Wi-Fi's wavebands have relatively high absorption and work best for 

line-of-sight use. Many common

obstructions such as walls, pillars, home appliances, etc. may greatly reduce range, but this also
helps minimize interference between different networks in crowded environments. An access point
(or hotspot) often has a range of about 20 metres (66 feet) indoors while some modern access
points claim up to a 150-metre (490-foot) range outdoors. Hotspot coverage can be as small as a
single room with walls that block radio waves, or as large as many square kilometres (miles) using
many overlapping access points with roaming permitted between them. Over time the speed and
spectral efficiency of Wi-Fi have increased. As of 2019, at close range, some versions of Wi-Fi,
running on suitable hardware, can achieve speeds of over 1 Gbit/s (gigabit per second).

Contents

 1History
 2Etymology and terminology
 3Certification
 4Versions
 5Uses
o 5.1Internet
o 5.2City-wide
o 5.3Geolocation
o 5.4Motion detection
 6Operational principles
o 6.1Waveband
o 6.2Communication stack
o 6.3Modes
 6.3.1Infrastructure
 6.3.2Ad hoc and Wi-Fi direct
o 6.4Multiple access points
 7Performance
o 7.1Transmitter power
o 7.2Antenna
o 7.3MIMO (multiple-input and multiple-output)
o 7.4Radio propagation
o 7.5Interference
o 7.6Throughput
 8Hardware
o 8.1Access point
o 8.2Wireless adapter
o 8.3Router
o 8.4Bridge
o 8.5Repeater
o 8.6Embedded systems
 9Network security
o 9.1Securing methods
o 9.2Data security risks
o 9.3Piggybacking
 10Societal aspects
 o 10.1Influence on developing countries
o 10.2Work habits
o 10.3Housing
 11Health concerns
 12Alternatives
 13See also
 14References
 15Notes
 16Further reading

History[edit]
Main article: IEEE 802.11 §  History
In 1971, ALOHAnet connected the Great Hawaiian Islands with a UHF wireless packet network.
ALOHAnet and the ALOHA protocol were early forerunners to Ethernet, and later the IEEE 802.11
protocols, respectively.
A 1985 ruling by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission released the band for unlicensed
use.[7] These frequency bands are the same ones used by equipment such as microwave ovens and
are subject to interference.
A Prototype Test Bed for a wireless local area network was developed in 1992 by researchers from
the Radiophysics Division of CSIRO in Australia.[8]
About the same time in The Netherlands in 1991, [9] the NCR Corporation with AT&T
Corporation invented the precursor to 802.11, intended for use in cashier systems, under the
name WaveLAN. NCR's Vic Hayes, who held the chair of IEEE 802.11 for 10 years, along with Bell
Labs Engineer Bruce Tuch, approached IEEE to create a standard and were involved in designing
the initial 802.11b and 802.11a standards within the IEEE.[10] They have both been subsequently
inducted into the Wi-Fi NOW Hall of Fame. [11]
The first version of the 802.11 protocol was released in 1997, and provided up to 2 Mbit/s link
speeds. This was updated in 1999 with 802.11b to permit 11 Mbit/s link speeds, and this proved
popular.
In 1999, the Wi-Fi Alliance formed as a trade association to hold the Wi-Fi trademark under which
most products are sold.[12]
The major commercial breakthrough came with Apple Inc. adopting Wi-Fi for their iBook series of
laptops in 1999.[9] It was the first mass consumer product to offer Wi-Fi network connectivity, which
was then branded by Apple as AirPort. This was in collaboration with the same group that helped
create the standard Vic Hayes, Bruce Tuch, Cees Links, Rich McGinn, and others from Lucent.[13][14]
Wi-Fi uses a large number of patents held by many different organizations. [15] In April 2009, 14
technology companies agreed to pay Australia’s CSIRO $1 billion for infringements on CSIRO
patents.[16] Australia claims Wi-Fi is an Australian invention, [17] at the time this was the subject of a
little controversy.[18][19] CSIRO won a further $220 million settlement for Wi-Fi patent-infringements in
2012, with global firms in the United States required to pay CSIRO licensing rights estimated at an
additional $1 billion in royalties.[16][20][21] In 2016, the CSIRO wireless local area network (WLAN)
Prototype Test Bed was chosen as Australia's contribution to the exhibition A History of the World in
100 Objects held in the National Museum of Australia.[8]

Etymology and terminology[edit]

The name Wi-Fi, commercially used at least as early as August 1999, [22] was coined by the brand-
consulting firm Interbrand. The Wi-Fi Alliance had hired Interbrand to create a name that was "a little
catchier than 'IEEE 802.11b Direct Sequence'." [23][24] Phil Belanger, a founding member of the Wi-Fi
Alliance, has stated that the term Wi-Fi was chosen from a list of ten potential names invented by
Interbrand.[25]
The name Wi-Fi has no further meaning, and was never officially a shortened form of "Wireless
Fidelity".[26] Nevertheless, the Wi-Fi Alliance used the advertising slogan "The Standard for Wireless
Fidelity" for a short time after the brand name was created, [23][27][28] and the Wi-Fi Alliance was also
called the "Wireless Fidelity Alliance Inc" in some publications. [29] The name is often written
as WiFi, Wifi, or wifi, but these are not approved by the Wi-Fi Alliance. IEEE is a separate, but
related, organization and their website has stated "WiFi is a short name for Wireless Fidelity". [30][31]
Interbrand also created the Wi-Fi logo. The yin-yang Wi-Fi logo indicates the certification of a
product for interoperability.[27]
Non-Wi-Fi technologies intended for fixed points, such as Motorola Canopy, are usually described
as fixed wireless. Alternative wireless technologies include mobile phone standards, such
as 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G and LTE.
To connect to a Wi-Fi LAN, a computer must be equipped with a wireless network interface
controller. The combination of a computer and an interface controller is called a station. Stations are
identified by one or more MAC addresses.
Wi-Fi nodes often operate in infrastructure mode where all communications go through a base
station. Ad hoc mode refers to devices talking directly to each other without the need to first talk to
an access point.
A service set is the set of all the devices associated with a particular Wi-Fi network. Devices in a
service set need not be on the same wavebands or channels. A service set can be local,
independent, extended, or mesh or a combination.
Each service set has an associated identifier, the 32-byte Service Set Identifier (SSID), which
identifies the particular network. The SSID is configured within the devices that are considered part
of the network.
A Basic Service Set (BSS) is a group of stations that all share the same wireless channel, SSID, and
other wireless settings that have wirelessly connected (usually to the same access point). [32]:3.6 Each
BSS is identified by a MAC address which is called the BSSID.

Certification[edit]
See also: Wi-Fi Alliance

Wi-Fi certification logo

The IEEE does not test equipment for compliance with their standards. The non-profit Wi-Fi Alliance
was formed in 1999 to fill this void—to establish and enforce standards for interoperability
and backward compatibility, and to promote wireless local-area-network technology. As of 2017, the
Wi-Fi Alliance includes more than 800 companies.[5] It includes 3Com (now owned by HPE/Hewlett-
Packard Enterprise), Aironet (now owned by Cisco), Harris Semiconductor (now owned
by Intersil), Lucent (now owned by Nokia), Nokia and Symbol Technologies (now owned by Zebra
Technologies).[33][34] The Wi-Fi Alliance enforces the use of the Wi-Fi brand to technologies based on
the IEEE 802.11 standards from the IEEE. This includes wireless local area network (WLAN)
connections, a device to device connectivity (such as Wi-Fi Peer to Peer aka Wi-Fi Direct), Personal
area network (PAN), local area network (LAN), and even some limited wide area network (WAN)
connections. Manufacturers with membership in the Wi-Fi Alliance, whose products pass the
certification process, gain the right to mark those products with the Wi-Fi logo.
Specifically, the certification process requires conformance to the IEEE 802.11 radio standards,
the WPA and WPA2 security standards, and the EAP authentication standard. Certification may
optionally include tests of IEEE 802.11 draft standards, interaction with cellular-phone technology in
converged devices, and features relating to security set-up, multimedia, and power-saving. [35]
Not every Wi-Fi device is submitted for certification. The lack of Wi-Fi certification does not
necessarily imply that a device is incompatible with other Wi-Fi devices.[36] The Wi-Fi Alliance may or
may not sanction derivative terms, such as Super Wi-Fi,[37] coined by the US Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) to describe proposed networking in the UHF TV band in the
US.[38]

Versions[edit]
Equipment frequently support multiple versions of Wi-Fi. To communicate, devices must use a
common Wi-Fi version. The versions differ between the radio wavebands they operate on, the radio
bandwidth they occupy, the maximum data rates they can support and other details. Some versions
permit the use of multiple antennas, which permits greater speeds as well as reduced interference.
Historically, the equipment has simply listed the versions of Wi-Fi using the name of the IEEE
standard that it supports. In 2018, [39] the Wi-Fi alliance standardized generational numbering so that
equipment can indicate that it supports Wi-Fi 4 (if the equipment supports 802.11n), Wi-Fi 5
(802.11ac) and Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax). These generations have a high degree of backward compatibility
with previous versions. The alliance have stated that the generational level 4, 5, or 6 can be
indicated in the user interface when connected, along with the signal strength. [40]
The full list of versions of Wi-Fi is: 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n (Wi-Fi 4),[40] 802.11h,
802.11i, 802.11-2007, 802.11-2012, 802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5),[40] 802.11ad, 802.11af, 802.11-2016,
802.11ah, 802.11ai, 802.11aj, 802.11aq, 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6),[40] 802.11ay.

Uses[edit]
Internet[edit]
A QR code to automatically connect to Wi-Fi

An example of a service set called "WiFi Wikipedia" consisting of two Basic Service Sets. Notebook_My is able
to automatically roam between the two BSSs, without the user having to explicitly connect to the second
network.

Wi-Fi technology may be used to provide local network and Internet access to devices that are within
Wi-Fi range of one or more routers that are connected to the Internet. The coverage of one or more
interconnected access points (hotspots) can extend from an area as small as a few rooms to as
large as many square kilometres (miles). Coverage in the larger area may require a group of access
points with overlapping coverage. For example, public outdoor Wi-Fi technology has been used
successfully in wireless mesh networks in London. An international example is Fon.
Wi-Fi provides services in private homes, businesses, as well as in public spaces. Wi-Fi hotspots
may be set up either free-of-charge or commercially, often using a captive portal webpage for
access. Organizations, enthusiasts, authorities and businesses, such as airports, hotels, and
restaurants, often provide free or paid-use hotspots to attract customers, to provide services to
promote business in selected areas. Routers often incorporate a digital subscriber line modem or
a cable modem and a Wi-Fi access point, are frequently set up in homes and other buildings, to
provide Internet access and internetworking for the structure.
Similarly, battery-powered routers may include a cellular Internet radio modem and a Wi-Fi access
point. When subscribed to a cellular data carrier, they allow nearby Wi-Fi stations to access the
Internet over 2G, 3G, or 4G networks using the tethering technique. Many smartphones have a built-
in capability of this sort, including those based on Android, BlackBerry, Bada, iOS, Windows Phone,
and Symbian, though carriers often disable the feature, or charge a separate fee to enable it,
especially for customers with unlimited data plans. "Internet packs" provide standalone facilities of
this type as well, without the use of a smartphone; examples include the MiFi- and WiBro-branded
devices. Some laptops that have a cellular modem card can also act as mobile Internet Wi-Fi access
points.
Many traditional university campuses in the developed world provide at least partial Wi-Fi
coverage. Carnegie Mellon University built the first campus-wide wireless Internet network,
called Wireless Andrew, at its Pittsburgh campus in 1993 before Wi-Fi branding originated.[41][42][43] By
February 1997, the CMU Wi-Fi zone was fully operational. Many universities collaborate in providing
Wi-Fi access to students and staff through the Eduroam international authentication infrastructure.

City-wide[edit]
Further information: Municipal wireless network
In the early 2000s, many cities around the world announced plans to construct citywide Wi-Fi
networks. There are many successful examples; in 2004, Mysore (Mysuru) became India's first Wi-
Fi-enabled city. A company called WiFiyNet has set up hotspots in Mysore, covering the whole city
and a few nearby villages.[44]
In 2005, St. Cloud, Florida and Sunnyvale, California, became the first cities in the United States to
offer citywide free Wi-Fi (from MetroFi).[45] Minneapolis has generated $1.2 million in profit annually
for its provider.[46]
In May 2010, the then London mayor Boris Johnson pledged to have London-wide Wi-Fi by 2012.
[47]
 Several boroughs including Westminster and Islington [48][49] already had extensive outdoor Wi-Fi
coverage at that point.
Officials in South Korea's capital Seoul are moving to provide free Internet access at more than
10,000 locations around the city, including outdoor public spaces, major streets, and densely
populated residential areas. Seoul will grant leases to KT, LG Telecom, and SK Telecom. The
companies will invest $44 million in the project, which was to be completed in 2015. [50]

Geolocation[edit]
Wi-Fi positioning systems use the positions of Wi-Fi hotspots to identify a device's location. [51]

Motion detection[edit]
Wi-Fi sensing is used in applications such as motion detection and gesture recognition.[52]

Operational principles[edit]
Wi-Fi Generations

Generation/IEEE Standard Maximum Linkrate Adopted Frequency

Wi-Fi 6E (802.11ax) 600 to 9608 Mbit/s 2019 6 GHz

Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax) 600 to 9608 Mbit/s 2019 2.4/5 GHz

Wi-Fi 5 (802.11ac) 433 to 6933 Mbit/s 2014 5 GHz

Wi-Fi 4 (802.11n) 72 to 600 Mbit/s 2008 2.4/5 GHz

802.11g 6 to 54 Mbit/s 2003 2.4 GHz

802.11a 6 to 54 Mbit/s 1999 5 GHz

802.11b 1 to 11 Mbit/s 1999 2.4 GHz

802.11 1 to 2 Mbit/s 1997 2.4 GHz

(Wi-Fi 1, Wi-Fi 2, Wi-Fi 3, Wi-Fi 3E are unbranded[53] but have unofficial assignments[54])