps muscle and the force 𝐸 exerted
by the elbow joint.
Solution:
Applying the condition σ 𝐹 = 0 , then 𝑇 − 𝐸 – 𝑤 = 0
Both 𝑇 and 𝐸 are unknown.
Calculating torques about the pivot P:
𝑬 produces no torque.
𝒘 produces a torque: 𝜏𝑤 = −0.15 × 𝑤
𝑻 produces a torque: 𝜏 𝑇 = 0.05 × 𝑇
At equilibrium the total torque is : − 0.15𝑤 + 0.05𝑇 = 0
0.15×𝑤 0.15×12
Then 𝑇 = = = 36𝑁
0.05 0.05
Replacing in the first equation:
𝐸 = 𝑇 − 𝑤 = 36 𝑁 − 12 𝑁 = 24 𝑁

4 . 3 T h e c e nte r o f g rav i t y
The weight of a body can be considered as a force acting through a

single point called the center of gravity or center of mass.
The torque produced by the weight of a rigid body is equal to that
due to a concentrated object of the same weight placed at its
center of gravity .
Locating the center of gravity:

 For regular shapes: The C. G. of a uniformly dense symmetric object is at its geometric
center.
 For less symmetric objects the C.G can be calculated mathematically or located
experimentally

Calculating the position of the center of gravity:
Consider two weights 𝑤1 and 𝑤2 , their total torque about a
pivot 𝑂 ( arbitrarily chosen) is 𝜏 = 𝑥1 𝑤1 + 𝑥2 𝑤2 .
This same torque is of the total weight as it is concentrated at
the center of gravity 𝑋: 𝜏 = 𝑋(𝑤1 +𝑤2 ).
By equating we obtain: 𝑋(𝑤1 +𝑤2 ) = 𝑥1 𝑤1 + 𝑥2 𝑤2 . Then,
𝑥1 𝑤1+ 𝑥2 𝑤2
𝑋=
𝑤1 + 𝑤2
If there are more than two weights, then the C. G. is:
𝑥1 𝑤1 + 𝑥2 𝑤2 + 𝑥3 𝑤3 + ⋯
𝑋=
𝑤1 + 𝑤2 + 𝑤3 + ⋯
The center of mass:

𝑥1 𝑚1 +𝑥2 𝑚2 +𝑥3 𝑚3 +⋯
Replacing the weight by 𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔, then 𝑋 = is called center of mass.
𝑚1 +𝑚3 +𝑚3 +⋯
If the C.G or the C.M has a component on the 𝑦 −axis then, by the same way
𝑦1 𝑚1 + 𝑦2 𝑚2 + 𝑦3 𝑚3 + ⋯
𝑌=
𝑚1 + 𝑚3 + 𝑚3 + ⋯

Example 4.8: A weightless plank 4 𝑚 long has one concrete block at the left end, another at the
center, and two blocks at the right end. Find its center of gravity?
Solution:
The total weight is 𝑤 = 𝑤1 + 𝑤2 + 𝑤3 = 4 𝑤0
Then center of gravity is:
𝑥1 𝑤1 + 𝑥2 𝑤2 + 𝑥3 𝑤3 0 + 2𝑚 × 𝑤0 + 4𝑚 × 2𝑤0 10𝑚 × 𝑤0
𝑋 = = = = 2.5 𝑚
𝑤 4𝑤𝑜 4𝑤𝑜
The center of gravity is between the center of the plank and the heavier end.

4 . 4 S ta b i l i t y a n d b a l a n c e
Balance is a physical ability to control equilibrium and Stability is the degree of balance
Types of balance: dynamic and static
Dynamic balance, when a performer is Static balance: when an object remain over
in motion. a relatively fixed base.
Base of support: is the supporting area beneath the object that includes the points of contact
with the supporting surface and the area between them.
Human Base of Support is the area under

the feet (or shoes) including the area
between the feet. This area is traced from
toe to toe and from heel to heel.

Stability criteria:
The major factors that affect the object’s stability and balance are:
 1) The area of the support: The larger the base of support, the more stable the object
(Fig. 4. 18 a)
 2) The mass of the object: The greater the mass the greater the stability
 3) Position of the center of gravity: An object is in balance if its center of gravity is
above its base of support. Balance is less if the C.G. is near the edge of the Base of
support. ( Fig. 4. 18 b)
 4)The height of the center of gravity: The higher the center of gravity, the more likely
that an object will be out of balance. ( Fig. 4.18 c)
( Fig. 4. 18 a) ( Fig. 4. 18 b) ( Fig. 4. 18 c)

4 . 4 L e ve rs a n d M e c h a n i c a l A d va nta ge
Simple machines, such as levers, pulleys are designed to reduce the force needed to lift a heavy
load. In each case there is an applied force 𝑭𝒂 and a load force 𝑭𝑳 .
The mechanical advantage of a machine is the ratio of the magnitudes of the load force 𝐹𝐿 balanced
by an applied force 𝐹𝑎 .
𝑭
Mechanical Advantage: 𝑴. 𝑨. = 𝑭𝑳
𝒂
A lever in its simplest form is a rigid bar used with a fulcrum. The fulcrum is the point or support on
which a lever pivots. Three classes of levers can be distinguished:
Class II: The fulcrum is at one Class III: The fulcrum is at one end,
Class I : The fulcrum lies between 𝐹𝑎
end, 𝐹𝑎 at the other end and 𝐹𝐿 𝐹𝐿 at the other end and 𝐹𝑎 lies
and FL.
lies between Fa and the fulcrum. between 𝐹𝐿 and the fulcrum.

 If the load and applied forces are perpendicular to the lever arm in equilibrium, their ratio is
equal to the ratio of 𝑥𝑎 and 𝑥𝐿 (distances from the fulcrum), then :
𝐹𝐿 𝑥𝑎
𝑀. 𝐴 = =
𝐹𝑎 𝑥𝐿
 With the forces at right angle to the lever the M.A. of class III levers is always less than 1 ,
and of class II levers is always greater than 1.
Levers in human body

In human body, muscles, bones and joints act together to form levers.
 Bones act as lever arms.
 Joints act as pivots.
 Muscles provide the applied forces to move loads.
 Load forces are often the weights of the body parts that are moved or forces needed to lift,
push or pull things outside our bodies.

Examples of levers in the human body

Example 4.10 : Suppose the load force 𝑭𝐿 on a class one lever has a magnitude of 2000𝑁. A
person exerts a force 𝐹𝑎 = 500𝑁 to balance the load.
(a) What is the ratio of the distances 𝑥𝑎 and 𝑥𝐿 ?
(b) What is the mechanical advantage of this lever?
Solution:
(a) The torque due to 𝐹𝑎 is 𝜏𝑎 = − 𝑥𝑎 𝐹𝑎 and the torque due to 𝐹𝐿 is 𝜏𝐿 = 𝑥𝐿 𝐹𝐿 .
For balance, these must sum to zero, so:
𝑥𝐿 𝐹𝐿 − 𝑥𝑎 𝐹𝑎 = 0
and
𝑥𝑎 𝐹𝐿 2000 𝑁
= = = 4
𝑥𝐿 𝐹𝑎 500 𝑁
(b) The mechanical advantage of the lever is:

𝑀. 𝐴. = 𝐹𝐿 /𝐹𝑎 = 4

The back
When the trunk is bent forward ( Fig. 4.20 a) , the spine pivots mainly on the fifth lumbar
vertebra ( Fig. 4.20 b). To analyze the forces involved when the trunk is bent at 60° from the
vertical with the arms hanging freely, a model is represented in (Fig. 4.20 c) . The pivot point A
is the fifth lumbar vertebra. The lever arm AB represents the back. The weight of the trunk can
be represented by a weight 𝑊1 suspended in the middle. The head and the arms are
represented by a weight 𝑊2 suspended at the end of the lever arm. The erector spinalis muscle
maintains the position of the back shown as the connection D-C attached at a point two-thirds
up the spine, According to figure 4.21 calculate (a) the force Fm exerted by the spinalis muscle
and (b) the compression force on the fifth lumbar

Chapter 6
WORK AND ENERGY

COURSE TOPICS
6.1 Work
6.2 Kinetic Energy
6.3 Potential Energy and Conservative
Forces
6.9 Power
6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.5 and 6.14
Homework Problems: 6.2, 6.21, 6.31,
China's Deng Wei broke the world record as she won Olympic weightlifting gold in the
6.36 and 6.45 women's 63-kilogram category (Rio 2016)
CHAPTER 6: WORK AND ENERGY PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 83

6 . 1 Wo r k
The work done by a constant force 𝐹Ԧ is defined as the product of the
force component and the displacement s : W = Fs . s
Where 𝑠 is the displacement and 𝐹𝑠 the component of the force on the
direction of the displacement.
If the force and the displacement make an angle 𝜃, then 𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃,
and the work can be written as :
𝑊 = 𝐹 . 𝑠 . cos 𝜃
The S.I unit of work is the Joule (J). 1J = 1𝑘𝑔𝑚2 𝑠 −2 =1 N.m
Note that no displacement is produced by the component of the force perpendicular to the
direction of motion, then WF⊥ = 0

Work can be positive, negative, or zero as illustrated in the figure below
Example 6.1: A 600 𝑁 force is applied by a man to a dresser that moves 2 𝑚. Find the work
done if the force and displacement are:
(a) parallel
(b) at right angles
(c) oppositely directed (Fig.3); we may imagine that the dresser is being slowed and brought to
rest.

Solution:
(a) 𝑭 and 𝒔 are parallel, so 𝜃 = 0° and cos ( 0) = 1 . The work is:
𝑊 = 𝐹 . 𝑠 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = (600 𝑁) × (2𝑚) × (1) = 1200 𝐽
The man does 1200 𝐽 of work on the dresser. Since F is parallel to s, Fs = F, and we obtain
the same result using the equation W = Fs × s
(b) 𝑭 and 𝒔 are perpendicular, so 𝜃 = 90° and cos(900 ) = 0

𝑊 = 𝐹 . 𝑠 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 600 𝑁 × 2𝑚 × 0 = 0
No work is done when the force is at right angles to the displacement, since 𝐹𝑠 = 0
c) 𝑭 and 𝒔 are opposite, so 𝜃 = 180° and cos(180°) = −1. The work then is:
𝑊 = 𝐹 . 𝑠 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 600 𝑁 × 2𝑚 × −1 = − 1200 𝐽
In this case the work done by the force is negative, so the object is doing work on the man.
Note that here F is opposite to s, so 𝐹𝑠 = −𝐹 .

Example 6.2: A horse pulls a barge along a canal with a rope in which the tension is 1000 𝑁
(Fig.4). The rope is at an angle of 10⁰ with the towpath and the direction of the barge.
(a) How much work is done by the horse in pulling the barge 100 𝑚 upstream at a
constant velocity?
(b) What is the net force on the barge?
Solution 6.2:
(a) The work done by the constant force 𝑻 in moving the barge a distance 𝒔 is given by :
𝑊 = 𝑇 × 𝑠 × cos 𝜃 = (1000 𝑁) × (100𝑚) × cos(10⁰) = 9.85 × 104 𝐽
(b) Since the barge moves at a constant velocity, the sum of all forces on it must be zero.
There must be another force acting that is not shown in Fig. 4.

6.2 Kinetic Energy
The kinetic energy of an object of mass 𝑚 and velocity v is defined by :
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
Example: A car of mass 𝑚 = 1200 𝑘𝑔 moving with a speed of 120 𝑘𝑚Τℎ, what is its kinetic energy?
1
The speed first should be converted into 𝑚Τ𝑠 . Then 𝐾 = × 1200 𝑘𝑔 × 33.3 𝑚. 𝑠 −1 2 = 665 𝐾𝑗
2
The kinetic energy of an object is a measure of the work an object can do by virtue of its motion.
The work-energy principle
The change in the kinetic energy of an object (final kinetic energy minus the initial kinetic energy) is
equal to the total work (W) done on it by all the acting forces.
∆𝐾 = 𝑊
 If the work is positive , the Kinetic energy increases K > K o if W > 0

 If the work is negative, the Kinetic energy decreases K < K o if W < 0
 if the total work done by all the forces is zero the kinetic energy remains constant
K = K o if W = 0

Example 6.3:
A woman pushes a car, initially at rest, toward a child by exerting a constant horizontal force 𝐹Ԧ of
magnitude 5 𝑁 through a distance of 1 𝑚 (figure 7). (a) How much work is done on the car? (b)
What is its final kinetic energy? (c) If the car has a mass of 0.1 𝑘𝑔 what is its final speed?
( Assume no work is done by frictional forces)
Solution 6.3:
(a) The force the woman exerts on the car is parallel to the displacement, so the work she does
on the car is:
𝑊 = 𝐹 × 𝑠 = 5𝑁 × 1𝑚 = 5𝐽
(b) The initial kinetic energy is 𝐾𝑜 = 0, so the final kinetic energy is :
𝐾 = 𝐾𝑜 + 𝑊 = 0 + 5𝐽 = 5𝐽
1
(c) The final kinetic energy is 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 , so
2
2𝐾 2 × 5𝐽
𝑣= = = 10 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚 0.1𝑘𝑔

6 . 3 Po te nt i a l e n e rg y
Potential energy is the energy associated with the position or the configuration of a mechanical
system.
In the figure below the work done by the gravitational force of an object of mass 𝑚 raised from
an initial height ℎ𝑜 to a height ℎ is : 𝑊𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑜 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ
The quantity 𝑚𝑔ℎ is defined as potential energy: 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ +𝑈𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑈𝑟𝑒𝑓 is the potential energy of reference. For simplicity we can write:
𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ (
The change in potential energy when an object of

mass 𝑚 is raised from an initial height ℎ𝑜 to a height
ℎ is opposite to the work done by the gravitational
force:
∆𝑈 = 𝑈 − 𝑈𝑜 = − 𝑊𝑔

6 . 4 To ta l E n e rg y
The total work can be equal to the sum of the work done by the applied forces 𝑊𝑎 and the work
done by the gravitational force 𝑊𝑔
By the work-energy theorem: 𝐾 = 𝐾𝑜 + 𝑊𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐾𝑜 + 𝑊𝑎 + 𝑊𝑔

As 𝑊𝑔 = − 𝑈 − 𝑈𝑜
Then 𝐾 = 𝐾𝑜 − 𝑈 − 𝑈𝑜 + 𝑊𝑎
The last equation can be written as : 𝐾 + 𝑈 = 𝐾𝑜 + 𝑈𝑜 + 𝑊𝑎 (a)
The sum of kinetic energy and the potential energy is the total mechanical energy: 𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈
Equation (a) becomes : 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑜 + 𝑊𝑎 or:
∆𝐸 = 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑜 = 𝑊𝑎
if the work done by the applied forces is zero (𝑊𝑎 = 0) and only the gravitational force is doing
work, the mechanical energy is constant or conserved:
∆𝐸 = 0 or 𝐾𝑜 + 𝑈𝑜 = 𝐾 + 𝑈
CHAPTER 6: WORK AND ENERGY PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016

Example 6.5: A woman skis from rest down a hill
20 𝑚 height. If friction is negligible, what is her speed at
the bottom of the slope?
Solution 6.5:
We can solve this problem by applying the mechanical energy theorem ∆𝐸 = 𝑊𝑎 where 𝑊𝑎
is the work done by the non conservative force. The forces acting on the skier are the
normal reaction and the weight. The normal reaction is the only non conservative, its work
𝑊𝑎 = 0 as it is perpendicular to the displacement.
Then the Mechanical energy is conserved: 𝐸𝑜 = 𝐸

𝐸𝑜 = 𝐾𝑜 + 𝑈𝑜 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ (𝐾𝑜 = 0, because the initial speed is zero)
1
𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑣 2 ( we can take 𝑈 = 0 at ℎ = 0, as a reference potential
2
energy )
1
Then 𝐸𝑜 = 𝐸 becomes 𝑚𝑔ℎ + 0 = 0 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2
Finally 𝑣 = 2𝑔ℎ = 2 × 9.80𝑚𝑠 −2 × 20𝑚 = 19.8𝑚𝑠 −1

6 . 7 Po we r
When a system develops work W during a period of time ∆𝑡, the average power is defined by :
𝑾
𝑷𝒂𝒗 = ∆𝒕
The power is expressed in joule per second in the SI system, which is called Watt
Electrical energy is sold by kilowatt hour (𝒌𝑾 𝒉).
𝟏𝒌𝑾𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕 × 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒔 = 𝟑. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑱
Example 6.14 (P152): A 70 − 𝑘𝑔 man runs up a flight of stairs 3𝑚 high in 2𝑠. (a) How much
work does he do against gravitational forces? (b) what is his average power output?
Solution:
(a) The man develops a work against the gravitational force, then 𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑛 = −𝑊𝑔
Since 𝑊𝑔 = −∆𝑈
Hence 𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑛 = ∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ = (70𝑘𝑔) × (9.80𝑚𝑠 −2 ) × (3𝑚) = 2060𝐽
𝑊 2060𝐽
(b) 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑎𝑛 = = 1030 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡
∆𝑡 2𝑠
CHAPTER 6: WORK AND ENERGY PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016

Chapter 13
MECHANICS OF NON VISCOUS

FLUIDS
COURSE TOPICS:
13.1- Archimedes’ Principle
13.2- The equation of continuity, Streamline flow
13.3- Bernoulli’s Equation
13.4- Static consequence of Bernoulli’s equation

13.1, 13.2, 13.4, and 13.6
Homework Problems:
13.3, 13.12, 13.19 and 13.25
CHAPTER 13: MECHANICS OF FLUIDS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 95

In this chapter we discuss fluids at rest and non-viscous (frictionless) fluids motion. We first
develop an understanding of why an object may either sink or float in a fluid at rest?
(Archimedes’ principle). We then develop the Bernoulli’s Equation, which puts work and
energy concepts into a form suitable for fluids. Then, we can understand why fluids in
connected containers tend to have the same surface levels? And how fluids flow from one
place to another?
On this discussion, the important condition is the assumption that the fluid is incompressible:
a given mass of fluid always occupies the same volume though its shape may change.
In fluid mechanics, as a given mass of fluid does not have a fixed shape, the density and
pressure are commonly used instead of mass and force.

1 3 . 1 A rc h i m e d e s ’ p r i n c i p l e
An object floating or submerged in a fluid experiences an upward or Buoyant force due to the
fluid.
Archimedes’ principle states that the buoyant force 𝐵 on the object is equal to the
weight of the displaced fluid:
Consider a solid of volume 𝑉 and density 𝜌 completely submerged in a

fluid of density 𝜌𝑜 . The fluid displaced by the solid has a mass 𝑚𝐷
= 𝜌𝑜 𝑉𝐷 , then it weighs 𝑤𝑜 = 𝑚𝐷 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑜 𝑉𝐷 𝑔.
The buoyant force is then:
𝐵 = 𝜌𝑜 𝑉𝐷 g
Figure 13.1 : A solid
submerge in a fluid
The buoyant force is the resultant force exerted by fluid on the surface of a submerged solid.
Example: What is the magnitude of the buoyant force exerted on a piece of solid of volume 𝑉
= 15 𝑐𝑚3 completely immersed in water.

Example 13.1: A piece of metal of unknown volume 𝑉 is suspended from a string. Before
submersion, the tension in the string is 10 𝑁. When the metal is submerged in water the
tension is 8 N. The water density is 𝜌𝑜 = 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3. (a) calculate the buoyant force (b)
calculate the volume of the piece of metal (c) What is the density of the metal?
solution:
a) Before submersion (Fig. 13.2 a) the tension of the cord is equal to the weight of the piece of
metal : 𝑇𝑖 = 𝑤 = 𝑚g = 10𝑁
After submersion (Fig. 13.2 b), since the object is in equilibrium: 𝑇𝑓 + 𝐵 − 𝑤 = 0
Then the buoyant force is 𝐵 = 𝑤 − 𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑓 = 10𝑁 − 8𝑁 = 2𝑁
b) 𝐵 = 𝜌𝑜 × 𝑉𝐷 × 𝑔. The piece of metal is completely submerged in the fluid, then the volume
𝐵 𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑓
of the displaced fluid is equal to the volume of the solid: 𝑉𝐷 = 𝑉 . Hence, 𝑉 = =
𝜌𝑜 𝑔 𝜌𝑜 𝑔
𝑚 𝜌𝑜 𝑇𝑖
c) The density of the piece of metal can be then calculated through 𝜌 = = = 5000𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑉 𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑓

Partially submerged solid
If an object of volume 𝑉𝑠 is not completely immersed in a fluid, the
displaced volume is equal to the submerged volume of the solid 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏
( volume of the part of the solid below the top surface of the fluid) .
Then a quantity without unit called submerged fraction is defined by
the ratio of the submerged volume and the total volume of the solid
𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏
𝑉𝑠
By equating the buoyant force and the weight of the object 𝐵 = 𝑤,
we get: 𝜌𝑜 × 𝑔 × 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝜌𝑠 × 𝑔 × 𝑉𝑆
The submerged fraction is then equal to the ratio of the density of
𝑽 𝝆
the solid to the density of the fluid: 𝒔𝒖𝒃 = 𝒔
𝑽𝒔 𝝆𝒐
Example 13.2: The density of ice is 920 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 while that

of sea water is 1025 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3. What fraction of an iceberg
is submerged?
Solution:
𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝜌𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
= = 920/1025 = 0.89
𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
About 90 % of an iceberg is submerged in the sea.

1 3 . 2 Eq u at i o n o f c o nt i n u i t y
∆𝑉
The flow rate 𝑄 is the volume of the fluid flowing past a point in a channel per unit time: 𝑄 = ∆𝑡
The S.I unit of the flow rate is the 𝒎𝟑/𝒔.
For an incompressible fluid (𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) the volume of fluid that passes any section of the
tube per second is unchanged. The fluid that enters one end of the channel such as a pipe or an
artery at the flow rate 𝑄1, must leave the other end at a rate 𝑄2 which is the same. Thus the
equation of continuity can be written as 𝑄1 = 𝑄2.
Consider a section of the tube with cross-sectional

area 𝐴 ( Fig. 13.4 a) and suppose that the fluid on this
section has the same velocity. In the time ∆𝑡 the fluid
moves the distance ∆𝑥 = 𝑣∆𝑡 and the volume of the
fluid crossing the tube is 𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑣 ∆𝑡. The flow rate is
then 𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑣
The flow rate equals the cross-sectional area times
the velocity of the fluid.
For a channel whose cross section changes from 𝐴1
to 𝐴2 , this result together with 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 gives
another form of the continuity equation:
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 Figure 13.4

Example 13.4;
A water pipe leading up to a hose a radius of 1 𝑐𝑚. Water leaves the hose at a rate of 3 litres per
minute.
1. Find the velocity of the water in the pipe.
2. The hose has a radius of 0.5 𝑐𝑚. What is the velocity of the water in the hose?
Solution:
1. The velocity (strictly speaking, the average velocity) can be found from the flow rate and the
area: 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣
The flow rate is the same in the hose and in the pipe.
Using 1 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 = 10−3 𝑚3 and 1 min = 60 𝑠, the flow rate is then:
∆𝑉 3×10−3 𝑚3
𝑄 = = = 5 × 10−5 𝑚3/𝑠
∆𝑡 60𝑠
We will call the velocity and area in the pipe 𝑣1 and 𝐴1, respectively.
Then, with 𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑣, we have:
𝑄 𝑄 5×10−5 𝑚3/𝑠
𝑣1 = = = = 0.159 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝐴1 𝜋.𝑟12 𝜋 0.01𝑚 2
2. The flow rate is constant, so 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2, and the velocity 𝑣2 in the hose is
𝑣2 = 𝑣1 𝐴1/𝐴2 = 𝑣1( 𝑟12/  𝑟22 ) = 0.637 𝑚/s

1 3 . 3 B e r n o u l l i ’s e q u at i o n
Bernoulli’s equation can be used for the following conditions :
1- The fluid is incompressible, then its density remains constant.
2- The fluid is non-viscous (no mechanical energy is lost).
3- The flow is streamline, not turbulent.
4- The velocity of the fluid at any point does not change during the period of
observation. (This is called the steady-state assumption.)
If the above conditions are satisfied, then Bernoulli’s equation states that the pressure
plus the total mechanical energy per unit volume is constant everywhere in the fluid.
1
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
Bernoulli’s equation can be written between two

sections as :
𝟏 𝟏
𝑷𝟏 + 𝝆𝒗𝟏 𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒚𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝝆𝒗𝟐 𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒚𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

Specific forms of the Bernoulli’s equation
Case Schematic representation Bernoulli’s Equation
Horizontal tube with non- 𝟏 𝟏

uniforme size 𝑷𝟏 + 𝝆𝒗𝟏 𝟐 = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝝆𝒗𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝑦1 = 𝑦2
Non-Horizontal tube with

uniform size.
𝐴1 = 𝐴2 𝑷𝟏 + 𝝆𝒈𝒚𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒚𝟐
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
Then 𝑣1 = 𝑣2
𝑷𝟏 + 𝝆𝒈𝒚𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒚𝟐
Static fluid (𝒗 = 𝟎)
Hydrostatic Equation

1 3 . 4 S t a t i c c o n s e q u e n c e s B e r n o u l l i ’s e q u a t i o n
When the fluid is at rest (𝒗 = 𝟎), Bernoulli’s equation is written as:
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Pressure in a fluid at rest:
the last form of the Bernoulli’s equation can be used to calculate the pressure everywhere in the
fluid. For example, from the figure find the pressure at a point 𝐵 in terms of the pressure at
surface and the depth.
Using Bernoulli’s equation we can write:

At the surface 𝑆𝐴 , 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 and at the surface 𝑆𝐵 , 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 .
Then 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝐵 or 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔 𝑦𝐴 − 𝑦𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔𝑑
 If the pressure at the surface 𝑆𝐴 is equal to the atmospheric pressure so 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
then : 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔𝑑

This result shows that pressure at a depth 𝑑 in a fluid at rest is equal to the surface pressure plus
the potential energy density change 𝜌𝑔𝑑 corresponding to this depth.
 Calculating 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 at points 𝐵 and 𝐷 gives: 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝐵 = 𝑃𝐷 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝐷 , since 𝑦𝐵 = 𝑦𝐷 then

𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐷
Thus the pressure at the same depth at two places in a fluid at rest is the same. The surfaces of
liquids at rest in connected containers of any shape must be at the same height if they are open to
the atmosphere.
Example : The pressure at the floor is measured to be normal atmospheric pressure, its
value is 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1.013 𝑏𝑎𝑟.
1) How much is the pressure at a height of 1000 𝑚 .
2) You are in scuba diving at a 10 𝑚 depth, you feel pain in the ears. Explain why?
Solution:
Here, 𝑑 = 1000 𝑚. From Table 13.1 (p. 315) the density of air at atmospheric pressure
and 0° 𝐶 is 𝜌 = 1.29 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚−3
Thus: 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔𝑑 = 1.013 × 105 𝑃𝑎 − 1.29 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚−3 × 9.8 𝑚. 𝑠 −2 × 1000𝑚
= 88.7 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Pressure measurement:
The manometer: the open-tube manometer is a U-shaped tube used for measuring gas
pressures (or liquid pressure if doesn’t mix with the manometer fluid). It contains a liquid that
may be mercury or, for measurements of low pressures, water or oil.
In Fig. 13.7 the pressure of the gas ( the pressure to measure) is equal to the pressure on the
liquid at the left arm 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠
At the right arm the pressure of the mercury is 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
As 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 (same level), then:
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
Thus, a measurement of the height difference ℎ of the

two columns determines the gas pressure 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 .
Figure 13.7
The gauge pressure : is the difference between the absolute pressure and the atmospheric
pressure. In the above equation𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 is the absolute pressure, then the gauge pressure is 𝑃𝑔
= 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑃𝑔 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
For example, the blood pressure given by a sphygmomanometer is the gauge pressure 𝜌𝑔ℎ
CHAPTER 13: MECHANICS OF FLUIDS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016

Cannulation: In many experiments with anesthetized animals, the blood pressure in an
artery or vein is measured by the direct insertion into the vessel of a cannula, which is a
small glass or plastic tube containing saline solution plus an anticlotting agent.
The saline solution, in turn, is in contact with the fluid in a manometer. It’s necessary to
have the surface of contact between the saline solution and the manometer fluid either at
the same level as the insertion point of the cannula or to correct for the height difference.
Figure 13.8: Measurement of blood

pressure by Cannulation.
The pressure at the artery is: 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ − 𝜌𝑠 𝑔ℎ′

Where 𝜌𝑠 is the density of the saline solution and 𝜌 is the density of the manometer fluid.

1 3 . 5 T h e r o l e o f g rav i t y i n c i r c u l a t i o n
Humans have adapted to the problems of moving blood upward a large distance against the
force of gravity. Animals that have not, such as, snakes, eels and even rabbits, will die if held
head upwards; the blood remains in the lower extremities and the heart receives no blood
from the venous system. Figure 13.9 shows that in the reclining position the pressures are
almost the same everywhere, the small pressure drop is due to the viscous forces. However the
pressures are quite different in the standing person.

 Since the viscous effects are small we can use the Bernoulli’s equation:
1
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 . The velocities at the three arteries are roughly equal, so the
2
1
term 𝜌𝑣 2 can be ignored. Hence the gauge pressures at the heart 𝑃𝐻 , at the foot 𝑃𝐹 and at
2
the brain 𝑃𝐵 are related by:
𝑃𝐹 = 𝑃𝐻 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐻 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐵
Typical values for adults can be calculated for ℎ𝐻 = 1.3 𝑚, ℎ𝐵 = 1.7 𝑚 and a density of blood
𝜌 = 1059.5 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 :
We find that :
𝑃𝐹 − 𝑃𝐻 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐻 = 13.5 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝐹 − 𝑃𝐵 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐵 = 1.7 𝑘𝑃𝑎
 The pressures in the lower and upper parts of the body are very different when the person
is standing, although they are about equal when reclining.
 Blood returned to the heart, at least partially, by the pumping action associated with
breathing and by flexing of skeletal muscle, as in walking.
 The importance of the role of gravity in the circulation is illustrated by the fact that soldier
who is required to stand at strict attention may faint because of insufficient venous return.
To regain consciousness, position has to be altered to horizontal, then pressure is equalized.

Effect of Acceleration:
When a person experiences an upward acceleration 𝑎, his effective weight becomes
𝑤 = 𝑚 𝑔 + 𝑎 . Applying Bernoulli’s equation to the brain and the heart with 𝑔 replaced by
(𝑔 + 𝑎) we obtain:
𝑃𝐻 + 𝜌(𝑔 + 𝑎)ℎ𝐻 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌(𝑔 +𝑎) ℎ𝐵
Then the pressure at the brain will be : 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐻 − 𝜌(𝑔 +𝑎) (ℎ𝐵 −ℎ𝐻 )
Thus the blood pressure in the brain will be reduced even farther. It has been found that if the
acceleration is two or three times 𝑔 (𝑎 = 2𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 3𝑔), a human will loose consciousness
because of the collapse of arteries in the brain.
A related experience is the felling of light-headedness that sometimes occurs when one
suddenly stands up.

1 3 . 6 B l o o d P r e s s u r e - S p hy g m o m a n o m e te r
During a complete heart pumping cycle, the pressure in the heart and the circulatory system
goes through both a maximum Systolic ( as the blood is pumped from the heart) and a
minimum Diastolic ( as the heart relaxes and fills with blood returned from the veins) the
sphygmomanometer is used to measure these extreme pressures.
The sphygmomanometer (Figure 13.10) is used in the upper human arm where it gives values
nearly close to the pressure in the heart. Also, the upper arm contains a single bone making the
brachial artery located there easy to compress.
Blood pressures are usually presented as 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐/𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐 ratios. Typical readings for
resting healthy adult are about 120/80 in torr (mm Hg), the borderline for high pressure
(hypertension) is usually defined to be 140/90. Pressures above that level needs medical
attention.

Chapter 14
VISCOUS FLUIDS
COURSE TOPICS:
14.1 Viscosity
14.2 Flow in circulatory system
14.3 Flow resistance
14.1, 14.5 and 14.6
Homework Problems:
14.3, 14.23 and 14.39
CHAPTER 14: VISCOUS FLUIDS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016

113
Fluids in motion exhibit some effects of frictional or viscous forces. Whenever the work done
against these dissipative forces is comparable to the total work done on the fluid or its
mechanical energy , Bernoulli’s equation cannot be used. Nevertheless, it can be used to
describe adequately the flow of blood in the large main arteries of a mammal, but not in the
narrower blood vessels.
The Viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to flow under an applied force. The greater
the viscosity, the larger the force required to maintain the flow, and the more the energy that is
dissipated. Molasses has a high viscosity, water small viscosity and air still smaller viscosity.
We begin this chapter with defining viscosity. We then examine the effects of viscous forces in
the flow of the fluid in a tube. We then examine the effect of viscous forces on he flow of a fluid
in a tube.
Viscosity is responsible for the drag

force experienced by object moving
through a fluid.

14.1 Viscosity
Viscosity is readily defined by considering a simple experiment. The figure show two plates
separated by a thin fluid layer. The lower plate is held fixed. A force is required to move the upper
plate at a constant speed. This force is needed to overcome the viscous forces due to the liquid
and is greater for a highly viscous fluid.
Δ𝑣
𝐹 = 𝜂 𝐴 Δ𝑦
 The force 𝐹 is observed to be proportional to the area of the plates 𝐴 and to the velocity
∆𝑣
gradient
∆𝑦
 The proportionality factor is the coefficient of viscosity represented by the Greek letter
“eta”)  .
 The S.I unit of viscosity is the 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚−1 . 𝑠 −1 = 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠
 The larger the viscosity, the larger force needed to move the plate at a constant speed.

115
The Relation between Viscosity and Temperature
Table 1: Typical values of viscosity in Pa.S
Temperature ℃ Castor Oil Water Air Normal Blood Blood Plasm
0 5.3 1.792 × 10−3 1.71 × 10−5

20 0.986 1.005 × 10−3 1.81 × 10−5 3.015 × 10−3 1.810 × 10−3
37 ------ 0.695 × 10−3 1.87 × 10−5 𝟐. 𝟎𝟖𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 1.257 × 10−3
40 0.231 0.656 × 10−3 1.90 × 10−5
60 0.080 0.469 × 10−3 2.00 × 10−5
80 0.030 0.357 × 10−3 2.09 × 10−5
100 0.017 0.287 × 10−3 2.18 × 10−5
• As the temperature increases, viscosity decreases for liquids.

• As the temperature increases, viscosity increases for gases.
• Because viscous forces are usually small, fluids are often used as lubricants to reduce friction.

116
Example 14.1 page 342
An air track used in physics lecture demonstrations, supports a cart that rides on a thin cushion of
air 1𝑚𝑚 thick and 0.04 𝑚2 in area. If the viscosity of the air is 1.8 × 10−5 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠, find the force
required to move the cart at a constant speed of 0.2 𝑚/𝑠.
Solution:
Δ𝑣
The force required is: 𝐹 = 𝜂𝐴
Δ𝑦
0.2𝑚𝑠 −1
Then 𝐹 = 1.8 × 10−5 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 0.04𝑚2 = 1.44 × 10−4 𝑁
10−3 𝑚
This is a very small force and is consistent with the observation that an air track is
frictionless.

117
1 4 . 2 T h e f l o w i n t h e c i rc u l ato r y sy ste m
The Blood
Blood is constantly in motion. Asleep or a wake the blood flows in a circulation system at
almost the same rate. It brings oxygen and nutritive substances to the capillaries (smallest
blood vessels) and removes metabolic waste products and carbon dioxide, which are then
eliminated from the body by the excretory organs. The blood coordinates activities of various
organs by carrying chemical regulators called hormones. Blood regulates body temperature
and protects the body against disease. Its has a liquid portion and a solid portion. The liquid
portion is called plasma, which is about 55% of the blood's volume. The solid portion (red cells,
white cells, and other vital factors) makes up the remaining 45%.
For our purposes, it is sufficient to treat blood as a uniform fluid with viscosity
𝜂 = 2.084 × 10−5 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 and a density 𝜌 = 1059.5 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3 at normal body temperature.
Blood accounts for 7 to 9 percent of the total body weight. A person weighing 70 kg will
have about 4 to 6 liters of blood.

118
The cardiovascular system
The cardiovascular system includes the heart

(pump), and an extensive system of arteries,
vascular beds containing capillaries, and veins
(vessels). The arteries carry blood (rich in
oxygen) to the organs, muscles and skin. Veins
transport the returned blood (poor in oxygen)
to the right atrium , and passes to the right
ventricle to be pumped again through the
pulmonary artery to the lungs for re-
oxygenation. The left atrium receives the newly
oxygenated blood from the lungs as well as the
pulmonary vein which is passed to the strong
left ventricle to be distributed through the aorta
to the different organs of the body.

119
Table 2: Properties of the human cardiovascular system for typical adult. All pressures listed are
gauge pressures (1𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 101.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎)
Mean pressure in large arteries 12.8 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Mean pressure in large veins 1.07 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Volume blood (70-kg man) 5.2 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 5.2 × 10−3 𝑚3
Time required for complete circulation (resting) 54 seconds
Heart flow rate 9.7 × 10−5 𝑚3 𝑠 −1
Viscosity of blood (37°C) 2.084 × 10−3 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠
Density of blood (37 °C) 1059.5 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3

120
1 4 . 3 T h e f l o w Re s i sta n c e
The Flow resistance is defined in general, as the ratio of the pressure drop ∆𝑃 to the flow rate 𝑄,
𝑅𝑓 = ∆𝑃/𝑄 , whether the flow is laminar or not.
According to the Bernoulli’s theorem, for non viscous fluid flowing in a horizontal tube with
constant cross section the pressure is constant along the tube: 𝑃1 = 𝑃2 , then ∆𝑃 = 0 and 𝑅𝑓 is
zero.
Nevertheless for a viscous fluid, a pressure drop is observed between the two cross sections,
this pressure drop is proportional to the flow rate 𝑄 and defined by:
∆𝑃 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝑅𝑓 𝑄
For laminar flow, the flow resistance can be calculated using the Poiseuill’s law:
8𝜂𝑙
𝑅𝑓 =
𝜋𝑅4

121
 𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 are respectively the length and the radius of the tube, 𝜂 is the viscosity of the
fluid. Usually the flow resistance in a large artery is small. Consequently, the pressure drop
in such arteries is small.
 The unit of flow resistance is the 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 𝑚−3 .

The aorta of an average adult human has a radius 1.3 × 10−2 𝑚. What are the resistance and
the pressure drop over a 0.2 m distance, assuming a flow rate of 𝐴 = 10−4 𝑚3 𝑠 −1 .
Solution:
8𝜂𝑙 8(2.084 × 10−3 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 )(0.2𝑚)
𝑅𝑓 = 4
= −2 4
= 37.2 × 104 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠. 𝑚−3
𝜋𝑅 𝜋(1.3 × 10 𝑚)
The pressure drop over the distance 0.2 m is:

∆𝑃 = 𝑅𝑓 𝑄 = (37.2 × 104 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠. 𝑚−3 )(10−4 𝑚3 𝑠 −1 ) = 3.72 Pa
This is very small value of the pressure drop, compared to the total pressure drop in the
system, which is about 13.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎. Most of the flow resistance and pressure drops occur in the
smaller arteries and vascular beds of the body (Table 14.4).

122
Flow resistance in blood vessels
The flow resistance of a collection of arteries can be calculated by considering each
category of arteries separately (in series or in parallel).
Vessels in parallel:
Suppose two vessels in parallel (Fig. 14.7) each one carries its equal share of the 𝑅𝑓
and 𝑄: ∆𝑃 is the pressure across all of the arteries, then:
∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 1 1 ∆𝑃
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = + = ∆𝑃( + ) =
𝑅𝑓1 𝑅𝑓2 𝑅𝑓1 𝑅𝑓2 𝑅𝑝
An equivalent flow resistance is obtained by:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑹𝒑 𝑹𝒇𝟐 𝑹𝒇𝟐
 One can easily observe the analogy with the
electric equivalent resistance in electric circuits in
parallel.
 For N vessels in parallel : Figure 14.7 schematic representation
of two vessels in parallel
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + ⋯….
𝑹𝒑 𝑹𝒇𝟐 𝑹𝒇𝟐 𝑹𝒇𝑵
𝑅𝑓
 For 𝑁 identical arteries, the equivalent flow resistance is: 𝑅𝑝 =
𝑁

123
Vessels in series:
Given two vessels connected in series (Fig. 14.8) , the total pressure drop between the ends of
these vessels is:
∆𝑃 = ∆𝑃1 + ∆𝑃2 = 𝑄 × 𝑅𝑓1 + 𝑄 × 𝑅𝑓2 = 𝑄 × 𝑅𝑓1 + 𝑅𝑓2 = 𝑄 × 𝑅𝑠
An equivalent flow resistance is obtained by:
𝑹𝒔 = 𝑹𝒇𝟏 + 𝑹𝒇𝟐
 One can also observe the analogy with the electric equivalent resistance in electric circuits in
series
 For N vessels in series:
𝑹𝒔 = 𝑹𝒇𝟏 + 𝑹𝒇𝟐 + ⋯ 𝑹𝒇𝑵
Figure 14.8 Two vessels in series

124
From Table 14.2, the radius of a single capillary is 4 × 10−6 𝑚 and its length is 10−3 𝑚.
What is the resistance of 4.73 × 107 capillaries in the mesenteric vascular bed of a dog if
they are assumed to be parallel?
Solution
The resistance of one capillary is:
Then for 𝑁 = 4.73 × 107 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 in parallel:

𝑅𝑓 2.073 × 1016
𝑅𝑝 = = 7
= 4.38 × 105 𝑘𝑃𝑎. 𝑠. 𝑚−3
𝑁 4.73 × 10

125
Chapter 24
MIRRORS, LENSES AND

IMAGING SYSTEMS
COURS TOPICS:
24.4 The Power of a Lens

24.7 The Human Eye
24.13 Optical Defects of the Eye
24.4, 24.6, 24.7, 24.12, and 24.13
Homework Problems:
24.63, 24.64, 24.67 and 24.68
CHAPTER 14: OPTICS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 127

Cameras, microscopes, telescopes and the human eye are
examples of optical systems that employ lenses and in some
cases mirrors.
Ordinarily lenses and mirrors are large compared to the
wavelength of the visible light, so their principle effects on
beams of light can be discussed without including interference
or diffraction phenomena. Image formation by such
instruments can be precisely determined by:
- Considering that the light propagates in a straight line.
- Knowing the properties of mirrors and lenses.
Along this presentation we focus on the human eye and some
of its defects . Telescope
Human Eye
Optical microscope

Lenses-definition and characteristics
A lens is a piece of transparent medium that can focus a transmitted beam of light so an
image is formed. The lenses in man-made optical instruments are usually manufactured
from glass or plastic, while the lens in the human eye is formed by a transparent
membrane filled with a clear fluid. For our purpose its sufficient to consider thin, spherical
lenses. These have two spherical surfaces or a spherical surface and a planar surface. The
thickness is small compared to the radii of the surfaces.

We can categorize all lenses as either converging or diverging. A converging lens is thicker at its
center than at the edges, while the inverse is true for a diverging lens. A converging lens bends
light rays toward its axis, it refracts parallel rays so that the image is formed at a focal point F’
beyond the lens (figure 24.2 a) , while a diverging lens will bend the rays outward so that they
appear to come from a focal point F’ before the lens (figure 24.2 b). The distance from the center
of the lens to the focal point is called focal length.
Figure 24.2 converging and diverging lenses
The focal length is conventionally positive for converging lens and negative for a diverging lens.

The focal length
The focal length 𝑓 depends on the index of refraction 𝑛 of the lens and on the radii of curvature
(𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 ) of its surfaces, it can be calculated unsing The lensmarker’s formula:
1 1 1
= 𝑛−1 +
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
The following conventions are used to characterize lens

surfaces:
 A convex surface has a positive radius of curvature.
 A concave surface has a negative radius of curvature.
 A plane surface has an infinite radius of curvature.
Thin lens formula

The image position 𝑠’ and the object position 𝑠
through a thin lens are related by the equation:
1 1 1
+ 𝑆′ = 𝑓
𝑆

2 4 . 4 Po we r o f l e n s , A b e r rat i o n
In discussing lenses, it is often more convenient to deal with the reciprocal of the focal length f,
which is called the power of the lens (in Diopters: 1𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1𝑚−1 ):
1
𝑃=
𝑓
1
For example, a lens of focal length 𝑓 = −20 𝑐𝑚 has a power 𝑃 = = −2,5 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
−0.20𝑚
A short focal-length lens, which bends light through large angle, has a large power.
Association of lenses Two thin lenses with focal lengths 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 placed next to
each other are equivalent to a single lens with a focal length 𝑓 satisfying:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=𝒇 +𝒇
𝒇 𝟏 𝟐
1 1
Alternatively, with 𝑃1 = 𝑓 and 𝑃2 = 𝑓 , the power of the pair of lenses is :
1 2
𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐
The powers of lenses in contact are simply added to find the net power.
For example, an ophthalmologist placing 3 − 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟 and 0.25 − 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟 lenses in front of a patient’s eye
immediately knows that the combination is equivalent to a single 3.25 − 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟 lens.

Aberration
Any lens suffers from various kinds of aberrations, which limit the sharpness of its images. In this
subsection, we are going to see two types of aberrations and how they can be minimized or
eliminated.
Monochromatic aberrations or (spherical aberrations): occur for light of single wavelength.

Light rays near the axis of the lens are focused farther than the rays near the edge and
cause the image to have a small diameter.

Chromatic aberration: When an object is illuminated with white light, if its image on a screen is
in focus for one colour component, it will be slightly out of focus for the others.

Eliminating aberration
We can illustrate these cancellations by considering a doublet, two lenses in contact. Lens
1 has two convex sides and is made from crown glass. Lens 2 has one flat side and one
concave side and is made from flint glass. All of the curved surfaces have radii of curvature
of 10 𝑐𝑚. In both types of glass, the refractive index varies about 1 percent over the
visible spectrum. The powers P1 and P2 can be calculated using the lensmaker’s equation:
1 1 1
𝑃= = 𝑛−1 +
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
The power of the two lenses when they are

placed next to each other is: 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2

Calculating the Power for each lens using the data available in the T able below
Crown lens:
1 1
 Power of the red light : 𝑃1𝑅 = 1.517 − 1 + = 10.34 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
0.1 0.1
1 1
 Power of the yellow light 𝑃1𝑌 = 1.520 − 1 + = 10.40 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
0.1 0.1
1 1
 Power of the Bleu light 𝑃1𝐵 = 1.527 − 1 + = 10.54 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
0.1 0.1
Flint lens:
1 1
 Power of the red light 𝑃2𝑅 = 1.644 − 1 − + = −6.44 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
0.1 ∞
1 1
 Power of the yellow light 𝑃2𝑌 = 1.650 − 1 − + = −6.50 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
0.1 ∞
1 1
 Power of the Bleu light 𝑃2𝐵 = 1.664 − 1 − + = −6.64 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
0.1 ∞
Refractive indice Power (𝑫𝒊𝒐𝒑𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔)
Wave length Crown lens L1 Flint lens L2 P1 ( crown) P2 (Flint) 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2
Red (656 𝑛𝑚) 1.517 1.644 10.34 -6.44 3.90
Yellow (589 𝑛𝑚) 1.520 1.650 10.40 -6.50 3.90
Blue (486 nm) 1.527 1.664 10.54 -6.64 3.90

Eliminating chromatic
aberration with a doublet: two
lenses in contact

2 4 . 7 T h e h u m a n eye
The eyeball is approximately spherical in shape with a diameter about 2.3 𝑐𝑚. The shape and
the focal length of the crystalline lens are controlled by the ciliary muscles. If the ciliary
muscles are relaxed the front surface of the lens is kept relatively flat and light from distant
objects is focused on the retina. When the ciliary muscles contract the lens assume more
rounded shape and its focal length decreases binging the nearby into focus on the retina. The
ability of the lens to adjust its focal length is called accommodation.
Table 1: Refractive index of some

substances
Medium Refractive index

Air 1
Water 1.333
Humors 1.336
Cornea -------
Crystalline 1.437

Power of Accommodation
The power of accommodation of the eye is the maximum variation of its power for focusing
on near objects 𝑃𝑛 and distant (far) objects 𝑃𝑓 .
𝐴 = 𝑃𝑛 – 𝑃𝑓 .
 At the far point (a person sees objects clearly at a distance 𝑥𝑓 ), the power Pf of the eye is:
1 1
𝑃𝑓 = + , 𝐷 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑦𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙: 𝐷 ≈ 2 𝑐𝑚
𝑥𝑓 𝐷
For a person with normal vision the far point is at the infinity (𝑥𝑓 = ), then its power is:
1 1
𝑃𝑓 = + = 50 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
∞ 0.02
 When the eye adjusts its focal length so that it focuses on an object at the near point (the
object distance is 𝑥𝑛), the power of the eye is:
1 1
𝑃𝑛 = + , 𝑥𝑛 : 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑥𝑛 𝐷
1 1
For a young adult with normal vision , 𝑥𝑛 = 25 𝑐𝑚 , then, 𝑃𝑛 = + = 54 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
0.25𝑚 0.02𝑚
 For a young adult with normal vision 𝐴 = 54 − 50 = 4 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
Young children have a much greater power of accommodation, and often can read books held quite close to
their eyes. The accommodation decreases with aging, and most people find their near point gradually
recedes until they cannot read comfortably without corrective glasses.

The visual acuity
The acuity (clearness of images) of a typical person is about 5 × 10−4 𝑟𝑎𝑑. Objects with
smaller angular separation cannot be distinguished (Fig 24.11) . Experiments show that under
optimal conditions few people have an acuity of twice of the diffraction limit (2 × 10−4 𝑟𝑎𝑑).
Nobody can reach the diffraction limit, this failure is due to the structure of the retina:
Figure 24.11
Visual acuity test is often measured according to
the size of letters viewed on a Snellen chart ( Fig.
24.12) or the size of other symbols, such as
Landolt Cs or Tumbling E. Figure 24.11 Slellen Chart

The Eye sensitivity
The minimum or threshold intensity needed to see a flash of light depends on the
wavelength. The cornea is opaque to wavelengths shorter than 300 𝑛𝑚, and the crystalline
lens to wavelengths below 380 𝑛𝑚, so ultraviolet light does not contribute to vision. The
sensitivity of the eye goes to zero rapidly above 700 𝑛𝑚. The photosensitive molecules in
the rods an cones do not respond to the longer wavelengths. The cones are active only in
light-adapted vision, while the rods are always active.
The sensitivity is greatest near 500 𝑛𝑚

and 550 𝑛𝑚 for dark and light adapted
eyes , respectively. Both wavelengths
correspond to green light.

2 4 . 1 3 O p t i c a l d efe c t s o f t h e eye
Four common optical defects ( myopia, hypermetropia, presbyopia and astigmatism) of the
eye can be corrected by use of eyeglasses . In three of these defects the glasses are used to
shift the apparent position of an object , so that the defective eye is able to focus properly. In
the last ,astigmatism the glasses are used to correct the distortion produced by the eye.
Myopia )or nearsightedness(:

In this defect parallel light from a distant object is focused by relaxed eye at a point before
the retina (Fig. 24.13) . A nearsighted person cannot focus clearly on an object farther away
than the far point located at a distance 𝑥𝑓 . This problem arises because the power of the eye
is too great. Diverging lenses with negative powers will compensate for this defect.
Figure 24.13 : Schema of myopia

A nearsighted man has a far point at a distance of 0.2𝑚. His power of accommodation is
4 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠. (a) what power lenses does he need to see distant objects? (b) What is his near
point without glasses? (c) what is his near point with the glasses?
Solution:
(a) The far point is at 𝑥𝑓 = 0.2 𝑚 then the power of the eye is
1 1 1 1
𝑃′𝑓 = + = + = 55 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 ( 𝐷 is the diameter of the eye ball).
𝑥𝑓 𝐷 0.2 0.02
1 1
For a far point at the infinity the power of the eye is 𝑃𝑓 = + = 50 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠.
∞ 0.02
A corrective lens of power 𝑃𝑐 should be used, where 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃′𝑓 = 𝑃𝑓 ,
then 𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑓 − 𝑃′𝑓 = 50 − 55 = −5 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠.
(b) Given the power of accommodation: 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑛 − 𝑃𝑓 , then:
𝑃𝑛 = 𝐴 + 𝑃𝑓 = 55 + 4 = 59 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠.
1 1 1 1
The near point satisfying 𝑃′𝑛 = + = + = 59 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 is 𝑥′𝑛 = 0.11𝑚
𝑥𝑛 𝐷 𝑥𝑛 0.02
(c) With the eye glasses the power of the eye is 𝑃𝑛 = 𝐴 + 𝑃𝑓 = 4 + 50 = 54 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟 which
1 1
corresponds to 𝑃𝑛 = + = 54 diopters and 𝑥𝑛 = 0,25𝑚 = 25 𝑐𝑚
𝑥′𝑛 0.02

Hypermetropia ( or farsightedness):
Hypermetropia s the opposite of myopia. Light from a distant object focuses toward a point
behind the retina. When the Lens is adjusted by the ciliary muscles to have its maximum
power, closer objects are blurred. Eyeglasses with converging lenses supply the additional
focusing power needed.
Example 24.13 page 34: a woman has his near point 1𝑚 from her eyes. What power glasses
does she require to bring her near point to 25 cm from her eyes?
Solution:
1 1 1 1
𝑥𝑛 = 1𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝑛 = + = +
= 51 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑥𝑛 𝐷 1𝑚 0.02
1 1 1 1
𝑥𝑛 = 25 𝑐𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑃′𝑛 = + = + = 54 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑥𝑛 𝐷 0.25 0.02
She needs a glass of power +3 Diopters ( converging lens)

Presbyopia :
Accommodation is reduced with age, which is the result of a gradual weakening of the
ciliary muscle. The lens is less flexible. The near point of a person who has normal vision as a
young adult eventually recedes enough so that converging lenses are needed for closer work
or reading much like person with hypermetropia
Astigmatism :
A person with astigmatism cannot focus on
both horizontal and vertical lines. Usually
this is due to the a cornea that is not
perfectly spherical.

Chapter 30
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
COURS TOPICS
30.1 Radioactivity
30.2 Half-life
30.1 and 30.2
Homework Problems:
30.1, 30.2, 30.3, 30.5 and 30.7
CHAPTER 30: NUCLEAR PHYSICS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 147

The atomic nucleus is a very small dense object. Its size is ≈ 1 fm (1fm = 10−15 𝑚) , 10−4
× the size of an atom. The nucleus is made up from two kinds of nucleons : protons and
neutrons. The proton has a positive electrical charge equal in magnitude the electron’s charge
and a mass about 1840 times the mass of the electron. The neutron ( discovered by James
Chadwick in 1932) is a neutral particle slightly heavier than the proton.
A nucleus is specified by its atomic number Z ( number of protons) and its mass number A (
number of neutrons and protons 𝐴 = 𝑁 + 𝑍). The number of neutrons is then N = 𝐴 − 𝑍
Example:
The uranium 238 , 𝑈 − 238 or 23892𝑈 has 238 nucleons, of
which 92 are protons and 238 − 92 = 146 neutrons.
Nuclides which have the same atomic number but different

number of neutrons are called isotopes such as Deuterium 21𝐻
and Tritium 31𝐻, isotopes of the Hydrogen nuclide 11𝐻

30.1 Radioactivity
In 1896 Henri Becquerel noted that uranium compounds produce invisible radiations that can
penetrate opaque containers and expose photographic emulsion. Many other radionuclides
were subsequently found.
The radioactivity or radioactive decay is a spontaneous and random process in which three
kinds of particles can be emitted:
 Gamma decay: a photon of high energy is emitted. (greater than those of X-rays)
- Alpha decay: emission of the particle alpha ( 42𝐻𝑒 ) ( process followed with a nuclear
transmutation)
- Beta decay: an electron (𝛽 − ) or a positron (𝛽 + ) can be emitted with a neutrino.
Radioactivity decay Nuclear reaction

238 234
92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 42𝐻𝑒 A transmutation of th uranimu-
Alpha
238 into thorium-234
Beta (𝛽 + ) 18
9𝐹 → 18
8𝑂 + 𝑒 + + 𝜐𝑒
Transmutation of th The fluorine
Transmutation of a proton into
-18 into oxygen.
proton
Beta (𝛽 − )
60 60 ∗ Transmutation of the cobalt -60
Transmutation of a neutron into 27𝐶𝑜 → 28𝑁𝑖 + 𝑒 − + 𝜐ҧ
into Ni-60
proton
60 60 Unstable Nickel emits 𝛾 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦,
Gamma 𝑁𝑖 ∗ → 𝑁𝑖 + 2𝛾
the nucleus remains the same.

The radioactive decay of nuclei produces several types of
ionizing radiation with several mega electron volts per particle.
It was found that when these radiations pass through the body,
they can cause biological hazardous such as cell damage, skin
burns and cancer.
Radioactivity Caution
Ionizing radiation have the ability to penetrate matter.
 Alpha particles are stopped by a sheet of paper

 Beta particles can be stopped with a thin foil of Tin or
aluminum .
 Gamma radiation is dampened when it penetrates
matter. Gamma rays can be stopped from 4 meters of
lead. Tungsten and tungsten alloys can stop Gamma
radiation with much less mass than lead

3 0 . 2 H a l f - l i fe
A nuclear decay is a random process, we cannot predict in any way when a specific
nucleus will decay . Nevertheless, the process can be characterized by a specific
parameter: the half-life.
𝑁0
If at time 𝑡 = 0 there are 𝑁𝑜 nuclei, then on a half-life time later, 𝑇 , an average of
2
will remain.
At 𝑡 = 2𝑇, when two half-lives have elapsed, half of these, or 𝑁𝑜 Τ4 nuclei will be left;
At 𝑡 = 3𝑇, 𝑁𝑜 Τ8 will be left, and so one.
Depending on the nuclide, the half-life may vary from a small fraction of second to
billions of years (Table 30.1).
When the elapsed time is not an integer multiple of the half-life, we can find the number
of nuclei remaining as follows:
The change of the number of nuclei ∆𝑁 in a small time ∆𝑡 is proportional to 𝑁 and ∆𝑡:
∆𝑁 = −𝜆 𝑁 Δ𝑡

The last equation implies that if at 𝑡 = 0 there are
𝑁𝑜 nuclei, later at time 𝑡 the number of remaining
nuclei is given by the equation:
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
This equation is called the exponential decay

formula.
𝜆 is the constant decay .
In terms of fraction of radioactive nuclei
𝑁
remaining after time 𝑡 we get: = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑁𝑜
𝑁
A graphical representation of is shown in Fig.
𝑁𝑜
30.3.
We can easily show that the decay constant is Figure 30.3: Graphical representation of
related to the half-life time by: the exponential decay function
𝜆𝑇 = ln(2)

For many applications its more convenient to plot ln 𝑁 versus 𝑡 because the resulting graph is a
straight line. This result follows from taking the natural logarithm of 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 to obtain:
ln 𝑁 = ln 𝑁𝑜 − 𝜆𝑡
The equation is of the form: ln 𝑁 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑡
This kind of graph, plotted on a semi-log paper, is useful when we wish to determine the half-
life and the decay constant of a radioactive sample.
Example: From the graph of figure 30.3 find: (a) the half-life (b) the decay constant.

The effective half-Life:
The effective half-life 𝑇𝑒𝑓𝑓 is a combination between the biological 𝑇𝑏 and the physical 𝑇𝑝
half-lives:
1 1 1
= +
𝑇𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑇𝑝 𝑇𝑏
Example 30.1 page 474: Iodine 131 is used in

the treatment of thyroid disorder. Its half-life
time is 8.1 days. If a patient ingests a small
quantity of 131𝐼 and none is excreted from
𝑁
the body, what fraction of remains after
𝑁𝑜
8.1 days, 16.2 days , 60 days?
Example 30.2 page 475: 59𝐹 is administrated

to a patient to diagnose blood anomalies.
Find its effective half-life.

Chapter 31
IONIZING RADIATION
COURSE TOPICS:
 31.1 The interaction of radiation with matter

 31.2 Radiation Units

31.2, 31.3, 31.4 and 31.5
Homework Problems: 31.14, 31.16, 31.23 and
31.24
CHAPTER 31: IONIZING RADIATION PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 155

Introduction
 The radioactive decay of nuclei produces several kinds of ionizing radiation with energies that
are typically several million electron volts (MeV) per particle
 When this radiation passes through matter, it leaves a trail of ionized atoms along its path.
 Ionizing radiation includes both nuclear radiation and atomic X-rays.
31-1 The interaction of radiation with matter
 There are four major categories of radiation if interest to us:

 Positive ions, such as alpha particle
 Electron and positrons
 Photons (gamma rays and X-rays)
 Neutrons

Positive ions
 Alpha particle, protons, and other positive ions have very short ranges in matter.
 Roughly speaking, the average range of stopping distance varies inversely with the
density of the medium, so a 5-MeV alpha that can travel about 4 cm in air cannot
penetrate a sheet of paper or a layer of skin (Figure 31.1).
Electrons and Positrons

 These produces a nuclear beta decays have ranges that are typically a hundred times
greater than those of alpha particles.
 For example, a 1-Mev electron has a range in water or soft tissues of 0.4 cm (Figure
31.4).
Photons
 Gamma rays and X-rays are both electromagnetic quanta or photons, but since the
gamma rays originate in nuclear rather than atomic processes, they typically have more
energy.
 For example, a 1-MeV photon in water has a mean range of roughly 10 cm.
Neutrons
 Neutrons are uncharged and produce ionization only indirectly. Since they
interact primarily with the small atomic nuclei rather than the atomic electrons, they
have a very long range in matter.
 Neutrons with energies of a few million electron volts may travel a meter or so in water or
in animal tissues.
CHAPTER 31: IONIZING RADIATION PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016

31-2 Radiation Units
 Four types of radiation measurements are used in various applications :
 Source activity
 Exposure
 Absorbed dose
 Biologically equivalent dose
 Source activity
 The source activity A is the disintegration rate of a radioactive material or the rate of decrease
in the number of radioactive nuclei present.
 It is measured in curies (Ci), where the curie is defined by the relationship :

𝟏 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞 = 𝟏 𝐂𝐢 = 𝟑. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝

 A curie is a fairly large unit; a 1-Ci radioactive source requires shielding and careful
handling. Radioactive sources used in an introductory physics laboratory experiments
have an activity measured in micro-curies.
 The S.l. source activity unit is the becquerel (Bq), which is one disintegration per
second. It is expected to gradually replace the curie.
𝟏 𝐂𝐢 = 𝟑. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝐁𝐪
 The activity of a sample is related to its half-life T.

0.693 −Δ𝑁
∆𝑁 = −𝜆 𝑁 Δ𝑡 and 𝜆 = , so 𝐴 = =𝜆𝑁
𝑇 Δ𝑡
 The minus sign is needed because ∆𝑁 is the change in the number of nuclei present and is
negative, while the disintegration rate or activity is positive

 The activity of a sample is related to its half-life T.
0.693 −Δ𝑁
∆𝑁 = −𝜆 𝑁 Δ𝑡 and 𝜆 = , so 𝐴 = =𝜆𝑁
𝑇 Δ𝑡
 The minus sign is needed because ∆𝑁 is the change in the number of nuclei present and is
negative, while the disintegration rate or activity is positive.
 If there are n moles in the sample, then the number of atoms is 𝑁 = 𝑛 𝑁𝐴 , where Avogadro’s
number 𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 × 1023 is the number of particles in a mole.
 The activity of n moles of a sample is then: 𝑨 = 𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑

𝑻
𝒏𝑵𝑨
Example 31.2
60-Co beta decays with a half-life of 5.27 years = 1.66 x 108 s into 60-Ni, which then promptly
emits two gamma rays. These gamma rays are widely used in treating cancer. What is the mass
of a 1000-Ci cobalt source ?

 Exposure and Absorbed Dose
 Exposure indicates the amount of radiation reaching a material. It depends

on the characteristics of the beam alone.
 Absorbed Dose indicates the energy absorbed in the material from the
beam. It depends on the properties of the material and the beam.
 Exposure is defined only for X-rays and gamma rays with energies up to 3
MeV.
 It is defined as the amount of ionization produced in a unit mass of dry air at
standard temperature and pressure (STP), 1 atmosphere and 00 C.
 The conventional unit is:
𝟏 𝒓𝒐𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒈𝒆𝒏 = 𝟏 𝐑 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎
CHAPTE 31: IONIZING RADIATION PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 161

 The Absorbed Dose is the energy imparted by ionizing radiation to a unit mass of absorbing
tissue. It is measured in rads.
𝟏 𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎
 the S.I. unit for absorbed dose is the Gray (Gy).
𝟏 𝑮𝒚 = 𝟏 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒓𝒂𝒅
 A 1 roentgen exposure to X-rays or gamma rays produces a soft tissue absorbed dose of
approximately 1 rad
Example 31.3
Living tissues exposed to 10,000 rads are completely destroyed. By how much will this
absorbed dose raise the temperature of the tissues if none of the heat is lost? (Assume that
the specific heat of the tissue is the same as that of water, c = 4180 J/kg.K).

 Biological Quantities
 The absorbed dose refers to a physical effect: the transfer of energy to a material. However, the
effect of radiation on biological systems also depend on the type of radiation and its energy.
 The quality factor (QF) of a particular radiation is defined by comparing its effects to those of a
standard kind of radiation, which is usually taken to be 200 keV X-rays.
𝑫𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑿 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔 (𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒆𝑽)

𝑸𝑭 =
𝑫𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
 For example, fast neutrons (with energies above 0.1 MeV) have QF of about 10 for causing
cataracts. This means that the dose of 200-keV X-rays needed to produce cataracts is 10 times the
dose required for neutrons.

 The QF varies with the radiation type and energy, with the animal species, and the
biological effect under consideration.

 See table 31.1
 The rem and the millirem = 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 rem are the units used in discussions of biological effects.
For example, in the case of cataract formation, 1 rad of 200-keV X rays and 0.1 rad of fast
neutrons each produce 1 rem of damage.
 Biologically equivalent dose (in rems) is the physical absorbed dose (in rads) times the QF.
Biologically equivalent Dose (rem) = absorbed Dose (rad) × QF
 In S.l. units, the biologically equivalent dose in sieverts (Sv) equals the dose in grays times the
QF.
Biologically equivalent Dose (Sv) = absorbed Dose (Gy) × QF
 See table 31.2

 Example 31.4
A cancer is irradiated with 1000 rads of 60-Co gamma rays, which have a QF of 0.7. Find the
exposure in roentgen and the biologically equivalent dose in rems.
 Example 31.5
A laboratory experiment in a physics class uses a 10 microcurie 137-Cs source. Each decay emits a
0.66 MeV gamma ray. (a) How many decays occur per hour. (b) A 60 kg student standing nearby
absorbs 10 percent of the gamma rays. What is her absorbed dose in rads in 1 hour. (c) The quality
factor QF is 0.8. Find her biologically equivalent dose in rems.

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UMM AL QURA UNIVERSITY

CHAPTER TITLE WEEK Modifications

INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL PHYSICS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 2

Medical physics is the application of physics to medicine.

INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL PHYSICS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 3

INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL PHYSICS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 4

INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL PHYSICS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 5

Blood pressure measurement

Sphygmomanometer Digital wrist tensiometer

Body temperature measurement

Medical mercury thermometer Infrared era thermometer

INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL PHYSICS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 6

INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL PHYSICS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 7

MRI device MRI Image

INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL PHYSICS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 8

INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL PHYSICS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 9

INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL PHYSICS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 10

An endoscope is a long, thin and flexible tube

INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL PHYSICS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 11

Cartilage prosthesis of the knee

INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL PHYSICS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 12

Total artificial heart

INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL PHYSICS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 13

MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE

 1.1 Measurements, Standards and Units

Examples to be explained and solved:

CHAPTER 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 15

CHAPTER 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 16

Time second 𝑠 Second 𝑠 second s

CHAPTER 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 17

10 deca da 0.1 10−1 deci d

100 102 hecto h 0.01 10−2 centi c

1000 103 kilo k 0.001 10−3 milli m

1000 000 106 Mega M 0.000001 10−6 micro 𝜇

CHAPTER 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 18

3- Replace this form in the first step:

Example 1.1: Convert 100 𝑓𝑡 into meters.

CHAPTER 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 19

𝑚 1𝑘𝑚 3600𝑠 24×3600 𝑘𝑚

CHAPTER 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 20

Displacement: is the change in the position:

CHAPTER 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 21

1.3 Instantaneous velocity

CHAPTER 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 22

CHAPTER 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 23

A negative acceleration means that velocity is decreasing with time.

CHAPTER 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 24

1 Relating the final velocity to the initial

CHAPTER 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 25

Exercise: Resolve example 1.16 with an initial velocity 𝑣0 = 3𝑚𝑠 −1 .

CHAPTER 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 26

CHAPTER 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 27

CHAPTER 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 28

Examples to be explained and solved:

2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4 and 2.6

Homework Problems: 2.13, 2.15, 2.19 and 2.21

CHAPTER 2: MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS PREPARATORY YEAR 2015-2016 29

For example, to describe where the