Educational Research (837)

Semester: Autumn, 2020

ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q.1 Explain expert opinion, rationality and magic as sources of knowledge. To what extent they are
useful now-a-days?
Human body needs nutritious food for its healthy existence. Human mind also need nutritious food for
their healthy and brilliant functioning. Hence Knowledge is considered as the food of mind. The
definition of knowledge is ongoing debate among the philosophers in the field of epistemology.
According to Plato Knowledge is justified true belief. Knowledge can be defined as a familiarity
awareness or understanding of someone or something such as facts, information, descriptions or skills,
which is acquired through experiences or education by perceiving, discovering or learning. Any new
information acquired by an organism through formal, informal or non formal way of inquiry can be
termed as knowledge. Knowledge make individuals more strength and confident in their activity. The
activity of research builds new knowledge, theory or formulates generalization.
Ways/Source of Acquiring Knowledge 
Curious to know about new things is the main motivating factor for searching new knowledge. When a
person feel disequilibrium regarding any matter of content, s/he start search for reaching valid
conclusion regarding the matter of doubt. The process of clarification leads them to equilibration in their
cognition. For the purpose of getting new information the human beings are using following ways to
accumulate new knowledge.
Sensory Perception 
Senses are the gate ways of knowledge. Five senses help an individual to get primary information
regarding any object, individual or events and so forth. For example, students can see an experiment
conducted by the teacher, hear the explanation, touch the object or product, smell the output, taste the
product etc. Through this five activity (five sense organs) or any one activity (single sense organ) students
are able to construct and verify information regarding the experiment conducted. Hence sensory
perceptions are the one important source or means of acquiring knowledge. In the case of a researcher,
the sensory perceptions are important to them to collect information and verify the authenticity and
originality of acquired knowledge.
Logical Reasoning
Logical reasoning is another way of acquiring Knowledge. It is related to brainy functioning. Ignorance
and blind believes made man as a sleeping brains, later, curiosity and search for cause and effect
relationship paved the way of unfolding natural truths and facts. People become modern and developed
by the way they approached the matters through logical reasoning. Deductive as well as inductive
reasoning are emerged by the time as methods of logical reasoning. Individuals may infer things through
deductive reasoning, abstract thinking, finding relationship between events and variables and so forth.
For example a competent person can make valid conclusion regarding the nature and consequences of
certain events by observing behavior of individuals or analyzing chain of events, statement and attitude
of national leaders and so forth. Through the logical reasoning a researcher can deduct and infer
information regarding the research problem.
Deductive Reasoning 
It is the earlier philosophical method of Logical Reasoning. Categorical syllogism is considered as the old
systematic method of logical reasoning. The famous philosopher Aristotle developed it as Deductive
method of problem solving. Moving from General assumptions to specific application, that means the
general to particular principle (DGP). It can be understood by the explanation of categorical syllogism
given below.
Categorical Syllogism 
Syllogistic reasoning is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning for drawing a valid
conclusion based on two or more propositions. Categorical syllogism consists of three components; such
as Major premise, Minor Premise, Conclusion. It establishes a logical relationship between them.
Major Premise: it is a self evident assumption, previously established by metaphysical truth or dogmas.
For example all men are mortal 
Minor Premise: it is a particular case related to the major premise. For example, Socrates is a man 
Conclusion: based on both premises conclusion and inference could be surly possible. For example
Socrates is mortal
Form the above example we can observe the general assumption in major premise; that is all men are
mortal. Then leads to particular observation in minor premise that Socrates is a man and concludes that
that’s why he is a mortal.
Inductive Reasoning
Later much creative criticism had been raised regarding the process drawing conclusion from general
phenomenon. Because of the reason that there might be some dogmas and myths, baseless beliefs
which had not been empirically proved but believed that, they are true and as well as had impacted the
conclusion. So it leads to creating unreliable and error information to the people. Hence many centuries
later Francis bacon advocated the inductive method of reasoning or problem solving which had kicked
back the limitation of the deductive method. It is the process of specific observations of phenomenon
which leads to generalization. Here individuals arrive to conclusions after the empirical verification of
many individual observations of a common phenomenon. Hence there is no possibility to adopt any
dogmas or myth as a foundation of knowledge. Here the problem solver ensures the mortality of the
human beings or any organism in particular case. For example a person analyzing the life history of great
personalities, such as Mahathma Gandhi, Nehru, Maulana Abul kalam azad, Abrahaam Lincon and so
forth. S/he could be reach a conclusion that even though these personalities had a strong back up of the
political power they could not overcome the death. And there is no organism can be found on earth alive
after a reasonable length of period. Hence it is concluded that every organism with soul or life should
breathe its last after a while.
Authority
There are several occasions where a researcher needs authoritative knowledge. All official information
can be termed as authoritative knowledge. One can get information from concern authority regarding
their concerned. Right to information act is a good example for the same. If any individual need
authentic information regarding any authority s/he can file a query regarding his information concerned
through RTI to concerned authority. This process ensures an information seeker to get authentic
knowledge from authority. For example if a researcher needs information regarding the enrollment,
dropout rate, literacy rate, budget allocation to different educational sector, s/he can be collect
information from the concern authority regarding the above. The information provided by the concerned
authority would be the knowledge from authority or authoritative knowledge.
Traditions 
Traditions are another important source of knowledge. Much social related knowledge are preserved
and transmitted through traditions. For example social skills, values, social functions are entirely routed
in traditions of the society. Traditions have local as well as national impact. A researcher can get
information regarding the indigenous treatment system, folklore arts, skilled based traditional social
class are available from social traditions. There much information which is largely depends on traditions.
Experience 
Personal as well as professional experience of an individual contributes much in his knowledge. Personal
experience in family, society, and neighborhood taught humans many lessons regarding the behavior,
adjustment, social dealings, patience and so forth. Professional experiences make an individual perfectly
professional. Knowledge of matters regarding to be performed or not to be do in personal as well as
professional situation create through experiences. Learning by doing is also come under this category.
Naturalistic Inquiry 
Thirst for knowledge is the uniqueness of human being. When s/he wants to solve a certain problem or
confront a curious situation. S/he starts searching for the solution of the problem in naturalistic way. The
final solution will be found out by getting new information regarding the problem through the inquiry.
For example a researcher felt a problem of why the students of backward areas are less enrolled in
higher education. The researcher may formulate possible reasons and possibilities of the problem.
Empirically collect information from the original sources, s/he may go to the community location and
approach the concerned subject of the study and their social situation. Through this inquiry process the
researcher get much valuable information and thereby infer the solution of the problem. The knowledge
construction through this process can be termed as naturalistic Inquiry.
Trial and Error 
Trial and error is one of the ways of acquiring new knowledge. The term trial and error is contributed by
famous psychologist E.L. Thorndike. Individuals learn more things through trial and error process.
Knowledge related to practical, professional, skilled and semi skilled professions are largely depends on
this source of knowledge. For example knowledge of use of computer, smart phone, driving, playing
cricket, football, teaching etc can be acquired through trial and error.
Scientific approach 
Knowledge can be created or accumulated through various means. Scientific approach is very important
means of knowledge acquisition. Scientific approach ensures the reliability and rationality of the
information or knowledge acquired. The knowledge constructed through scientific approach has
following features.
1. Body of Knowledge
2. Universal application
3. Empirically proved
4. Experimental
5. Measurable
6. Observable
7. Trustworthiness
8. Objectivity
9. Validity
10. Reliability
11. Predictability
Scientific Method in Developing Knowledge 
Scientific method ensures the reliability and validity of the knowledge constructed through its process.
The adoption of the scientific method eliminates the biasness as well as the fake information regarding
the matter of concern. John Dewey (1938) identified the following steps for scientific method which
constitute the elements of deductive and inductive reasoning.
1. Identification and definition of problems 
2. Formulation of hypotheses 
3. Collection, organization and Analysis of data 
4. Formulation of conclusion 
5. Verification, Rejection, or Modification of hypotheses
Intuition 
Knowledge revealed from insight is another means of knowledge acquisition. Archimedes’ Principles,
Lord Buddha are the living examples of acquired knowledge through intuitions. Many of the life
situations we also had experienced intuitive knowledge to solve our life problems. Intuitive knowledge
can be acquired through following process.
1. Preparation
In this step all available information regarding the problem to be solved must be assembled and analyzed
in depth. Continuous attempts are made to found out solutions and the process is set aside.
2. Incubation
No intentional attempt mad e to solve the problem. It come to mind while playing, cooking or at
bathroom and so forth.
3. Illumination
Illumination is the process of intuiting many ideas in the mind of the problem solver unexpectedly. It may
be the result of preparation as well as the relaxed mood of incubation period. The script writers, poets,
writers, scientist are getting ideas or knowledge in this manner.
4. Verification
After receiving the idea the problem solver should verify or test the validity and reliability of the
information empirically. The level of attaining knowledge through intuition must be depends on the
motivation as well as the intelligence level of problem solver.
Learning 
Learning from the original sources is another method of acquiring knowledge. In modern era Lot of
information are available at finger tips. Learning can be done through online as well as off line mode.
One can depend the formal classroom as well as non-formal way of learning for acquiring knowledge.
Stream wise systematic knowledge are disseminating in formal classrooms. For example, the subjects like
engineering, medicine, education, psychology, statistics and so forth are studying in formal classrooms. If
an individual is not able to attend the regular classroom for his educational purpose he can avail
knowledge through distance learning. However there are many doors are opens for accessing knowledge
throughout the world. Learner can search primary sources or secondary sources of information for
accumulating knowledge. Learning can be done selectively as per the requirements of the knowledge
seeker.