Complex Functions

Complex Number
Complex numbers arose in order to solve polynomial equations such as 𝑥 2 + 1 = 0 or
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0 which are not satisfied by real numbers.
- Note that we have used the ordinary rules of algebra except that we replace 𝑖 2 by
-1 whenever it occurs.
- Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real and imaginary parts are
respectively equal.
- A complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 can be considered as a point 𝑃 with coordinates
(𝑥, 𝑦) on a rectangular 𝑥 − 𝑦 plane called the complex plane. We can write the
complex number in so-called polar form as 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝜌(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙).
𝜌: modulus or absolute value of 𝑧 and denoted by |𝑧|
𝜙: amplitude or argument of 𝑧 and abbreviated by arg 𝑧

We can also write 𝜌 = √𝑧 𝑧̅.

where 𝑧̅ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 is called the conjugate of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑦.

If 𝑧1 = 𝜌1 (cos 𝜙1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜙1 ), 𝑧2 = 𝜌2 (cos 𝜙2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜙2 )

then 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝜌1 𝜌2 [cos(𝜙1 + 𝜙2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜙1 + 𝜙2 )]
𝑧1 /𝑧2 = 𝜌1 /𝜌2 [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜙1 − 𝜙2 ) + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜙1 − 𝜙2 )]

De Moivre's Theorem 棣莫弗定理

If 𝑛 is any real number
𝑧 𝑛 = [𝜌(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙)]𝑛 = 𝜌𝑛 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜙 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜙)
We can use this to determine roots of complex numbers.
For example, if 𝑛 is a positive integer,
𝑧 1/𝑛 = [𝜌(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙)]1/𝑛
𝜙+2𝑘𝜋 𝜙+2𝑘𝜋
= 𝜌1/𝑛 {cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )}, 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, ⋯ , 𝑛 − 1
𝑛 𝑛
Euler's Formulas
𝑒 𝑖𝜙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙, 𝑒 −𝑖𝜙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
Many of the ideas involving real numbers can be extended to complex numbers.

⁃ Ex: |3 − 4𝑖||4 + 3𝑖| = ?

<Sol>:
√(3)2 + (−4)2 √(4)2 + (3)2 = (5)(5) = 25

⁃ Ex: If 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 are two complex numbers, prove |𝑧1 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 ||𝑧2 |.
<Proof>:
Let 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 , 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 , then
|𝑧1 𝑧2 | = |(𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 )(𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 )| = |𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 + 𝑖 (𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 )|
= √(𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 )2 + (𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 )2

= √𝑥12 𝑥22 + 𝑦12 𝑦22 + 𝑥12 𝑦22 + 𝑥22 𝑦12 = √(𝑥12 + 𝑦12 )(𝑥22 + 𝑦22 )

= √𝑥12 + 𝑦12 √𝑥22 + 𝑦22 = |𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 ||𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 | = |𝑧1 ||𝑧2 |

⁃ Ex: Express in polar form: −2 − 2√3𝑖

<Sol>:
Amplitude 𝜙 = 240∘ = 4𝜋/3 radians
2
Modulus 𝜌 = √(−2)2 + (−2√3) = 4

∴ −2 − 2√3 = 4(cos 4𝜋/3 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜋/3) = 4 𝑒 4𝜋𝑖/3

⁃ Ex: Evaluate (−1 + 𝑖 )1/3

<Sol>:
−1 + 𝑖 = √2(cos 135∘ + 𝑖 sin 135∘)
= √2[𝑐𝑜𝑠(135∘ + 𝑘 ∙ 360∘ ) + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛(135∘ + 𝑘 ∙ 360∘ )]
 1/3 135∘ + 𝑘 ∙ 360∘ 135∘ + 𝑘 ∙ 360∘
∴ (−1 + 𝑖 )1/3 = (√2) [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
3 3

The results for 𝐾 = 0, 1, 2 are

6 6 6
√2(cos 45∘ + 𝑖 sin 45∘ ), √2(cos 165∘ + 𝑖 sin 165∘),√2(cos 285∘ + 𝑖 sin 285∘ )
The results for 𝑘 = 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, ⋯ ⋯ give repetitions of these.

⁃ Ex: Assuming that the Taylor series for 𝑒 𝑥 holds for complex values of 𝑥, arrive
at Euler's formula 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙.
<Sol>:
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
Taylor series for 𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + + +⋯⋯
2! 3! 4!

If 𝑥 = 𝑖𝜙,

𝑖𝜙
(𝑖𝜙)2 (𝑖𝜙)3 (𝑖𝜙)4
𝑒 = 1 + 𝑖𝜙 + + + + ⋯⋯
2! 3! 4!
𝜙2 𝜙4 𝜙3 𝜙5
= (1 − + − ⋯ ⋯ ) + 𝑖 (𝜙 − + − ⋯⋯)
2! 4! 3! 5!
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙

Similarly, we find 𝑒 −𝑖ϕ = cos ϕ − 𝑖 sin 𝜙

Complex Function
If to each of a set of complex numbers which a variable 𝑧 may assume there
corresponds one or more values of a variable 𝜔, then 𝜔 is called a function of the
complex variable 𝑧, written 𝜔 = 𝑓 (𝑧).
⁃ A function is single-valued if for each value of 𝑧 there corresponds only one
value of 𝜔; otherwise it is multiple-valued.
⁃ In general, we can write 𝜔 = 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) , where 𝑢 and 𝑣 are
real functions of 𝑥 and 𝑦.
⁃ Unless otherwise specified, we shall assume that 𝑓 (𝑧) is single-valued. A
function which is multiple-valued can be considered as a collection of single-
valued functions.

⁃ Ex: 𝜔 = 𝑧 2 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

so that 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2𝑥𝑦

⁃ Ex: Determine the locus represented by |𝑧 − 3| + |𝑧 + 3| = 10

<Sol>:
√(𝑥 − 3)2 + 𝑦 2 + √(𝑥 + 3)2 + 𝑦 2 = 10
Squaring and simplifying, 25 + 3𝑥 = 5√(𝑥 + 3)2 + 𝑦 2
Squaring and simplifying again, 𝑥 2 /25 + 𝑦 2 /16 = 1
⇒ an ellipse with semi-major and semi-minor axes of lengths 5 and 4 respectively.

⁃ Ex: Express 𝑙𝑛 𝑧 in the form 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦).

<Sol>:

𝑙𝑛 𝑧 = 𝑙𝑛(𝜌𝑒 𝑖𝜙 ) = 𝑙𝑛 𝜌 + 𝑖𝜙 = 𝑙𝑛 √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑖 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦 /𝑥

1
∴ 𝑢 = 2 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ), 𝑣 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦 /𝑥

Note that ln 𝑧 is a multiple-valued function (in this case it is infinitely many-

valued) since 𝜙 can be increased by any multiple of 2π. The principal value
of the logarithm is defined as that value for which 0 ≤ 𝜙 < 2 𝜋.

Limits and Continuity

Definitions of limits and continuity for functions of a complex variable are analogous
to those for a real variable.
𝑓 (𝑧) is said to have the limit ℓ as 𝑧 approceches 𝑧0 if, given any ε > 0, there exists
a δ > 0 such that |𝑓(𝑧) − ℓ| < 𝜀 whenever 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < δ.
Similarly, 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be continuons at 𝑧0 if, given any ε > 0, there exists a δ >
0 such that |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓 (𝑧0 )| < ε whenever |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < δ . Alternatively, 𝑓(𝑧) is
continuons at 𝑧0 if 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓 (𝑧0 ).
𝑧→𝑧0

Derivatives
If 𝑓(𝑧) is single-valued in some region of the 𝑧 plane, the derivative of 𝑓(𝑧) ,
denoted by 𝑓′(𝑧), is defined as

𝑓(𝑧 + Δ𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧)

lim
Δ𝑧→0 Δ𝑧

provided the limit exists independent of the manner in which Δ𝑧 → 0. If the limit
exists for 𝑧 = 𝑧0 , then 𝑓 (𝑧) is analytic at 𝑧0 . In order to be analytic, 𝑓(𝑧) must be
single-valued and continuous.
- We define elementary functions of a complex variable by a natural extension of
the corresponding functions of a real variable.
- Rules for differentiating functions of a complex variable are much the same as for
those of real variables.
𝑑 (z 𝑛 )/𝑑𝑧 = 𝑛𝑧 𝑛−1 , 𝑑(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑧)/𝑑𝑧 = cos 𝑧, etc.

Ex: Prove that 𝑑𝑧̅/𝑑𝑧, where 𝑧̅ is the conjugate of 𝑧, does not exist anywhere.
<Proof>:
𝑑𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓 (𝑧 + 𝛥𝑧) − 𝑓 (𝑧)
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑑𝑧 𝛥𝑧→0 𝛥𝑧
if this limit exists independent of the manner in which Δ𝑧 = Δ𝑥 + 𝑖 Δ𝑦
approaches zero.

Then,

𝑑𝑧̅ 𝑧 + Δ𝑧 − 𝑧 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + Δ𝑥 + 𝑖Δ𝑦 − 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
= lim = lim
𝑑𝑧 Δ𝑧→0 Δ𝑧 Δ𝑥→0 Δ𝑥 + 𝑖Δ𝑦
Δ𝑦→0

𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 + Δ𝑥 − 𝑖Δ𝑦 − (𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦) Δ𝑥 − 𝑖Δ𝑦

= lim = lim
Δ𝑥→0 Δ𝑥 + 𝑖Δ𝑦 Δ𝑥→0 Δ𝑥 + 𝑖Δ𝑦
Δ𝑥→0 Δ𝑦→0
 If Δ𝑦 = 0, the required limit is
𝛥𝑥
𝑙𝑖𝑚 =1
𝛥𝑥→0 𝛥𝑥

If Δ𝑥 = 0, the required limit is

−𝑖𝛥𝑦
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = −1
𝛥𝑦→0 𝑖𝛥𝑦

These two possible approaches show that the limit depends on the manner in which
𝛥𝑧 → 0, so that the derivative does not exist; i.e., 𝑧̅ is non-analytic anywhere.

Cauchy-Riemann Equation
A necessary condition that 𝑤 = 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) be analytic in a region 𝑅
is that 𝑢 and 𝑣 satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations
𝜕𝑢/𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑣/𝜕𝑦 , 𝜕𝑢/𝜕𝑦 = −𝜕𝑣/𝜕𝑥

If the second derivatives of 𝑢 and 𝑣 with respect to 𝑥 and 𝑦 exist and are
continuous, we find by differentiating the above equations that
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕 2𝑣
+ =0 , + =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
The real and imaginary parts satisfy Laplace's equation in two dimensions. Functions
satisfying Laplace's equation are called harmonic functions.

∇2 = 0 harmonic function
∇4 = 0 biharmonic function

<Proof>: Since 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦), we have

𝑓 (𝑧 + 𝛥𝑧) = 𝑓 [𝑥 + 𝛥𝑥 + 𝑖 (𝑦 + 𝛥𝑦)] = 𝑢(𝑥 + 𝛥𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝛥𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥 + 𝛥𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝛥𝑦)
𝑓 (𝑧 + 𝛥𝑧) − 𝑓 (𝑧)
∴ lim
𝛥z→0 𝛥𝑧
𝑢(𝑥 + 𝛥𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝛥𝑦) − 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖[𝑣 (𝑥 + 𝛥𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝛥𝑦) − 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)]
= 𝛥𝑥→0
lim
𝛥𝑦→0
𝛥𝑥 + 𝑖𝛥𝑦

If 𝛥𝑦 = 0, the required limit is

𝑢(𝑥 + 𝛥𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑣 (𝑥 + 𝛥𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
lim { +𝑖[ ]} = +𝑖
𝛥x→0 𝛥𝑥 𝛥𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
If 𝛥𝑥 = 0, the required limit is
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝛥𝑦) − 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝛥𝑦) − 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) 1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
lim { +𝑖[ ]} = +
𝛥y→0 𝑖𝛥𝑦 𝑖𝛥𝑦 𝑖 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
If the derivative is to exist, these two special limits must be equal, i.e.,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+𝑖 = + = −𝑖 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
⇒ = , =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢

= , = − ⇒ + =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
= − , = ⇒ + =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

Ex: If 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) is analytic in a region 𝑅 , prove that the one
parameter families of curves 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐1 and 𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐2 are orthogonal families.
<Proof>: Consider any two particular members of these families 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑢0 ,
𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑣0 which intersect at the point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ).
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑢𝑥
Since 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0 ⇒ =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑢𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑣𝑥
Since 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0 ⇒ =−
𝑑𝑥 𝑣𝑦
When evaluated at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ), these represent respectively the slopes of the two curves
at the intersection point. By the Cauchy-Riemann equation, 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 and 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 ,
we have the product of the slopes at the point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) equal to
𝑢𝑥 𝑣𝑥 𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑦
(− ) (− ) = (− ) ( ) = −1
𝑢𝑦 𝑣𝑦 𝑢𝑦 𝑢𝑥
so that any two members of the respective families are orthogonal, and thus the two
families are orthogonal.

Integrals
If 𝑓 (𝑧) is defined, single-valued and continuous in a region 𝑅, we define the integral
of 𝑓 (𝑧) along some path 𝐶 in 𝑅 from point 𝑧1 to point 𝑧2 , where 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 ,
𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 , as
(𝑥2 ,𝑦2 )
∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑 𝑧 = ∫ (𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
𝑐 (𝑥1,𝑦1 )
(𝑥2 ,𝑦2 ) (𝑥2,𝑦2 )
=∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦
(𝑥1,𝑦1 ) (𝑥1 ,𝑦1 )
with this definition the integral of a function of a complex variable can be made to
depend on line integrals for real functions. The rules for complex integration are
similar to those for real integrals.
An important result is |∫𝑐 𝑓 (𝑧) 𝑑𝑧| ≤ ∫𝑐|𝑓(𝑧)| |𝑑𝑧| ≤ 𝑀 ∫𝑐𝑑𝑠 = 𝑀𝐿.
where 𝑀 is an upper bound of |𝑓(𝑧)| on C, i.e. |𝑓(𝑧)| ≤ M, and 𝐿 is the length of
the path 𝐶.

Ex: Evaluate
2+4𝑖
∫ 𝑧2𝑑 𝑧 = ?
1+𝑖
(a) along the parabola 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 , where 1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2,
(b) along the straight line joining 1 + 𝑖 and 2 + 4𝑖,
(c) along straight lines from 1 + 𝑖 to 2 + 𝑖 and then to 2 + 4𝑖.

<Sol>:
2+4𝑖 (2,4) (2,4)
∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦) = ∫ (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
1+𝑖 (1,1) (1,1)
(2,4) (2,4)
=∫ [(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦] + 𝑖 ∫ [2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦]
(1,1) (1,1)
Method 1:
(a) The points (1,1) and (2,4) correspond to 𝑡 = 1 and 𝑡 = 2 respectively.
Then the above line integrals become
𝑡=2 2
86
∫ [(𝑡 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − 2𝑡(𝑡 2𝑡𝑑𝑡] + 𝑖 ∫ [2(𝑡)(𝑡 2 )𝑑𝑡 + (𝑡 2 − 𝑡 4 )2𝑡𝑑𝑡] = −
2 4) 2)
− 6𝑖
𝑡=1 1 3
(b) The line joining (1,1) and (2,4) has the equation
4−1
𝑦−1= (𝑥 − 1) or 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 2
2−1
Then we find
𝑥=2
∫ {[(𝑥 2 − (3𝑥 − 2)2 )]𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥(3𝑥 − 2)3𝑑𝑥}
𝑥=1
2
86
+ 𝑖 ∫ {2𝑥(3𝑥 − 2)𝑑𝑥 + [𝑥 2 − (3𝑥 − 2)2 ]3𝑑𝑥 } = − − 6𝑖
1 3
(c) From 1 + 𝑖 to 2 + 𝑖 [or (1, 1) to (2, 1)], 𝑦 = 1, 𝑑𝑦 = 0 and we have
𝑥=2 𝑥=2
4
∫ (𝑥 2 − 1) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 ∫ 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = + 3𝑖
𝑥=1 𝑥=1 3
From 2 + 𝑖 to 2 + 4𝑖 [or (2, 1) to (2, 4)], 𝑥 = 2, 𝑑𝑥 = 0 and we have
𝑦=4 𝑦=4
∫ −4𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ∫ (4 − 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 = −30 − 9𝑖
𝑦=1 𝑦=1
Adding,
4 86
( + 3𝑖) + (−30 − 9𝑖 ) = − − 6𝑖
3 3
Method 2:
Recall that for real functions in Vector Calculus

Theorem: A necessary and sufficient condition for ∫𝑐[𝑃 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄 𝑑𝑦] to be independent

of the path 𝐶 joining any two given points in a region 𝑅 is that in 𝑅
𝜕𝑃/𝜕𝑦 = 𝜕𝑄/𝜕𝑥
where it is supposed that these partial derivatives are continuous in 𝑅.

∫[(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦] ⇒ 𝑃 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , 𝑄 (𝑥 ) = −2𝑥𝑦

⇒ 𝜕𝑃/𝜕𝑦 = −2𝑦 = 𝜕𝑄/𝜕𝑥

∫[2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦] ⇒ 𝑃 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥𝑦, 𝑄 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2

⇒ 𝜕𝑃/𝜕𝑦 = 2𝑥 = 𝜕𝑄/𝜕𝑥

It is seen that 𝜕𝑃/𝜕𝑦 = 𝜕𝑄/𝜕𝑥 so the line integrals are independent of the path. In
such case, the integral can be evaluated directly, as for real variables, as follows:
2+4𝑖 2+4𝑖
2
𝑧3 (2 + 4𝑖 )3 (1 + 𝑖 )3 86
∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = | = − =− − 6𝑖
1+𝑖 3 1+𝑖 3 3 3