Module 2.diesel Power Plant

MODULE 2: Diesel Engine Power System Hydro Eclectic Power Plant 2018
MODULE 2 DIESEL ENGINE POWER SYSTEM
2.1 INTRODUCTION
We know that, all types of automobiles including tractors, trucks and buses use internal
combustion engines. These internal combustion engines can also be used for power generation
where the supply of coal and water is not available in abundant quantity. These plants are suitable
for small and medium out puts and can be used as stand by plants to hydro electric power plants
and thermal power plants. These can also be used to meet peak load demand in some power
plants and can be used to supply the seasonal electric loads. Low capacity plants uses petrol
engines and are meant primarily for emergency service. Large capacity plants uses diesel engines
for power generation. The capacity of these plants ranges from 2 to 50MW and are used as
standby sets in hospitals, cinemas, telephone exchanges, radio stations etc. It is one of the most
economic means of generating electricity in a small scale where cheap fuels are not available and
load factors are considerably high.
In a steam plant, one or more diesel generating units may be installed to serve as stand by or to
supply peak loads of small duration. As stand bys, these units may provide for the total
residential load of the power plant. In thermal plant, the diesel generators supply power for
auxiliaries in case of failure of main working units. In industrial plant where the steam is used for
process work, diesel engines supplies power during seasons when steam for process work is not
required.
In many countries the demand for electric power generation by diesel plant is increased
because of problems associated with the development and construction of new hydraulic plants
and enlargement of old hydro plants. The thermal and hydro plants require a long term plan
which cannot keep the pace with many times the increased demand by the people and industries.
Advantages and disadvantages of diesel Power Plants;

Advantages
1. Very simple in design and easy to install
2. The plant can be located very near to the load centre.
3. The overall capital cost per unit of installed capacity is lesser than thermal or hydel plant.
4. The plant requires lesser operating and supervising staff.
1 Raghavendra M J , Asst. Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engineering
5. Fuel handling is easier and no ash disposal problem.
6. The cooling water requirement is less.
7. It can be quickly installed and commissioned and can be put on load quickly.
8. It can meet sudden changes in the load without much difficulty.
9. It occupies less space.

10. The part load efficiency of the plant does not fall so much as that of a thermal plant.
11. It uses lubrication system which is more economical than thermal plant
12. The plant can burn fairly a wide range of fuels.

13. The plant layout is very simple.
Disadvantages
1. The size of the unit is limited and very large capacity plants are not possible.
2. The operating cost is high.
3. Lubricating cost and maintenance costs are high.
4. The plant cost per KW is comparatively more.
5. Noise from the exhaust is a serious problem.
6. The life of the plant is limited to 2 to 5 years when compared to thermal plants (25 to 30 years)
7. These plants cannot supply overloads continuously.
Applications of diesel Power Plants

1. It can be used as peak load or stand by unit for hydel plants.
2. It can be used as mobile plants for temporary or emergency purposes (for large civil engineering
works etc.)
3. These can be used in emergency cases where power interruption would result in financial loss or danger,
in key industrial processes, tunnel lighting and operating rooms of hospitals.
4. It can be used as a Nursery station. The plant supplies power to a small town in absence of main grid
and can be moved to another area which needs power in a small scale when the main grid is available is
known as "Nursery station".
5. It can also be used as starting station. The plant runs the auxiliaries for starting the large thermal plants.
6. The plant can also be used as central station where the capacity is limited to 5 to 10MW

7. It can be used as a portable unit to move from one place to another where electricity is needed
temporarily.
8. It can be used when the loads are comparatively small, limited water supply and due to non
availability of electric line service
2.2 Comparison of Diesel Plant With Thermal Plant
Diesel plant Thermal Plants

1. Simple in design 1. A large number of circuits makes the
2. Installation and erection time is less, design complex
hence plant can be commissioned and 2. Installation and erection time is more.
started quickly. Starting of the plant takes fairly long
3. Building and foundation cost are less time.
expensive. 3. Building and foundation cost are
4. Overall capital cost per unit of installed expensive.
capacity is less. 4. Overall capital cost of the plant is high.
5. The plant efficiency does not fall rapidly at 5. The plant efficiency fall rapidly at part
part load. load.
6. It requires less operating and supervising 6. It requires comparatively more
staff. operating/ supervising staff.
7. If occupies less space. 7. It occupies more space.
8. No problem of ash disposal. 8. Ash disposal is a big problem.
9. No stand by losses10. 9. Stand by losses exist.
10. Uses less quantity of water.
10. It requires abundant cooling water supply.
11. The size is limited and not possible to 11. It is usual to built the plant in large
built in very large capacity. capacity.
12. Fuel is more expensive. 12. Coal is less costlier than diesel.
13. Maintenance and lubrication cost per
13. Maintenance and lubrication cost is lower.
unit generated is higher.

2.3Elements of a Diesel Engine Power Plant
The essential components of diesel electric power plant are as follows.
Fig 3.1 schematic arrangement for a diesel engine power plant
The essential components of Diesel Engine plant are,
1Engine: It is the main component which develops required power the engine is directly
Coupled to the generator.
2Air filter and Supercharger: Air filter removes the dust from the air before it enters
the engine. Super charger increases the pressure of air at engine inlet and hence increases engine
power. They are usually driven by the engines.
3Exhaust system: The system includes silencers and connecting ducts. As the exhaust gases
have higher temperatures, heat of exhaust gases is utilized for heating the oil or an supplied to
the engine.

4Fu e l sy st e m: It contains the storage-tank, fuel pump, fuel transfer pump, oil, strainers and
heaters. Amount of fuel supplied depends on the load on the plant
5 Cooling system: The system includes water circulating pumps, cooling towers or spray ponds
and water filtration or treatment plant. The purpose of cooling system is to ensure the
life of the cylinder by extracting the heat developed from the engine cylinder walls and hence
keeping the temperature within the safer range.
6 Lubrication system: The system includes oil pumps, oil tanks coolers and connecting pipes.
The system reduces the friction between the moving parts and hence reduces wear and tear.
7 Starting system: The system includes starting aides like compressed air tames:` The tank
supplies compressed air to start the engine from cold.
8 Governing system: The governing engine maintains constant speed of the engine irrespective
load on the plant. This is done by varying the fuel supplied to the engine.
2.4Air Intake system containing filters, ducts super charger etc.,
Fig. 3.2 Air intake system
A large diesel engine requires 0.076 to 0.114 m3 / min of air per kW of power developed. The air
intake system supplies required quantity of air for combustion. The system consists of a pipe line
which connects source of fresh air and engine manifold. Filters are reprovided to remove dust from
the air, otherwise dust particles may cause wear and tear of the engine. These filters may be of dry type
(made up of cloth, felt, glass, wool etc.,) or oil bath type. Electrostatic precipitator filters can also be used.
In oil bath type of filters the air is swept over or through a bath of oil, so that the dust particles are gets
coated. The intake ducts are made up of light weight steel. Sometimes, a silencer may be used between
the engine and intake since the noise may be transmitted back to the outside air via the air intake system.
In the air intake system, pressure loss should be minimum. If pressure loss is high, it reduces engine.

capacity and increases specific fuel consumption. Therefore in total, the functions of air intake system
are
i) To clean the air supplied to the engine
ii) To silence the intake air.
iii) To supply air for super charging.
2.5 Engine exhaust system including ducts, mufflers, water heaters, silencers
etc.
The exhaust system is used to convey the exhaust gases to the atmosphere outside the building. It
also consists of a silencer to reduce the noise level. A muffler provided in the exhaust pipe reduces the
pressure in the exhaust line and reduce the noise. Sometimes, a device may be used in the path of
exhaust gases to recover heat of exhaust gases.
The exhaust pipe coming out of building should have one or two flexible tubing sections in order to
isolate the system from vibration by taking the effect of vibration. Its length should be shorter and
should have minimum number of bends. Every engine should be provided with an independent exhaust
system.
The points to be considered in the design of exhaust system are;
1. The noise level should be minimum.
2. The system should discharge the exhaust sufficiently above the ground level.
3. The duct should take up effect of expansion and contraction due to temperature variation.
4. As back pressure imposed on the engine reduces engine power, it should be kept minimum.
5. The flexible tubing sections are to be used in the exhaust pipe in order to isolate the system
from vibration.
Fig, 3.3 Typical exhaust system

2.6 Fuel System
The fuel system includes fuel storage tanks, fuel transfer pumps, strainers, heaters and connecting
pipes. The trucks, rail road tank cars, or barge and tankers are used to deliver the fuel oil to the
plant site. Then, fuel oil is delivered to main storage tanks through unloading facility. Then the transfer
pumps are used to deliver fuel oil to smaller service storage tanks (day tanks). For the main flow,
piping arrangement is made with necessary heaters, by — passes, shut offs, drain lines, relief
valves, strainers, filters, flow meters, and temperature indicators.
The minimum storage capacity of main tank should satisfy at least a month's requirement of oil.
But in order to avail the advantage of price fluctuations of the fuel, it is essential to provide storage
for few months requirement. The capacity of the daily consumption tank should be at least the 8
hours requirement of the plant. Usually these tanks are located above the engine level so that the oil
may flow to the engines under gravity.
The fuel oil supply system has to satisfy certain requirements for its satisfactory working;
1. Provision should be made for cleaning and changing over of lines during emergency.
2. Tight pipe joints should be used in all suction lines.
3. The oil flushing is done through the piping between filter and engine before being first, placed
in service.
4. High grade filters are to be used to hold water, dirt, metallic chips and other foreign matter
Fig. 3.4 Fuel storage system for diesel plants

2.7 Cooling System

The cooling system in a diesel plant includes coolant pumps, cooling towers or spray ponds, water
filtration plant and pipes.
The purpose of cooling system is to provide proper circulation of cooling water all around the
engines to keep the temperature at reasonably lower level. If the engine is not cooled properly, the high
temperature existing in the engines (cylinder and piston are exposed to a high temperature of the order of
1000 to 1500°C) would disintegrate the film of lubricating oil, causes warping of valves, piston etc., The
overheating of engine would cause damage to the piston, piston rings, head and cylinder liners. A
pump circulates water through cylinder and head jackets to carry away the heat. Some heat is also
taken away by the lubricating oil. Same water should be used again and again and hence a method of
cooling the cooling water is required. This is achieved by passing water through radiators, evaporative
coolers, cooling towers, spray ponds etc., Nearly 25% to 35% of total heat of the fuel is removed by
the cooling system. The heat taken away by the lubricating oil and radiation heat lost accounts to 3%
to 5% of total heat supplied.
2.8 Lubrication System.
For trouble-free functioning of IC engines in a power plant, an efficient lubricating

system is necessary. Proper lubrication of engine parts reduces the wear and tear of the moving
parts, which in turn increase the engine life and that of the power plant.
Functions of Lubrication System
The important functions of a lubrication system in a diesel plant are:

1) To reduce friction, and hence wear and tear between moving parts.
2) To provide cooling effect.
3) To provide sealing between piston and cylinder.
4) To provide cleaning action by taking away the carbon and other metal particles. '
5) To provide cushioning effect.
Methods of Lubrication System
There are three important methods of lubrication that are used in
1) Mist lubrication system

2) Wet sump lubrication system
a) Splash System
b) Pressure system
c) Semi-pressure lubrication system
3) Dry sump lubrication system
1) Mist Lubrication System
It is generally used in small two stroke petrol engines, e.g., scooters, motor bikes, etc. In this lub
oil is mixed with the petrol itself in the ratio of 3 to 6% of the fuel oil. When the fuel vaporises,
the lub oil forms a mist. The lub mist particles being heavier, they settle on the various parts thus
providing lubrication. If the percentage of oil in the fuel in less, there is danger of piston seizure,
and with excessive oil carbon deposition will be more and engine efficiency reduces and may
cause pre-ignitions.
2) Wet Sump Lubrication System
a) Splash System
This system is used in small and medium size engines. It is the simplest method in which a scoop
at the big end of the connecting rod splashes the lub oil from the oil sump. This causes the
lubrication of engine walls, gudgeon pin, crank shaft bearing, connecting rod bearings, etc. The
splash lubrication system is shown in Fig. 3-13.

b) Pressure Feed System
Pressure lubrication is useful to provide positive lubrication to all important parts of an engine. It
is widely used in large and heavy duty engines.
This system consists of an oil sump, oil pump, strainer, oil filter and oil pipes (Fig. 3-14).
The pump pressurizes the oil to 200 to 400 kPa and the oil passes through the filter and to
various parts through the pipe lines. The used oil again drips back to the oil sump. This is the
most effective and positive type of lubrication. This is most suitable for heavy duty and large
engines. A combined splash and Pressure feed system is further more effective in IC engines.
c) Semi Pressure Lubrication
The arrangement of a semi-pressure lubrication system is shown in Fig. 3-15. In this

system, oil under pressure is sent to main bearings only. The system is also incorporated with a
splash system, which lubricates big end, gudgeon pin bearing, cylinder walls, timing gears and
camshaft bearings.

3) Dry sump lubrication system

Fig. 3-16 shows the schematic of a dry sump lubrication system for a diesel power plant. Unlike
the wet sump system, in this system no oil is maintained in engine crank case sump (hence the
name dry sump). The used lub oil from various parts falls into the engine crank case, and is
routed/pumped to a storage reservoir (either underground or overhead tank). The oil from the
reservoir is pumped to a centrifugal oil cleaning system through a heater (to reduce its viscosity).
The cleaned oil is pumped to an oil cooler (water cooled type heat exchanger), and then passed to
the engine parts. Usually, a fine size oil filter is used before it is sent to the engine to remove fine
particles from the oil.

Main parts of a diesel engine, such as piston-cylinder, crankshaft, gudgeon pin bearings,
and crank shaft bearings are to be lubricated using forced feed lubrication.
2.9 Methods of starting the diesel engine

In power plants, large capacity engines are used and arc started by the following devices.
1) By compressed air.
2) By an auxiliary engine (petrol engine)
3) By electric motors.
1 Compressed air system: Large stationary diesel engines are started with compressed air. In this
system compressed air at a pressure of about 17 bar is supplied from an air tank or bottle to the engine
inlet valve through the distributor or through inlet manifold. Two or more compressed air storage tanks
are provided. A small compressor is installed for supply of compressed air to the storage tanks. During
starting of a multi cylinder engine, compressed air is admitted to one or more cylinders and forces the
piston to move down ward which in turn rotates the engine shaft.
The injection on or fuel pumps are inoperative while the speed is gained under air power. This powers
the engine much the same as steam works in a steam engine. The air is turned off and oil injection is started
and the engine gains the momentum and by supplying fuel, the engine will start running.
2 By an auxiliary engine: In this method, a small petrol engine is mounted close to the main
engine and is connected to it through clutch and gear arrangements. Firstly the clutch is to be
disengaged and petrol engine can be easily started by manual operations. When it has warmed up, the
clutch is to be gradually engaged to transmit power to the main engine i.e., the main engine is
cranked for starting. The clutch of auxiliary engine automatically disengages after the main engine has
started. The capacity of auxiliary engine is just sufficient to overcome the friction-of the main engine.
3 By electric motors or self starters: Electric motors or self starters are employed for small
gasoline and diesel engines. The engine consists of an electric motor which is used for starting
purpose. A storage battery of 12 to 36 volts is used to supply power to an electric motor which drives a
pinion which engages a toothed rim on engine fly wheel. A small electric generator, driven by engine
may also be used to drive the motor. The motor is engaged continuously for about 30 seconds only,
after which it is required to cool off for a minute and then re engaged. This is to be continued till the

engine starts up. After the engine has started, the electric motor automatically disengages. This
method is more simple and effective than other methods.
2.10 Cooling System for Diesel Engine

The cooling system in a diesel plant includes coolant pumps, cooling towers or spray ponds, water
filtration plant and connecting pipes. The function of cooling system is to provide proper circulation
of cooling water all around the engines to keep the temperature at safe level. Under cooling raises
engine temperature, decreases engine performance and its life. Excessive cooling makes the combustion
poor and effects the fuel economy. It increases viscosity of oil due to low temperature and hence increases
power loss due to friction. Basically there are two methods of cooling,
i. Air cooling ii. Liquid cooling.
1 Air cooling: In this method, engine cylinder is directly exposed to atmospheric air which carries the
heat from the cylinder. The cylinder is finned, particularly heavily near the exhaust. The use of fins over
engine cylinder provides additional heat transfer surfaces, there by increases rate of cooling
2 Water or Liquid cooling: In this method, the cylinder walls and heads are surrounded with
cooling water jackets. The water while circulating through jackets, take the heat from cylinder walls by
convection and conduction. The heated water itself is cooled by circulating it through air cooled radiator
system.
In stationary diesel engine plants the water cooling systems are used and are as follows;
i) Open or single circuit system

Fig. 3.5 (a) Single circuit cooling system
In the system, shown in figure 3.5(a), water is pumped from cooling pond to the main engine
jackets. After circulation, water is returned to the cooling pond by spraying through nozzles. The
dissolved gasses in the cooling water may corrode the cylinder jackets.
ii) Closed or double circuit cooling system
Fig. 3.5(b) Double circuit cooling system
In this system, heat exchanger is used in between engine and cooling pond. The water from the pond
is pumped through the heat exchanger, where it takes the heat from jacket water and is returned to the
cooling pond. The cooled water is again pumped back to the engine side. This method eliminates
internal jacket corrosion.
2.11 Evaporative Cooling:

In this method, a large surface of the hot water is exposed to an air flow, thereby humidifies the air
and cools the remaining water. This can be done by providing cooling towers, evaporative waters etc.,
The cooling action is same in all of them. The atmosphere is a mixture of air and water vapour in
proportion and is described by humidity. Proper latent heat of evaporation must be supplied for
vapourization of water. The source of heat may be internal energy of the liquid water from which the
vapour is being produced. During the process of humidification, some off the warm water goes off in
to the atmosphere and make up water of 2.5% of water flow must be added to the system.

A fan is provided in mechanical drought cooling tower. The use of fan reduces the height of
tower. Depending on location, the fan used could be a forced drought type or induced drought type.
The falling water meets the air current which is flowing in the opposite direction the fig.3.6 shows
arrangement of forced drought cooling tower. An evaporators cooler is one in which the cooler is
one in which the cooler is constructed from steel including a heat exchanger for cooling the water.
This type is not suitable for diesel plants.
Fig.3.6 Cooling tower for diesel power plant.
The evaporative cooling is also known as steam or vapour cooling in which the cooling water
temperature reaches to a temperature of 100°C. The cooling of water can be done with minimum of water
by using high latent heat of vapourization. The coolant is always in the liquid state, but the steam formed
is flashed off in a separate vessel. The fresh water so formed is returned back for cooling. This system is
used many industrial engines.
Fig.3.7 Evaporative cooling

In place of cooling towers, cooling ponds and spray ponds are used. But these are inefficient for
bigger power plants.
2.12 Lubrication for the Diesel Engine

As discussed in article 3.56, the role of lubrication system is more important in diesel power plant than
any other plant because of very high pressures and small clearances in these engines. The lubrication
system influences the engine life, efficiency and the extent to which the engine is put in continuous
service.
In a diesel engine, the following are the main parts which require lubrication,
1. Piston and cylinders.
2. Crank shaft and connecting rod bearings.
3. Gears and other mechanisms used for power transmission.
4. Integral injection or scavenging air compressors.
Lubrication may be classified into
1. Full pressure lubrication similar to that used in automobile engines.
2. Mechanical force-feed lubrication and gravity lubrication from an over head tank.
In pressure lubrication system, an oil pump is used to deliver the lubricant under pressure to various
parts of the engine through a duct system and to the crank shaft and wristpin bearings by drilled
passages in the shaft and rods. For lubrication of cylinder walls, oil mist slung out ward from the
connecting rod bearings or splash lubrication method is used. Mechanical force-feed lubrication is
used to effect the lubrication of cylinders of large and slow speed engines.
The crank case serves the purpose of oil sump from where the oil may be withdrawn by a pump.
The lubricating oil, during its circulation through the lubrication cycle accumulates impurities such as
carbon particles, water and metal scrap and is cleaned by settling, centrifuging, filtering or
chemical reclaiming. Mechanical filters such as cloth bags, wool felt pads, paper discs and
cartridges of porous material are used for cleaning the oil. In centrifugal cleaning, first screen
filters are used to clean the oil and then the oil is passed through high speed centrifuges for
ultimate cleaning. The oil should be heated, before it enters to the centrifugal cleaner. The oil
consumption is in the range of 2.27x10-6 to 4. 10X10-6m3per kW hour. In chemical reclaiming
method, after filtering. A combination of heat and activated clay are used. In settling method,

impurities are made to settle down by allowing the hot oil to enter in to a large tank. Clean oil is
then used from the top of the tank.
Fig.3.8 lubricating system (continuous centrifuging system)
The lubricating oil in use is subject to changes in operating temperature and results in formation
of sludge and varnish. Therefore, it is necessary to use the oil with engine cleaning properties. In order to
improve the oil characteristics, additives such as anti oxidants, detergents, corrosion inhibitors are added
with straight mineral oils. Anti oxidants are used to prevent chemical reaction with oxygen and due to
heating. The addition of detergents keep the engine clean by controlling lacquer and preventing the
deposition of carbon, soot, dirt and combustion products on piston and rings. A protective film is formed
on engine parts due to the addition of corrosion inhibitors and this film protects the engine parts from
corrosion acids, which is due to presence of sulphur in the fuel.
2.13 Filters and centrifuges

Filters and centrifuges are used to arrest dirt, metallic chips or other foreign substances in the
fuel. Filters may be of dry type and made up of cloth, felt, glass, filter paper, some cellulose material wool
etc., or oil bath type. In the later type, the oil is swept over or through oil bath so that the dust particles
are gets coated. The air is then caused to flow through a filter, which retains the oil coated dust
particles. The clean fuel oil provides trouble free operation of the engine. The use of bulk storage
tanks removes most of the suspended impurities, water dirt etc., &um the oil, if it is light and allowed to
stand in the storage tank for some time. This method is not effective, if heavier oils are used or if the
temperature of oils is below 10 C. Hence cleaning is done by filtration and centrifuging when the oil is

transferred from bulk storage tanks to the day tanks. Filtering means, passing the oil through filters
which are mostly of absorbent type and retain the oil contaminants and allow clean oil to pass
through. The filters can be cleaned and reused and replacement of cartridge is not very frequent. In
other type of filters, i.e., in oil impingement type, a frame filled with crimped wire or metal shaving
is used. Special oil is coated, so that when the air passing through the frame, is broken up in to a
number of small filaments and these filaments makes contact with the oil. The property of oil is to
seize and hold any dust particles carried by the air.
Fig. 3.9 Typical filter and silencer installation
A centrifuge is a device in which the suspended impurities in the oil are removed by giving a rapid
whirling motion. This process is known as "centrifuging". This process removes impurities by
separating heavier particles from light clean oil. The viscosity of oil is the factor which influences the
degree of cleanliness and it can be improved by heating the oil. But when the oil is heated to high
temperature, the contaminant water may go in to the solution with oil and hence avoids separation. So
in order to obtain good results, the oil temperature in the range of 15°C to 38°C is considered to be
optimum. The centrifuge requires periodic servicing to ensure cleanliness of oil after centrifuging.
2.14 Lay Out Of a Diesel Power Plant

Figure 3.10 shows the layout of a diesel engine power plant. Usually the engine and alternators are
placed on a large concrete block which may be reinforced. The foundation should be designed in such a
way that, it should absorb vibrations so that these are not transmitted to the building .
To the surrounding structure, generally the various units are installed with parallel centre Lines.
Some space is left for future expansion, sufficient space should be provided around the various
units in order to facilitate repair and usual maintenance works connected with these engines.
Consideration should be given to the need for dismantling and removal of large components. the

engine generator set. A partition will may be constructed to separate the air intake, filters and exhaust
mufflers from the main engine win or these units may be located outside building. Adequate space
should be provided near to the main engine room for oil storage, repair shop and office purpose. Bulk
storage of oil should be made outside the building to avoid fire hazards
The engine mom should be provided with adequate ventilation. Generally, forced circulation with
evaporative cooling is used for cooling the engine room. The use of large vertical or horizontal
windows in the side walls and rows of sky lights in the engine house roof provides a good natural
lighting.
Fig.3.10 Layout of a diesel engine power plant

Hydro-Electric Power Plant

2.15 INTRODUCTION
The hydroelectric or the hydel power plants, generate power using the potential energy of water
available on earth's surface. The rain water collected at different altitudes on the earth's surface
has potential energy with respect to the level of the oceans towards which the water flows. This
energy of the rain water is utilised to drive hydraulic turbines, and in turn to run electric
generators and produce electrical energy. The hydel power developed depends on the head of
water and the quantity of natural rainfall. Generally, reservoirs are constructed to collect the
natural rain and used to generate power throughout the year. Thus the reservoir area, which is a
measure of the water collected and the height of the dam, which is the measure of the head of the
water are two important factors. However, the quantity of water available depends upon the
hydrological cycle and the total rain-fall received by the area in which the power plant is located.
2.16 Hydrological Cycle

It is essential to study and measure the quantity of rainfall and the water flow available to
establish an hydroelectric plant, i.e., the subject Hydrology. Hydrology is a branch of natural
science that deals with rainfall, depletion and replenishment of water resources over and within
the earth's surface.
This natural cycle of water evaporation from the earth's surface to the atmosphere and falling
back to the surface is termed the hydrological cycle (Fig. 4-1).
The hydrological cycle involves the following processes:
1) Evaporation. This is the major means of depletion of water from the earth's surface into the
atmosphere. The water source on the earth’s surface is converted into vapour by the solar energy.
A higher temperature, lower humidity and high rate of wind flow are the major factors that assist
in the water vaporization process.
2) Seepage. Also termed infiltration, it is the process of water entering into the ground. The
water on the surface percolates through the soil and forms ground water or water table under the
earth's crust. In fact, this water is derived in the form of bore-well water, springs, open well
source, and so on.
3) Transpiration. It is the water evaporation process by the plants. A major part of the
precipitation is absorbed by the plants on the earth through their roots. This absorbed water is
released by the plants through their leaves.
4) Run-off. It is the remaining part of the precipitation water after evaporation, seepage and
transpiration available on the surface of earth. Depending upon the altitude at which it is
available it possesses the potential energy, and starts flowing towards the lower levels through
the streams and rivers, till it reaches some lake or the sea.
Fig. 4-1. Hydrological cycle
When rain falls on earths surface, a portion of it is evaporated by the sun, some portion is used
by the vegetarian and partly percolates into the ground. The remaining water that flows and
available for use is known as run-off. The rain received and the run-off just at the reservoir will
not be sufficient to store enough water for power generation. Hence, reservoir construction is
made in such a way that the run-off from a large area flows into the reservoir, The part of the

land from where the run-off flows into the reservoir is called as the Catchment area. Also the part
of the land from where the water starts flowing is known as Upstream, while the lower portion
which receives the flow is known as Downstream.
Rainfall, also termed the precipitation, can be expressed as the total condensation of
moisture from the atmosphere and reaching the earth’s surface in the form as rains, ice and snow.
5) Precipitation: It includes all the water that falls from the atmosphere to the earth's surface. It
occurs in two forms: rainfall (liquid precipitation) and the snow fall.
6) Run-off: It is the portion of the rainfall that is available on the earth's surface and flows
towards streams, lakes and oceans. Sufficient run-off is available only when the rate of
precipitation exceeds the rate of water seepage, filling the soil pores, evaporation and other water
losses. Hence, a good run-off depends on the intensity and the duration of the rainfall.
7) Evaporation: It is the conversion of water into vapours from all the available sources on the
earth's surface and entering into the atmosphere.
8) Transpiration: All the plantation and vegetation on the earth absorb water through their
roots, and release it through their leaves to the atmosphere in the form of vapour. This process is
termed transpiration.
The total rainfall or precipitation is given by the relation,
P=R+E+S+T
Where, P = Rainfall or precipitation
R = Run-off E = Evaporation
S = Seepage
T = Transpiration
2.17 Hydrographs
It is a graph representing the discharge of flowing water with respect to time for a specific
period. The time axis may have units of hour, day, week or month. The discharge units may be
m3/sec, km2-cm/hr or day-second-metre. Discharge hydrographs are also known as flood or run-
off hydrographs) Fig. 4-5 shows typical hydrographs or discharge curves based on daily,
monthly and yearly flows.

Uses of a Hydrographs
A hydrograph is useful to determine a number of parameters, such as:

1) Rate of flow at any instant during the specific recorded period.
2) Total volume of flow in a given period, as the area under the hydrograph represents the
volume of water in a given duration.
3) The mean annual run-off for any of the recorded period.
4) The maximum and minimum run-off for any selected period
5) The maximum rate of run-off during the floods and duration of frequency of floods (peak of
the curve indicates the flood)
Fig. 4-5. Hydrographs or discharge curves
2.18 Unit Hydrograph
A unit hydrograph is a hydrograph with a volume of 1 cm of run-off resulting from a rainfall of

specified duration and a real pattern, which is constructed using the hydrograph data. The theory
of unit hydrograph was introduced by Sherman. He indicated that the time base is common to all
hydrographs resulting from rainfalls of a given duration. When the rainfall distribution is similar

with respect to time and area, then the ordinate of each hydrograph will be proportional to the
volume of run-off.
Limitations to the use of unit hydrograph are:

1) The rainfall distribution varies from one area to another. Hence, the use of unit hydrograph is
limited area of basin of about 5000 sq. km.
2) For long and narrow basins, and odd shaped basins the rainfall distribution is not even, hence
unit hydrograph is not suitable.
2.19 Flow Duration Curve
This is another useful graphical representation of the run-off for a given period. The run-off data
on the ordinate against the corresponding percentage of time on the abscissa represents a Flow
Duration Curve. The area under the curve represents the average yield from the stream.
Fig. 4-6 shows a typical flow duration curve. the flow may be expressed as m3/sec/ week or any
other convenient unit of time When the available head of water is known, then the total energy of
flow can be computed. Thus by flow duration curve it is possible to estimate the total power
available at the site. A flow duration curve can be used to determine the minimum and maximum
conditions of flow of water. If the magnitude on the ordinate is the estimated power contained in
the stream flow against the corresponding percentage of time on the abscissa, then the curve is
known as Power Duration Curve.

2.20 Mass curve
The graph representing the cumulative values of water quantity (run-off) against time is termed
the Mass Curve. A reservoir is the means of storing water that is available during rainfall, from
the catchment areas and/or from a river. A mass curve is a convenient method of determining the
storage requirements of a reservoir so as to obtain a satisfactory flow from the fluctuating
discharge of a river.
Fig. 4-7 shows a typical mass curve7A mass curve is an integral curve of the hydrograph that
represents the area under the hydrograph from one time to another. Mathematically, the mass
curve can be given by the relation,
V is the volume of run-off and Qt is the discharge in m3/sec as a function of time.
Problems on Hydrograph and Flow Duration Curve

Example: 1 At a particular site, the mean monthly discharge is as follows:
Month Discharge,m3/s Month Discharge,m3/s

January 100 July 1000
February 225 August 1200
March 300 September 900
April 600 October 600
May 750 November 400
June 800 December 200

From the given monthly flow data, the hydrograph is drawn as shown in Fig. a. Total flow is
7075 m3/s, and the average flow is 589.6 m3/s. To draw the flow duration curve, we have to compute
the maximum periods for which each of the discharges are available, and the % of time for each flow.
This is done as shown in the table below. In the table, column (a) lists the given discharge rates,
column (b) gives the maximum length of time of the discharge availability, and column (c) computes
the % of time of availability.
Discharge, m3/s Length of time, months (c) % of time =b/12 x 100
(a) (b)
100 12 100
200 11 91.7
225 10 83.33
300 9 75
400 8 66.7
600 7 58.3
750 5 41.7
800 4 33.3
900 3 25
1000 2 16.7
1200 1 8.3
Using this computed data of % of time against the discharge, the flow duration curve is Plotted (the
thick dotted curve) as shown in Fig. b.

From the flow duration plot and the intersection of the average flow, it can be seen that the
average flow is available for about 60% of the total period of 12 months.
Example2: At a particular site, the mean monthly discharges (in millions of m3) of a
river in 12 months from January to December are 30, 25, 20, 0, 10, 50, 80, 100, 110, 65,
45 and 30, respectively. Draw the hydrograph and flow duration curve.
Also, estimate the power developed in MW if the available head is 90 m and the overall
efficiency of generation is 85%. Assume each month of 30 days.
Solution:
Hydrograph & Flow duration curve

From the given monthly flow data compute the maximum periods for which each of the discharges are
available, and the % of time for each flow, as described in Example above, and plot the hydrograph
and flow duration curves as explained earlier (curves not drawn here, students to draw the curves
with reference to Fig. above).

Power Developed in MW
From the given flow data, the average flow per month is,
= (30+25+20+0+10+50+80+100+110+65+45+30)/12
= 47.08 millions of m3/month
= 47.08 x 106 m3/month
Power developed in MW is given by the relation,
P=qgH
Where, q = flow rate in m3/sec
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
H = Head of water in meters
= efficiency of generation
P = 13.6x106 watts or
P = 13.6 MW
Example 3: Mean monthly discharge for 12 months at a particular site of a river is
tabulated below.
Month Discharge in million Month Discharge in million
of m3 per month of m3 per month
April 500 October 2000
May 200 November 1500
June 1500 December 1500
July 2500 January 1000
August 3000 February 800
September 2400 March 600
(i) Draw the hydrograph and flow duration curve for the given discharges and find the
average monthly flow. (ii) Calculate the power available at mean flow of water, if the
available head is 80 m and overall efficiency is 80%. Take 30 days in a month. (VTU: Jan 2010)
Solution:
The total flow is 17500 millions of m3 per year and the average flow is, 17500/12=1458.3
millions of m3/month. From the given monthly flow data, the hydrograph is drawn as shown in
Fig. a.

Discharge in millions Length of time, (c) % of time = b/12 × 100

of m3 per month (a) months
200 (b)
12 100
500 11 91.7
600 10 83.33
800 9 75
1000 8 66.7
1500 7 58.3
2000 4 33.3
2400 3 25
2500 2 16.7
3000 1 8.3
To draw the flow duration curve, compute the maximum periods for which each of the
discharges are available, and the % of time for each flow (see table above). In the table, column
(a) lists the given discharge rates, column (b) gives the maximum length of time of the discharge
availability, and column (c) computes the % of time of availability. Using this computed data of
% of time against the discharge, the flow duration curve is plotted (the thick dotted curve) as
shown in Fig. b.


2.21 Selection of Site for Hydel Plants (Factors for Hydel Plants)
There are many factors that are to be considered while selecting site for a hydel power plant. The
important factors are as follows:
1) Availability of Water. The site selected should be such that requisite quantity of water is be
available throughout the year for economical generation of power. To estimate the availability of
water, geographical, meteorological and geological investigations of the site are to be carried-
out. Previous records of rainfall of the particular area are to be studied. If needed, aerial and
ground survey can be conducted. Stream flow rate, minimum and maximum quantity of water
available in a year is to be estimated.
2) Storage of Water. The site selected should have good storage capacity, sufficient enough to
use for a full year. This depends upon the reservoir capacity and the catchment area. It is always
intended to store water enough to use even during dry periods, to the extent possible.
3) Head of Water. Head of water is the highest level of water at the upstream from where water
flows down for power generation. Higher the head available, lesser the quantity of water required
for a known power output and hence, lesser is the storage requirement. Power generated depends
mainly on the head of water available, which is seen from the relation,
Where, m = discharge or rate of water flow, m3/sec.

H = head of water, m
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
= efficiency of the prime mover and generator (about 0.8 to 0.9)
Hence, the site selected should give the highest head of water.
4) Ground Water Data. It is an important factor to be considered, since it decides the stability
of the ground at the reservoir and dam construction area. It is essential to select a site which has
lesser ground water movement, as it provides a solid reservoir base and also seepage will be
minimum. A strong reservoir base also helps in reducing the foundation costs for the darn
construction.
5) Distance from the Load Centre.

It is always essential that the site selected should be as nearer as possible to the load centre.
Increased distances lead to increased power transmission costs and higher transmission losses.
Other factors to be considered in the selection of a good site are the easy accessibility to the site
by road and/or rail, cheap cost of the land and the availability of non-polluted, clean water for
power generation.
2.22 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydel Plants

Advantages
1) Operating cost of the plant including auxiliaries is low.
2) The maintenance of the plant is comparatively less.
3) Less labour is required to operate the plant.
4) No nuisance of smoke, exhaust gases, soot and other pollution.
5) The sites of hydel plants are usually away from the developed areas and hence the land is very
cheap.
6) Load fluctuations can be met rapidly without loss of efficiency.
7) There are no stand-by losses.
8) Since no fuel used, there are no problems of handling, charging and disposal.
Disadvantages
1) Initial cost of the plant including the cost of dam is very high.
2) The feasibility of a hydel plant depends mainly on the availability of water and hence the
natural phenomenon of rain and thus the problems of stopping the plant may arise during dry
seasons.
3) Usually the sites will be away from the load centres, which causes loss of power and high
costs in transmission lines.
4) It takes considerably long time for erection compared to the erection of thermal plants.
2.23 Classification of Hydel Plants

Hydel power plants can be classified as follows:-
1. Quantity of water available

a) Run-off river plants without pondage
b) Run-off river plants with pondage
c) Pumped storage plant

2. Head of water
a) Low head plant b) Medium head plant c) High head plant.
3. Nature of load
a) Base load plant b) Peak load plant
4. Capacity of plant
a) Low capacity plant (100-999 kW)
b) Medium capacity plant (1 MW-10 MW)
c) High capacity plant (above 10 MW)
1 Run-off River Plants without Pondage

In such plants water is not stored, but only the running water is used for power
generation. In such power plants the power generated directly depends upon the rate of flow
available. Hence, during rainy seasons some excess quantity of water may run waste without
doing any power generation. During dry periods the power production will be very poor, since
the water flow rate will be low.
2 Pumped storage plant
In such plants, the excess water available during rainy seasons is stored in the reservoirs. The
plant works with the normal run-off during the rainy season, while the stored water from the
reservoir is utilized to supplement the low flow rate during dry periods. Power production will
not be affected by the dry seasons. Hence, plants with pondage can generate a constant rate of
power throughout the year. If Pumped Storage Plants Such plants are most suitable for supplying
sudden peak load requirements. However, such demands can be met only for a short duration. In
the normal operation they can meet the average demand only.
Fig. 4-8. Pumped storage plant

Fig. 4-8 shows the schematic of a pumped storage plant. Such type of plant consists of two
storage reservoirs. The upstream reservoir is the main (head race) storage reservoir to which
water flows from the catchment area. The second reservoir is the down stream (tail race)
reservoir, in which the used water from the upstream is collected.
The water in the downstream reservoir is pumped back to the main upstream reservoir,
during off peak periods. This facilitates making use of the excess water during peak hours. A
pumped storage plant is a peak load plant and operates in combination with other base load
plants such as a thermal power plant. The off peak load capacity of the thermal plant is used for
pumping water from the downstream reservoir to the main upstream reservoir.
Advantages of Pumped Storage Plants
1) Compared to peak load plants, the initial cost of this plant is low.
2) The power plant operation is flexible, since it can operate both as peak load and base load
plant.
3) Such plant can meet sudden peak hour demands, and is highly reliable in operation.
4) Since they operate at higher load factors, the overall efficiency of the plant is high.
2.24 Low Head Hydel Plant hydel plant
Hydel Plant with a water head of less than50 meter is termed &low head plant (the such plants, a
small dam is constructed across a river to obtain the necessary water head:, The excess water is
allowed to over the dam, while the water head is made use to run a hydraulic turbine. The water
from the dam is taken through a canal to the turbine. For low head plants Francis or Kaplan
turbines are used. There is no water hammer problem in such plants, hence no, surge tank is
provided in the water line. The schematic arrangement of a typical low head hydel plant is shown
in Fig. 4-12.

Fig. 4-12. Low head hydel plant
2.25 Medium Head Hydel Plant
A hvdel with a water head of in the range of 50 to 100 meters is termed a medium head plant. In
this, the water is stored in a main reservoir. This water is allowed to a small pond or forebay
through a canal. The water from the forebay is taken to the turbine through penstock. In such
plants the forebay itself acts as the surge tank, and hence receives the excess water during the
low demand periods. Francis turbine is most suitable for medium head hydel plant. The
schematic arrangement of a typical medium head by n Fig. 4-13.
Fig. 4-13. Medium head hydel plant
2.26 High Head Hydel
Plant hydel plant with a water head of more than 100 meters is termed a high head plant. In this
case, the water from the main reservoir is carried through tunnels up to the surge tank, ord.
Where it is taken through the penstock. Since the water head is very high, the effect of water
hammer is too severe in such plants. Thus, it is essential to provide a surge tank in the water line
at appropriate location. The surge tank takes care of the increasing and decreasing water levels
during the low-demand and high demand periods, respectively. The Francis and Pelton wheel
turbines are most suitable for high head plants. A typical high head hydel power plant is shown
in Fig. 4-14.
Fig. 4-14. High Head Hydel
2.27 General Layout of a Hydel Plant

Fig. 4-15 shows the general layout of a storage type hydel power plant with necessary
components and protective devices. The main components of a storage type hydel power plant
arc as follows:
1. Catchment area
2. Storage Reservoir
3. Dam
4. Penstock
5. Forebay
6. Power house
7. Draft tube
8. Trash rack

9. Spill way
10. Surge tank
The last three units are the protective devices, which help in the safe functioning of the
hydel plant.
Fig. 4-15. General layout of a hydel power plant
The different components and their functions are briefly discussed below.
1. Catchment Area: The complete area around the reservoir, around the river and the river
basins near the reservoir is termed the catchment area. A larger catchment area results in better
run-off into the reservoir. The reservoir capacity and the dam size are dependent on the size of
the catchment area and the intensity of the rainfall.
2. Reservoir: The main purpose of reservoir is to store water during rainy season and supply the
same during dry season. The reservoir is located at a region of heavy rain fall, with sufficient
catchment area. 3. Dam: The function of a dam is to increase the height of water level behind it,
hence to increase the reservoir capacity. The -darn also helps to increase the working head of the
power plant.
4. Trash Racks: The water intakes from the dam or from the forebay are provided With trash
racks to prevent the entry of debris. The debris if allowed may damage the wicket gates and

turbine runners, or choke-up the nozzles of the impulse turbine, thus hampering the plant
operation. If the winter is severe, arrangements to heat the trash racks by electrical means are
made to prevent the clinging of ice around it. Sometimes bubbling arrangement is made near the
trash racks, which brings them in contact with warm water and minimises the icing problem.
5. Forebay: It serves as a regulating reservoir and temporary storage pond. It receives the excess
water when the load on the plant is reduced and provides water for initial increment of an
increasing load, while the water in the canal is being accelerated. Thus, forebay is a naturally
provided storage which is able to absorb the flow variations. This can also be considered as the
naturally provided surge tank as it performs the work of a surge tank.
6. Surge Tank: It is a protective device connected to the penstock. Its function is to protect
penstock against water hammer effects during low demand periods and avoid vacuum effect
during high demand periods. It achieves this by stabilizing the velocity and pressure in the
penstock.
7. Penstock: A pipe between the surge tank and prime mover is known as penstock. The
structural design of a penstock is same as other pipes, except for that it is made stronger inside,
to withstand high pressures caused by water hammer during load fluctuations. Penstocks are
usually made of steel through reinforced concrete. Penstocks are equipped with head gates at the
inlet which can be closed during repair of the penstocks. In very cold weather conditions, it is
better to bury the penstock to prevent the ice formation in the pipe and to reduce to number of
expansion joints required.
8. Spillway: It is considered as a safety valve of a clam. It must have the capacity to discharge
major floods without damage to the dam and at same time keeps the reservoir level below some
predetermined maximum level.
9. Power House / Prime Mover: Power house is the place where prime mover is run and
electric power is generated. The main purpose of the prime mover is to convert the kinetic
energy of water into the mechanical energy to produce electric current. These are Pelton, Kaplan
and Francis turbines.
10. Draft Tube: This essential part of reaction turbine installation. It supplements the action of
the runner by utilizing most of the remaining kinetic energy of the water at the discharged end of
the runner.
2.28 Major Components or Accessories
A hydcl power plant needs many components and various accessories, depending upon the type
of plant. Some important accessories are discussed here.
a Dams
Based on the construction and materials used, dams can be classified as follows:
1) Masonry Darn (a) Gravity (b) Arched (c) Buttress 2) Earthen Dam 3) Rock Filled Dam
Masonry Dams
These are constructed using rocks and concrete. These are stronger than other dams and have a
longer life. These dams are constructed for reservoirs having high head. The different types of
masonry dams are:
a) Gravity Dam: This type of dam (Fig. 4-16a), is constructed using a solid masonry or
concrete. This type of dam resists the water pressure by its own weight.
Fig. 4-16. Types of dams

b) Arched Dam: Fig. 4-16b shows the top view of an arched dam. This type of dam is
constructed in arched shape using concrete. This resists the pressure of water partly due to arch
action and partly due to its weight. Generally, such dams are constructed at narrow valleys with
steep slopes.
c) Buttress Dam: Fig. 4-16c shows a buttress dam. In this type a flat RCC slab forms the dam,
supported by buttresses as shown. This type of construction reduces the cost of the dam. But
such dams are suitable only for small reservoirs.
2) Earthen Dams
This type of dams, shown in Fig. 4-16d, is constructed for small capacity reservoirs and
low head reservoirs. It is constructed with a RCC core wall and earthen material (ordinary soil).
At the reservoir storage side a protective coating of stone is provided to avoid soil erosion by
water.
3) Rock Filled Dams
This type of dams is suitable for medium capacity and medium head plants. They have a
longer life, and comparatively they are economical in construction. The dam is constructed in
three layers-dry rubble masonry, loose filled rocks and a protective stone pitching layer as shown
in Fig. 4-16e. This dam construction is faster compared to masonry dams.
b. Penstocks
Penstocks are the pipelines that connects between the water source (such as the reservoir,
forebay, water way) and the hydraulic turbine. These are usually large circular pipes with
diameters ranging from 1 meter to 8 meters. Penstocks are usually made of steel or concrete
pipes.
Care should be taken to keep the entry to the penstock at the dam or the forebay at a low
level, submerged always under the water. If the entry is open to air, it may take air along and
create aeration prob1lAms in the prime mover, thus affecting the performance.
The penstocks should be laid in such a way that there are no sharp bends. Sharp bends
cause frictional losses and reduce the effective water head. Generally penstocks are exposed
type, since they are economical and easy to repair and maintain. However, covered penstocks
can be used when the regions are prone to sliding rocks, snow, earth and such dangers, so as to
avoid damage to the pipe line.

c. Water Hammer - Surge Tanks
Whenever there is a sudden fall in the demand, the governor closes the penstock valve to a
minimum. This sudden closure of the valve increases the pressure inside the penstock due to the
kinetic energy of the water which is high enough to damage the penstock pipe. This effect is
termed Water Hammer. Also, whenever there is a sudden rise in the load demand the gates are
opened instantly by the governor, thereby creating vacuum in the penstock pipe. This causes to
bubbling and foaming action. This leads to operational problems in the turbine. These problems
can be overcome by providing a surge tank in the penstock line. Basically, a surge tank is a
cylindrical Open top storage unit, which connected to the penstock line and located very close to
the turbine.
Function of Surge Tank
During the normal demand/flow periods, the turbine gates are open to normal position,
since there are no fluctuations in the water level in the surge tank. The normal water level in the
surge tank is always lower than that of the basic reservoir level. This is due to the head loss due
to the frictional losses in the flow line. It is shown as level A in Fig. 4-18. During low demand
periods, the turbine gates are closed partly and water flow is reduced to keep the turbine speed
constant. Due to sudden closure of the flow path, the flowing water in the penstock comes to a
halt thereby building pressure in the line. If there is no surge tank this creates a water hammer in
the penstock and may cause damage to the pipe line. With the surge tank present in the line, this
sudden stoppage of water flow results in an increase in the level in the surge tank (level B, as
shown in figure). This causes a retarding head and reduces the velocity of water in the penstock
thereby avoiding water hammer effect.

Fig. 4-18. Function of a surge tank
Similarly, when the demand is normal, the gate is opened to the normal position, so that
the flow velocity on the penstock reaches the normal value. For this, the required water is
supplied by the surge tank, and the water level in the surge tank suddenly reduces and fluctuates
up and down till its motio7n is damped down by friction.
When there is a sudden rise in the load, additional water required is supplied by the surge
tank thus avoiding the possibility of vacuum formation in the penstock. During this the water
level suddenly drops down below the normal as the water excess water is supplied by the surge
tank. This is indicated as level C in Fig. 4-18.
Types of Surge Tanks
Different types of surge tanks are used in the power plants depending upon the design and
topographical requirements. Some important types of surge tanks are as follows:
a) Cylindrical Surge tank

This is the simplest design. It is simply a plain cylindrical tank connected to the penstock line
through a short connecting conduit (Fig. 4-19a). The tank size is kept to a level so as to maintain
a stable flow to the turbine, and minimum fluctuations in the water level. However, this design is
not a common design due to its slow response to demands and also it is expensive. This is not a
commonly used design in hydel plants.
Fig. 4-19. Types of surge tanks
Conical Surge tank

It is a conical shaped vessel connected to the penstock (Fig. 419b). it is a better design
than the cylindrical surge tank. Since it has an increasing area of cross section, it can handle the
water fluctuations more effectively. Also, it has a considerably faster response to load
fluctuations.
Spillway type Surge tank
This is a closed cylindrical vessel with a bell mouth spill way connected to it (Fig. 4 19c).
The tank is designed to meet the water demand from the stock available in it, while the excess
water during low demand periods over flows out of the surge tank through the spill way,
Differential Surge tank
This is cylindrical tank with a central riser with small ports at the lower end (Fig. 4-19d). Water
movement in the tank is through the ports. It responds effectively to the variations in load
demands, and also the oscillations in the wafer level are minimal.

Gallery type Surge tank

This is special surge tank design. It has two separate water galleries (Fig. 4-19e). The upper
gallery stores the water when the load on the turbine drops, while the lower gallery supplies
water when there is a sudden increase on the turbine load.
Inclined Cylindrical Surge tank
This is a cylindrical tank inclined at some angle q (Fig. 4-19f). With this inclination the effective
area of water surface increase by an amount cosec q. Hence, the actual height of the surge tank
can be reduced. Due to increased water area, this surge tank can respond faster to load variations
than the simple cylindrical design. However, its construction is difficult, expensive and preferred
only when the topographical situations demand for such requirements.
d. Draft Tubes
Draft tube is an integral part of the reaction turbine, which connects the runner exit to the tail
race. It can be a metallic or concrete pipe having gradually increasing cross section towards the
outlet to ensure that as little energy as possible is left in water as it discharges into the tail race.
The area of the draft tube at the top is circular and same as that of the turbine outlet, so that
shock and aeration problems are minimum. Draft tube provides a negative suction head at the
runner outlet by which it is possible to install the turbine above the tail race level without any
loss of head. Since the velocity of the water leaving the runner is quite high, the kinetic energy
will be lost if water is allowed to discharge freely. The different types of draft tubes used in
hydel plants are illustrated schematically in Fig. 4-20.
1) Straight divergent tube (Fig. 4-20a), is used in low specific speed vertical shaft Francis
turbines. It has a circular inlet and rectangular outlet. The cone angle should be less than 8° for
optimum turbine performance. It gives a better speed regulation when the turbine load drops
down.
2) Moody spreading tube (Fig. 4-20b) has two split section at the outlet. This section reduces
the whirl action of water flowing at high velocity.
3) Simple elbow tube (Fig. 4-20c) has circular cross section throughout.
4) Elbow type draft tube has a circular inlet and a rectangular outlet (Fig. 4-20d).

Fig. 4-20. Types of draft tubes
e. Hydraulic Turbines
Different types of hydraulic turbines are available for use in hydel plants. The selection of a
suitable turbine for a power plant depends upon many factors. The important factors are as
follows:
1. Working Head
2. Nature of Load
3. Output
4. Specific Speed
For low heads (less than 50 m) propeller or Kaplan turbines are used. Propeller turbines
are suitable only under constant heads, whereas Kaplan turbines are suitable under variable load
and variable head conditions. For medium heads (50 to 100 m) Francis turbines are used and for
very high heads (above 100 m) Pelton wheel turbines are suitable. Pelton wheels with low
operational cost, are easy to control and maintain.
Also, based on the requirements and plant layouts either a vertical shaft or a horizontal
shaft turbine can be selected. Vertical shaft turbines require smaller foundations and lesser space

area. It needs a heavy thrust bearing to take the vertical heavy load and to run at maximum
speed. However, vertical turbines have difficult access for maintenance. The horizontal turbines
are easier to install and maintain, they need larger space area and longer foundation.
f. Turbine Governor
The operation of a oil pressure governor is illustrated in Fig. 4-21. It consists of a
centrifugal governor, relay cylinder, actuator, control valves, pumps and connecting pressure
lines. The governor is directly connected to the turbine shaft through suitable gearing
arrangement. The governor and the actuator lever arm are connected to the control valve. The fly
balls in the governor rise up due to the centrifugal force, and maintain a level (position A) under
normal speed of the turbine. When the load is constant the turbine will be running at normal
speed, the position of the lever arm, piston in relay cylinder and the control valve remain in their
normal places, and the ports P and Q remain closed.
Fig. 4-21. Turbine governing
If there is a sudden demand ih the load, the load on the turbine increases and hence the
turbine speed drops for the existing water flow to the turbine. Since the turbine and the governor
are directly linked, the governor speed also drops down correspondingly. This low speeds of the
governor brings the fly balls down to position B, and hence the connected.

sleeve moves down. The sleeve in turn makes actuator lever arm to raise up through the fulcrum.
This in turn actuates the pistons in the control valve to move upward, and open the port P Due to
this, the oil under pressure will flow from the control valve to the relay cylinder from the right
side port and pressurises the piston to the left in the relay cylinder. This moves the. piston to the
left which is connected to the controlling or guide mechanism of the turbine, and increase the
water inlet valve opening. This causes more water to enter the turbine and run the turbine faster.
When the speed reaches normal value, the fly balls reach the position A, and correspondingly the
main lever, the pistons in the control valve and the relay cylinder come to their normal positions.
When the load on the turbine decreases the reverse action of the above takes place. As the
turbine speed increases due to low loads, the fly ball raise up to position C, which causes the
actuator sleeve to move up and push the lever arm downwards. This in turn opens port Q in the
control cylinder, and the oil starts flowing to the relay cylinder through the left side line. This
pressurises the piston towards the right and moves the lever connecting the turbine guide
mechanism. This partly closes the water inlet to the turbine and reduces the turbine speed. When
the normal speeds is reached the governor resumes normal position and all other connected
mechanism return to normal positions.
g. Control Gates
Spillways are constructed above the dam for the easy discharge of water during flood periods so
that the safety of the dam is not affected. The dam height and hence the storage capacity of the
reservoir is generally increased by providing control gates above the dam crest. These gates are
also sometimes termed as flood gates or crest gates. These are normally closed during low run-
off periods, and are fully open during the heavy rainfall/flood situations. Some important types
of control gates are briefly discussed below.
1) Vertical Lift. Gate
Such gates are simple in contraction and used foe jow_ capacity reservoirs. The
schematic arrangement of such a gate is shown in Fig. 4-22/These are made of strong steel plates
and are designed to slide over vertical guide the gate is operated using, hoisting cables with
suitable pulley mechanism. The construction of the operation mechanism of these gates is
complex.

Typical vertical steel gate with 10 m2 area weighs about 200-250 tonnes, depending upon
the gate height and width. Such gates can withstand the load created by about 4000 tonnes of
water in the dam.
2) Radial or Tainter Gate
The schematic arrangement of a radial gate is illustrated in Fig. 4-23. It is made of a strong steel
cylindrical segment, supported on a steel frame that is mounted on a set of trunnions. The drum
segment faces the water side, and operated by hoisting cables connected at the top. When the
gate is lifted by the winch mechanism, it pivots about the trunnions and opens for water flow
above the spillway. The operation of this gate is much simpler and lighter than the vertical lift
gate. Also the frictional forces are much less in this gate.
3) Rolling Gate
The schematic arrangement of a rolling gate is illustrated in Fig. 4-24. It is a cylindrical drum
that rolls up and down to open and close the gate. The drum has a set of gear teeth that mesh with
an inclined rack as shown in figure. The drum is rolled up with the help of a hoisting cable. Such
gates are most suitable for long spans and medium height.
4) Drum Gate
The schematic arrangement of arum gate is illustrated in Fig. 4-25. It is a segment of steel drum
and is mounted in a recess on top of the spillway crest. It is normally kept enclosed within the
recess in the crest during low run-off periods and floods. When the run-off improves, the gate is

raised up, so as to store more water in the reservoir. A suitable gate sealing is provided so as to
minimise water leakage.
h. Control Valves
The control valves are used in hydel plants to regulate the flow of water at the intake and the
discharge ends. Intake valves of sliding gate type are commonly used to control the water entry
into the penstock. These are generally provided sufficiently below the minimum level of the
reservoir. This arrangement prevents the problem of air being sucked along with water. Also
keeping the intake valve below the water level helps in avoiding the ice formation and chocking
problems in cold seasons. A typical intake valve arrangement is, shown in Fig. 4- 26.
Fig. 4-26. Intake valve

The discharge valves are of three types: needle, tube and butterfly valves. Needle and
tube valves are used in high capacity, high head plants, while butterfly valves are used for low to
medium heads.
a) Needle Valve
The schematic of construction of a needle valve is shown in Fig. 4-27. It is made of three water
filled chambers Cl, C2 and C3. The operation of the valve is controlled by changing the
pressures in these chambers. The valve can be opened by increasing the pressure in the chamber
C2 and releasing pressures in chambers Cl. and C3, which pushes the needle to the left. The
valve can be closed by increasing the pressure in chambers Cl and C3, and releasing the pressure
in chamber C2, which pushes the valve to the right.
Fig. 4-27ss. Needle valve
b) Tube Valve
The schematic of construction of a tube valve is shown in Fig. 4-28. It is operated by a

mechanical gear and screw mechanism. The cylindrical tube is moved to the left to open the
valve, and to the right to close the valve. The tube with internal thread is connected to the screw,
which is operated by a bevel gear system.

Fig. 4-28. Tube valve
► iv for 3) Butterfly Valve The schematic of construction of a butterfly valve is shown in Fig. 4-29. Such
valves are used both at the penstock intake and at the turbine inlet. It consists of a cylindrical
disc in the pipeline or the valve frame. When the disc is at the horizontal position, the valve is
fully open and allows full flow of water. As the disc moves towards the vertical position, the
opening educes and regulates the water flow accordingly.

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MODULE 2: Diesel Engine Power System Hydro Eclectic Power Plant 2018

MODULE 2 DIESEL ENGINE POWER SYSTEM

Advantages and disadvantages of diesel Power Plants;

9. It occupies less space.

12. The plant can burn fairly a wide range of fuels.

2. The operating cost is high.

3. Lubricating cost and maintenance costs are high.

4. The plant cost per KW is comparatively more.

5. Noise from the exhaust is a serious problem.

7. These plants cannot supply overloads continuously.

Applications of diesel Power Plants

2 Raghavendra M J , Asst. Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engineering

2.2 Comparison of Diesel Plant With Thermal Plant

Diesel plant Thermal Plants

3 Raghavendra M J , Asst. Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engineering

The essential components of diesel electric power plant are as follows.

Fig 3.1 schematic arrangement for a diesel engine power plant

The essential components of Diesel Engine plant are,

4 Raghavendra M J , Asst. Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engineering

2.4Air Intake system containing filters, ducts super charger etc.,

Fig. 3.2 Air intake system

5 Raghavendra M J , Asst. Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Fig, 3.3 Typical exhaust system

6 Raghavendra M J , Asst. Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Fig. 3.4 Fuel storage system for diesel plants

7 Raghavendra M J , Asst. Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engineering

2.7 Cooling System

2.8 Lubrication System.

For trouble-free functioning of IC engines in a power plant, an efficient lubricating

Functions of Lubrication System

The important functions of a lubrication system in a diesel plant are:

8 Raghavendra M J , Asst. Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engineering

2) Wet Sump Lubrication System

9 Raghavendra M J , Asst. Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engineering

c) Semi Pressure Lubrication

The arrangement of a semi-pressure lubrication system is shown in Fig. 3-15. In this

10 Raghavendra M J , Asst. Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engineering

3) Dry sump lubrication system

11 Raghavendra M J , Asst. Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engineering

2.9 Methods of starting the diesel engine

12 Raghavendra M J , Asst. Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engineering

2.10 Cooling System for Diesel Engine

i) Open or single circuit system

13 Raghavendra M J , Asst. Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engineering

ii) Closed or double circuit cooling system

Fig. 3.5(b) Double circuit cooling system

2.11 Evaporative Cooling:

14 Raghavendra M J , Asst. Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Fig.3.6 Cooling tower for diesel power plant.

Fig.3.7 Evaporative cooling

15 Raghavendra M J , Asst. Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engineering

2.12 Lubrication for the Diesel Engine

16 Raghavendra M J , Asst. Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Fig.3.8 lubricating system (continuous centrifuging system)

2.13 Filters and centrifuges

17 Raghavendra M J , Asst. Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Fig. 3.9 Typical filter and silencer installation

2.14 Lay Out Of a Diesel Power Plant

18 Raghavendra M J , Asst. Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engineering